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**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese. | **Shared with Catalan and Portuguese. | ||
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'') | **E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'') | ||
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- become /j/. | *Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/. | ||
**Differs from Catalan | **Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern. | ||
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major''). | **E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major''). | ||
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan '' | :::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe''). | ||
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir''). | |||
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/. | *Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/. | ||
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod). | **Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod). | ||
**E.g. PŎNTE(M) > ''puent'' /pwen/ (Spanish, Asturian ''puente'' vs Catalan ''pont'', Galician/Portuguese ''ponte'') | **E.g. PŎNTE(M) > ''puent'' /pwen/ (Spanish, Asturian ''puente'' vs Catalan ''pont'', Galician/Portuguese ''ponte'') | ||
:::ŎCTO > ''weito'' /ˈwejto/ "eight" (Aragonese ''ueit(o)'', obsolete Asturian ''uecho'', Catalan ''vuit'' vs Spanish ''ocho'', Galician/Portuguese ''oito'') | :::ŎCTO > ''weito'' /ˈwejto/ "eight" (Aragonese ''ueit(o)'', obsolete Asturian ''uecho'', Catalan ''vuit'' vs Spanish ''ocho'', Galician/Portuguese ''oito'') | ||
:::FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Spanish, Aragonese '' | :::FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Asturian ''fierru'' vs Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'') | ||
*Preservation of initial F-. | *Preservation of initial F-. | ||
**Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese. | **Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese. | ||
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'' vs Spanish ''hierro'') | **E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ''ferro'', Aragonese ''fierro'' vs Spanish ''hierro'') | ||
*Preservation of initial L-. | *Preservation of initial L-. | ||
**Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan. | **Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan. | ||
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**Differs from Spanish. | **Differs from Spanish. | ||
**E.g. HOMINE(M) > ''weme'' /ˈweme/ "man" (Catalan, Asturian, Galician ''home'', Portuguese ''homem'' vs Spanish, Aragonese ''hombre'') | **E.g. HOMINE(M) > ''weme'' /ˈweme/ "man" (Catalan, Asturian, Galician ''home'', Portuguese ''homem'' vs Spanish, Aragonese ''hombre'') | ||
:::NOMEN > ''nueme'' /ˈnweme/ "name" (Galician/Portuguese ''nome'', Catalan, Aragonese ''nom'', Asturian ''ñome'' vs Spanish ''nombre'') | |||
*Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SC- (the latter before front vowels) to /ʃ/. | *Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SC- (the latter before front vowels) to /ʃ/. | ||
**Differs from Spanish. | **Differs from Spanish. | ||
**E.g. COXA > ''cuexa'' /ˈkweʃa/ "thigh" (Catalan, Aragonese ''cuixa'', Galician/Portuguese ''coxa'', Mirandese ''coixa'' vs Spanish ''cuja'') | |||
*Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-. | *Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-. | ||
**Shared with Catalan. | **Shared with Catalan and Aragonese. | ||
**E.g. CLAMARE > ''clamar'' /klaˈmaɾ/ "to call" (Catalan, Aragonese ''clamar'' vs Spanish, Asturian ''llamar'', Galician/Portuguese ''chamar'' | |||
*Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-. | *Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-. | ||
**Shared with some Aragonese dialects. | **Shared with some Aragonese dialects. | ||
**E.g. *SAPĒRE > ''saper'' /saˈpeɾ/ "to know" (Central Aragonese ''saper'' vs Catalan, Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Asturian ''saber'') | |||
*Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus. | *Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus. | ||
**Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese. | **Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese. | ||
**E.g. CADERE > ''cayer'' /kaˈjeɾ/ "to fall" (Asturian, Aragonese ''cayer'' vs Spanish, Galician ''caer'', Portuguese ''cair'') | |||
*Dropping of final -U(M) in many environments. | *Dropping of final -U(M) in many environments. | ||
**Shared with Catalan. | **Shared with Catalan. | ||
**E.g. CATTU(M) > ''gat'' /ɡat/ "cat" (Catalan ''gat'' vs Asturian ''gatu'', Spanish, Galician/Portuguese ''gato'') | |||
*Preservation of non-dropped final -U(M) as /u/. | *Preservation of non-dropped final -U(M) as /u/. | ||
**Shared with Astur-Leonese and Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter). | **Shared with Astur-Leonese and Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter). | ||
**E.g. FĔRRU(M) > ''fierru'' /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Asturian ''fierru'' vs Spanish ''hierro'', Aragonese ''fierro'', Catalan ''ferro'') | |||
*Dropping of final -E(M) in many environments. | *Dropping of final -E(M) in many environments. | ||
**Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish. | **Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish. | ||
**E.g. GRANDE(M) > ''grand'' /ɡɾan/ "big" (Aragonese ''gran'' vs Spanish, Aragonese, Galician/Portuguese ''grande'') | |||
*Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates. | *Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates. | ||
**Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese. | **Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese. | ||
**E.g. UNDECI(M) > ''onge'' /ˈondʒe/ "eleven" (Catalan, Portuguese, Mirandese ''onze'' vs Aragonese, Asturian, Spanish ''once'') | |||
*Preservation of the distinction between /b/ and /v/. | *Preservation of the distinction between /b/ and /v/. | ||
**Shared with some varieties of Catalan and most varieties of Portuguese. | **Shared with some varieties of Catalan and most varieties of Portuguese. | ||
**E.g. HABĒRE > ''aver'' /aˈveɾ/ "to have" (Portuguese, Catalan ''haver'' vs Spanish, Asturian, Aragonese, Galician ''haber'') | |||
*The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages: | *The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages: | ||
**-ST- becomes /θ/. | **-ST- becomes /θ/ - e.g. CŎSTA(M) > ''cueça'' /ˈkweθa/ "slope" (Spanish ''cuesta''). | ||
**-SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/. | **-STR- becomes /ð/ - e.g. STRATA(M) > ''zata'' "street" (Portuguese ''estrada'') | ||
**Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/. | **-SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/ - e.g. SPATULA(M) > ''xalha'' /ˈʃaʎa/ "shoulder" (Catalan ''espatlla''); SCHOLA(M) > ''xuela'' /ˈʃwela/ "school" (Spanish ''escuela''). | ||
*Insertion of /w/ before or after a | **Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/ - e.g. RATIŌNE(M) > ''rachón'' /raˈtʃon/ "reason" (Spanish ''razón''). | ||
*Preservation of W- in loanwords. | **Insertion of /w/ before or after a rounded vowel to avoid hiatus - e.g. TUA(M) > ''tuwa'' /ˈtuwa/ "your" (Portuguese ''tua''). | ||
**Preservation of W- in loanwords - e g. WARDARE > ''wardar'' /waɾˈdaɾ/ "to guard" (Aragonese ''guardar''). | |||
====Morphological==== | ====Morphological==== | ||
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**Shared with Asturian. | **Shared with Asturian. | ||
*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''. | *Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''. | ||
**Shared with Catalan | **Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan. | ||
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/. | *Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/). | ||
**Shared with Aragonese. | **Shared with Aragonese. | ||
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes. | *-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes. | ||
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| ⟨w⟩ after a vowel | | ⟨w⟩ after a vowel | ||
| style="text-align:center;"|[w] | | style="text-align:center;"|[w] | ||
| '' | | ''ochaw'' "eighth (fraction)" | ||
| Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w]. | | Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w]. | ||
|} | |} | ||
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===Morphophonology=== | ===Morphophonology=== | ||
===Phonological history=== | ===Phonological history=== | ||
*Final vowel dropping: | |||
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''. | |||
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''. | |||
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''. | |||
**Sometimes vowels are dropped irregularly. | |||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | ||
Line 982: | Line 999: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine | ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masculine | ||
| colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | '' | | colspan="3" | ''nós; nosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''nues/nuesos, nuesa/nueses, nueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''nos'' || rowspan="2" | – | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Feminine | ! Feminine | ||
Line 997: | Line 1,014: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine | ! rowspan="4" | Plural !! rowspan="2" | Informal !! Masculine | ||
| colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | '' | | colspan="3" | ''vós; vosotros'' || rowspan="2" | ''vues/vuesos, vuesa/vueses, vueso'' || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| ''vos'' || rowspan="2" | – | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Feminine | ! Feminine | ||
Line 1,058: | Line 1,075: | ||
====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also | Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also occur in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic. | ||
=====Regular plurals===== | ====='''Regular plurals'''===== | ||
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows: | Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows: | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | ||
Line 1,091: | Line 1,108: | ||
|} | |} | ||
=====Irregular plurals===== | ====='''Irregular plurals'''===== | ||
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals. | Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in ''-ín'' (masculine) or ''-(w)at'' (feminine). There are also some broken plurals. | ||
Line 1,178: | Line 1,195: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
| dos || second || meyu | | dos, duwes || second || meyu | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
Line 1,193: | Line 1,210: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
| siet || setén || | | siet || setén || setaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 8 | ! 8 | ||
| weito || | | weito || océn || ochaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| | | nueu || novén || novaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 10 | ! 10 | ||
| diech || decén || | | diech || decén || dechaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 11 | ! 11 | ||
| onge || ongén || | | onge || ongén || onjaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 12 | ! 12 | ||
| doge || dogén || | | doge || dogén || dojaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 13 | ! 13 | ||
| trege || tregén || | | trege || tregén || trejaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 14 | ! 14 | ||
| quatorge || quatorgén || | | quatorge || quatorgén || quatorjaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 15 | ! 15 | ||
| quinge || quingén || | | quinge || quingén || quinjas | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 16 | ! 16 | ||
| sege || segén || | | sege || segén || sejas | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
| deci-siet || deci-setén || deci- | | deci-siet || deci-setén || deci-setaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 18 | ! 18 | ||
| deci-weito || deci- | | deci-weito || deci-océn || deci-ochaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 19 | ! 19 | ||
| | | deci-nueu || deci-novén || deci-novaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 20 | ! 20 | ||
| vint || vintén || | | vint || vintén || vintaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 21 | ! 21 | ||
| vinti-ún || vinti-unén || vinti- | | vinti-ún || vinti-unén || vinti-unaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 30 | ! 30 | ||
| trenta || trentén || | | trenta || trentén || trentaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 40 | ! 40 | ||
| quaranta || quarantén || | | quaranta || quarantén || quarantaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 50 | ! 50 | ||
| cinquanta || cinquantén || | | cinquanta || cinquantén || cinquantas | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 60 | ! 60 | ||
| sexanta || sexantén || | | sexanta || sexantén || sexantaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 70 | ! 70 | ||
| setanta || setantén || | | setanta || setantén || setantaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 80 | ! 80 | ||
| | | ochanta || ochantén || ochantaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 90 | ! 90 | ||
| novanta || novantén || | | novanta || novantén || novantaw | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 100 | ! 100 | ||
| cient || centén || | | cient || centén || centaw | ||
|- | |||
! 200 | |||
| dos-cientos || dos-centén || dos-centaw | |||
|- | |- | ||
! 1000 | ! 1000 | ||
| mil || milén || | | mil || milén || milaw | ||
|- | |||
! 2000 | |||
| dos-mil || dos-milén || dos-milaw | |||
|- | |||
! 10⁶ | |||
| milhón || milhonén || milhonaw | |||
|- | |||
! 2×10⁶ | |||
| duwes-milhones || duwes-milhonén || duwes-milionaw | |||
|- | |||
! 10⁹ | |||
| milhardu || milhardén || milhardaw | |||
|- | |||
! 10¹² | |||
| bilhón || bilhonén || bilhonaw | |||
|} | |||
===Verbs=== | |||
====Tenses and moods==== | |||
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods: | |||
*Indicative mood (''el mod indicativu''): | |||
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''): | |||
***Simple present (''el present simple'') | |||
***Preterite (''el passat perfeit'') | |||
***Imperfect (''el passat imperfeit'') | |||
***Simple future (''el futur simple'') | |||
***Simple conditional (''el condichonal simple'') | |||
***Simple pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit simple'') | |||
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''): | |||
***Present perfect (''el passat compueç'') | |||
***Compound pluperfect (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç'') | |||
***Future perfect (''el futur compueç'') | |||
***Conditional perfect (''el condichonal compueç'') | |||
*Subjunctive mood (''el mod subjuntivu'') | |||
**Simple tenses (''tiempos simples''): | |||
***Present subjunctive (''el present del subjuntivu'') | |||
***Imperfect subjunctive (''el imperfeit del subjuntivu'') | |||
***Future subjunctive (''el futur del subjuntivu'') | |||
**Compound tenses (''tiempos compueços''): | |||
***Perfect subjunctive (''el passat compueç del subjuntivu'') | |||
***Pluperfect subjunctive (''el plus-que-perfeit compueç del subjuntivu'') | |||
***Future perfect subjunctive (''el futur compueç del subjuntivu'') | |||
*Imperative mood (''el mod imperativu'') | |||
**Affirmative imperative (''l'imperativu afirmativu'') | |||
**Negative imperative (''l'imperativu negativu'') | |||
*Non-finite forms (''les formes nominales''): | |||
**Infinitive (''l'infinitivu'') | |||
**Participle (''el participiu') | |||
**Gerund (''el gerundiu'') | |||
For convenience, each tense/mood combination will be referred to in this article as a "tense". | |||
====Verb classes==== | |||
There are three verb classes: | |||
*First conjugation/''-ar'' verbs (''la conjugachón primera'') | |||
*Second conjugation/''-er'' verbs (''la conjugachón seconda'') | |||
*Third conjugation/''-ir'' verbs (''la conjugachón tercera'') | |||
There are irregular verbs in each class. | |||
====Verb conjugation==== | |||
Note that second person polite forms always take third person verb conjugations | |||
====='''Non-finite forms'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of regular verbs | |||
! Form !! ''-ar'' verbs !! ''-er'' verbs !! ''-ir'' verbs | |||
|- | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| -ar || -er || -ir | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| -at/-atos, -ata/-ates, -ato | |||
| colspan="2"|-it/-itos, -ita/-ites, -ito¹ | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| -ando || -endo || -indo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms. | |||
<!-- | |||
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.--> | |||
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs) | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -o || -ava || -é || -aré || -areva || -era | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -es || -aves || -és || -arás || -areves || -eres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| -a || -ava || -ó || -ará || -areva || -era | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| -án || -aven || -én || -arén || -areven || -eren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| -az || -ávez || -ez || -arez || -arévez || -érez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| -en || -aven || -ón || -arán || -areven || -eren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-er'' verbs) | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -o || -eva || -í || -eré || -ereva || -iera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -es || -eves || -iés || -erás || -ereves || -ieres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| -(e)¹ || -eva || -ió || -erá || -ereva || -iera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| -én || -even || -ién || -erén || -ereven || -ieren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| -ez || -évez || -iez || -erez || -erévez || -iérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| -en || -even || -ión || -erán || -ereven || -ieren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs) | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -o || -iva || -í || -iré || -ireva || -iera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -es || -ives || -iés || -irás || -ireves || -ieres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| -(e)¹ || -iva || -ió || -irá || -ireva || -iera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| -ín || -iven || -ién || -irén || -ireven || -ieren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| -iz || -ívez || -iez || -irez || -irévez || -iérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| -en || -iven || -ión || -irán || -ireven || -ieren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants. | |||
<!-- | |||
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.--> | |||
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-ar'' verbs) | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -e || -esse || -ere | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -as || -essas || -eras | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| -e || -esse || -ere | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| -én || -essan || -eran | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| -ez || -éssaz || -éraz | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| -an || -essan || -eran | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Simple subjunctive tenses (regular ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs) | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| -a || -iesse || -iere | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -as || -iessas || -ieras | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| -a || -iesse || -iere | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| -án || -iessan || -ieran | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| -az || -iéssaz || -iéraz | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| -an || -iessan || -ieran | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''Imperative'''===== | |||
*'''Affirmative:''' | |||
**'''2S:''' Same as 3S present indicative. | |||
**'''2P:''' Same as infinitive, with final ''-r'' replaced with ''-t''. | |||
**'''Other persons:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive. | |||
*'''Negative:''' Same as corresponding present subjunctive. | |||
====='''Compound tenses'''===== | |||
Compound tenses are formed with the verb ''aver'' "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb. | |||
*Non-finite forms: | |||
**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle | |||
*Indicative: | |||
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Compound pluperfect: imperfect of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Future perfect: future of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Conditional perfect: conditional of ''aver'' + participle | |||
*Subjunctive: | |||
**Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | |||
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | |||
<!--- | |||
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''===== | |||
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.--> | |||
====='''Passive'''===== | |||
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle. | |||
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter. | |||
====Irregular verbs==== | |||
====='''General notes'''===== | |||
*Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include: | |||
**''-o-'' > ''-ue-'' | |||
**''-e-'' > ''-ie-'' | |||
**''-ch-'' > ''-it-'' | |||
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply. | |||
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future. | |||
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions): | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
! Person/Number !! Preterite ending | |||
|- | |||
!1S | |||
| -i | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| -es | |||
|- | |||
!3S | |||
| -o | |||
|- | |||
!1P | |||
| -én | |||
|- | |||
!2P | |||
| -ez | |||
|- | |||
!3P | |||
| -on | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant. | |||
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below: | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks | |||
|- | |||
| /k/ | |||
| qu || c || | |||
|- | |||
| /tʃ/ | |||
| c || ch || Becomes ''-ch'' when word-final. | |||
|- | |||
| /ɡ ~ ɣ/ | |||
| gu || g || | |||
|- | |||
| /dʒ ~ ʒ/ | |||
| g || j || This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with ''-j-'', in which case ''-j-'' spelling is maintained in all forms. | |||
|- | |||
| /kw/ | |||
| qü || qu || | |||
|- | |||
| /ɡw ~ ɣw/ | |||
| gü || gu || | |||
|} | |||
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change. | |||
<!-- | |||
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.--> | |||
====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''===== | |||
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular. | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''ser'' "to be" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| ser | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/> | |||
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹ | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| sendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
¹ Archaic | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| so || yera || fui || seré || sereva || fuera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| yes || yeres || fues || serás || sereves || fueres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| ye || yera || fue || será || sereva || fuera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| son || yeren || fuen || serán || sereven || fueren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| siya || fuesse || fuere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| siya || fuesse || fuere || siya | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''===== | |||
The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb. | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| aver | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br /> | |||
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹ | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| avendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect² | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| aya || ovesse || overe || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic. | |||
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular. | |||
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| andar | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| andando | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| vaya || andesse || andere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| facer | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| facendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| faco || feva || fici || faré || fareva || ficera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| faca || ficesse || ficere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| dicer | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| dicendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| dico || diva || dixi || diré || direva || dixera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| dica || dixesse || dixere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,273: | Line 1,905: | ||
===Dependent clauses=== | ===Dependent clauses=== | ||
<!-- etc. etc. --> | <!-- etc. etc. --> | ||
==Vocabulary== | |||
===Time - ''Tiempu''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Seasons - ''Les çachones'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| spring || el verán | |||
|- | |||
| summer || el çiw | |||
|- | |||
| fall || l'otonh | |||
|- | |||
| winter || l'inviernu | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| Muharram || muhárram | |||
|- | |||
| Safar || sáfar | |||
|- | |||
| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer | |||
|- | |||
| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second | |||
|- | |||
| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera | |||
|- | |||
| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda | |||
|- | |||
| Rajab || rájab | |||
|- | |||
| Sha'ban || xaghbán | |||
|- | |||
| Ramadan || ramadán | |||
|- | |||
| Shawwal || xawal | |||
|- | |||
| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda | |||
|- | |||
| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja | |||
|- | |||
|}--> | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Greogorian months - ''Los mesos gregorianos'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| January || gener | |||
|- | |||
| February || fevrer | |||
|- | |||
| March || marchu | |||
|- | |||
| April || abril | |||
|- | |||
| May || mayu | |||
|- | |||
| June || junh | |||
|- | |||
| July || julhet | |||
|- | |||
| August || agoç | |||
|- | |||
| September || setiembre | |||
|- | |||
| October || ochombre | |||
|- | |||
| November || noviembre | |||
|- | |||
| December || deciembre | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Days of the week - ''Los diyes de la semana'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| Sunday || ahad | |||
|- | |||
| Monday || eçnén | |||
|- | |||
| Tuesday || çalaça | |||
|- | |||
| Wednesday || arbagha | |||
|- | |||
| Thursday || hamís | |||
|- | |||
| Friday || jumgha | |||
|- | |||
| Saturday || sabte | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Parts of the day - ''Los partes del diya'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| day || diya | |||
|- | |||
| dawn || alba | |||
|- | |||
| morning || manhana | |||
|- | |||
| noon || meyu-diya | |||
|- | |||
| afternoon || tarde | |||
|- | |||
| evening || serán | |||
|- | |||
| dusk || ocás | |||
|- | |||
| night || nueit | |||
|- | |||
| midnight || meya-nueit | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Units of time - ''Unitás del tiempu'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| second || secondu | |||
|- | |||
| minute || minut | |||
|- | |||
| hour || ora; sagha (pl: saghat) | |||
|- | |||
| day || día | |||
|- | |||
| week || semana | |||
|- | |||
| month || mes | |||
|- | |||
| season || çachón | |||
|- | |||
| year || anh | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Time adverbs - ''Adverbos temporales'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| now || agora | |||
|- | |||
| then || alora, entonce | |||
|- | |||
| recently, a short time ago || adiés | |||
|- | |||
| earlier || antes | |||
|- | |||
| soon, shortly || ayina | |||
|- | |||
| later || lueco | |||
|- | |||
| always || siempre | |||
|- | |||
| often || sovent | |||
|- | |||
| sometimes || a veces | |||
|- | |||
| rarely || raro | |||
|- | |||
| never || nunca; jamás; ábadan | |||
|- | |||
| ever || ábadan | |||
|- | |||
| still, yet || awún; ancora | |||
|- | |||
| already || ja | |||
|- | |||
| today || wey | |||
|- | |||
| tonight || ça nueit | |||
|- | |||
| yesterday || ayer | |||
|- | |||
| last night || anueit | |||
|- | |||
| tomorrow || cras | |||
|- | |||
| before yesterday || antes d'ayer | |||
|- | |||
| two nights ago || antes d'anueit | |||
|- | |||
| after tomorrow || depues de cras | |||
|- | |||
| this week || ça semana | |||
|- | |||
| last week || la semana passata | |||
|- | |||
| next week || la semana próxima | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Colours - ''Los colores''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Colours - ''Los colores'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| white || blancu | |||
|- | |||
| grey || gris | |||
|- | |||
| black || negru | |||
|- | |||
| red || vermelh | |||
|- | |||
| orange || anaranjat | |||
|- | |||
| brown || caçanh | |||
|- | |||
| yellow || amarielh | |||
|- | |||
| green || verde | |||
|- | |||
| blue || azur | |||
|- | |||
| pink || rosat | |||
|- | |||
| purple || rox | |||
|- | |||
| golden || dorat | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
Line 1,286: | Line 2,146: | ||
/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/ | /ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/ | ||
<!-- | |||
====Old Essanian==== | |||
Totos los seres humanos nascent ḥorros ed equales en dignitad i drehtos. Sont dotatos de rachón i consciencha, i devent comportar-se los unos con los outros en ruḥu de germantad.--> | |||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== |
edits