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'''Gothedish''' (Native: ''Guþþydske'' /ˈɡuːθʏtskə/) is an East Germanic language. One of its most distinctive feature is extensive palatalization, which is most likely due to Slavic influence.
'''Gothedish''' (Native: ''Guþþydske'' /ˈɡuːθʏtskə/) is an East Germanic language. One of its most distinctive feature is extensive palatalization, which is most likely due to Slavic influence.
{{Infobox language
|name = Gothedish
|nativename = Razde Guþþydske <br />Razdă Γn̄ффindskă <br />𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 𐌲𐌿𐌸𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐍃𐌺𐌰 <br/>رزده گوثثدسکه
|pronunciation = ˈrɐzdə ˈɡuːˌθʏtskə
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
<!--
|states =
|nation =
|speakers = -->
|date = 2016
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2 = [[w:Germanic_languages|Germanic]]
|fam3 = [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]]
|fam4 = [[w:Gothic_language|Gothic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Gothic_language|Gothic]]
|ancestor2 = Old Gothedish
|ancestor3 = Middle Gothedish
<!--
|iso1 =
|iso2 =
|iso3 = -->
|script        = [[w:Latin script|Latin]], [[w:Gothic_alphabet|Gothic]], [[w:Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[w:Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]
<!--
|agency        = -->
}}
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Gothedish is a descendant of Gothic, spoken by the Gothedes (''Guþþyde'').
Gothedish is a descendant of Gothic, spoken by the Gothedes (''Guþþyde'').
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<!--
===History===
===History===
Gothedish is descended from Wulfila's Gothic or a closely related variety. The ancestors of the Gothedes lived somewhere around modern-day Romania. At some point in history (TBD), they spread throughout the area between the Balkan penninsula and Scandinavia.
Gothedish is descended from Wulfila's Gothic or a closely related Eastern Germanic variety. The ancestors of the Gothedes lived somewhere around modern-day Romania. At some point in history (TBD), they spread throughout the area between the Balkan penninsula and Scandinavia.
===Influences===
===Influences===
Despite being highly conservative, Gothedish has been significantly influenced by other languages. This can be divided into 4 main stages:
Despite being highly conservative, Gothedish has been significantly influenced by other languages. This can be divided into 4 main stages:
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!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Dental
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Alveolar
!colspan="2"|Palato-<br />alveolar
!colspan="2"|Post-alveolar/palatal
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Velar
!colspan="2"|Guttural
!colspan="2"|Guttural
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|
|
|
|
|'''tj, c<small><sup>3</sup></small>'''<br />[t͡s]
|'''tj, ts, c<small><sup>3</sup></small>'''<br />[t͡s]
|
|
|'''k(j), pj'''<br />[t͡ʃ]
|'''k(j), pj'''<br />[t͡ʃ]
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|colspan="2"|'''j, g<small><sup>4</sup></small>'''<br />[j]
|colspan="2"|'''j, g<small><sup>4</sup></small>'''<br />[j]
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|  
|colspan="2"|'''(ԑ)'''<small><sup>3</sup></small><br />[ʕ]
|colspan="2"|
|-
|-
!Lateral
!Lateral
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|-
|-
!Trill
!Trill
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
| '''hr'''<br />[r̥]
| '''hr'''<br />[r̥]
| '''r'''<br />[r]
| '''r'''<br />[r]
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|
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| colspan="2" | '''au'''<br />[aʊ̯]
| colspan="2" | '''au'''<br />[aʊ̯]
|}
|}
'''Note:'''
'''Notes:'''


<sup><small>1</small></sup> Any vowel is lengthened when it has an acute accent or circumflex. Similarly, vowels followed by ⟨h⟩ are lengthened even if there is an intervening consonant. An exception is the digraph ⟨hj⟩, which shortens the preceding vowel.
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Any vowel is lengthened when it has an acute accent or circumflex. Similarly, vowels followed by ⟨h⟩ are lengthened even if there is an intervening consonant. An exception is the digraph ⟨hj⟩, which shortens the preceding vowel.
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
|-
|-
! Latin (Lateinske) !! IPA !! Dialectal variants  !! Perso-Arabic (Arabske)  !! Old Gothic (Alþgutske) !! New Gothic (Neygutske) !! Cyrillic (Cyrillske) !! Examples  
! Latin (Lateinske) !! IPA<!-- !! Dialectal variants  -->!! Perso-Arabic (Arabske)  !! Old Gothic (Alþgutske) !! New Gothic (Neygutske) !! Cyrillic (Cyrillske) !! Examples  
|-
|-
|  A a || ɐ, aː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – || <big>ــَـ ، ــَا</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰 || A a, Ā ā || А а (Я я),<br />А́ а́ (Я́ я́) ||  <i>h'''a'''nd</i> /h'''ɐ'''nt/ "hand", <i>'''a'''pel</i> /ˈ'''aː'''pl̩/ "apple"   
|  A a || ɐ, aː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> || <big>ــَـ ، ــَا</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰 || A a, Ā ā || А а (Я я),<br />А́ а́ (Я́ я́) ||  <i>h'''a'''nd</i> /h'''ɐ'''nt/ "hand", <i>'''a'''pel</i> /ˈ'''aː'''pl̩/ "apple"   
|-
|-
|  Á á; Â â || aː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – ||  <big> ــَا</big> || Ā ā; Â â || А́ а́ (Я́ я́) || <i>h'''á'''bde</i> /ˈh'''aː'''bdə/, <i>h'''â'''de</i> /ˈh'''aː'''də/ "had"
|  Á á; Â â || aː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> ||  <big> ــَا</big> || Ā ā; Â â || А́ а́ (Я́ я́) || <i>h'''á'''bde</i> /ˈh'''aː'''bdə/, <i>h'''â'''de</i> /ˈh'''aː'''də/ "had"
|-
|-
|  Ai ai || aɪ̯<small><sup>3</sup></small> || – || <big>ــَىْ</big> || 𐌰𐌾 || Ag ag || Ай ай (Яй яй) ||  <i>h'''ai'''ku</i> /ˈh'''aɪ̯'''kuː/ "haiku"
|  Ai ai || aɪ̯ <!--|| –--> || <big>ــَىْ</big> || 𐌰𐌾 || Ag ag || Ай ай (Яй яй) ||  <i>h'''ai'''ku</i> /ˈh'''aɪ̯'''kuː/ "haiku"
|-
|-
|  Au au || aʊ̯<small><sup>3</sup></small> || – || <big>ــَـوْ</big> || 𐌰𐍅 || Ay ay || Аў аў (Яў яў) ||  <i>'''au'''to</i> /ˈ'''aʊ̯'''toː/ "car"
|  Au au || aʊ̯ <!--|| –--> || <big>ــَـوْ</big> || 𐌰𐍅 || Ay ay || Аў аў (Яў яў) ||  <i>'''au'''to</i> /ˈ'''aʊ̯'''toː/ "car"
|-
|-
|  Ä ä || æ, ɛː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || ɛ, eː ||  <big>ــٰـ ، ــٰى</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰𐌹 || Ai ai, Āi āi || Ѧ ѧ (Ѩ ѩ),<br />Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ) || <i>'''ä'''rþe</i> /ˈ'''æ'''rθə/ "earth", <i>'''ä'''n</i> /'''ɛː'''n/ "one"
|  Ä ä || æ, ɛː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| ɛ, eː--> ||  <big>ــٰـ ، ــٰى</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰𐌹 || Ai ai, Āi āi || Ѧ ѧ (Ѩ ѩ),<br />Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ) || <i>'''ä'''rþe</i> /ˈ'''æ'''rθə/ "earth", <i>'''ä'''n</i> /'''ɛː'''n/ "one"
|-
|-
|  Ea ea; Êa êa || ɛː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || eː || <big> ــٰى</big> || Āi āi; Âi âi || Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ) || <i>l'''ea'''zde</i> /l'''ɛː'''zdə/ "crawled", <i>'''êa'''n</i> /'''ɛː'''n/ "property"
|  Ea ea; Êa êa || ɛː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| eː--> || <big> ــٰى</big> || Āi āi; Âi âi || Ҍ ҍ (Ꙓ ꙓ) || <i>l'''ea'''zde</i> /l'''ɛː'''zdə/ "crawled", <i>'''êa'''n</i> /'''ɛː'''n/ "property"
|-
|-
|  Å å || ɒ, ɔː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || ɔ, oː || <big>ــٛـ ، ــٛو</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰𐌿 || An an, Ān ān || Ѫ ѫ (Ѭ ѭ),<br />Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ) || <i>'''å'''ster</i> /ˈ'''ɒ'''str̩/ "east", <i>h'''å'''bed</i> /ˈh'''ɔː'''bəθ/ "head"
|  Å å || ɒ, ɔː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| ɔ, oː--> || <big>ــٛـ ، ــٛو</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌰𐌿 || An an, Ān ān || Ѫ ѫ (Ѭ ѭ),<br />Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ) || <i>'''å'''ster</i> /ˈ'''ɒ'''str̩/ "east", <i>h'''å'''bed</i> /ˈh'''ɔː'''bəθ/ "head"
|-
|-
|  Oa oa; Ôa ôa || ɔː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || oː  || <big> ــٛو</big> || Ān ān; Ân ân || Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ) || <i>l'''oa'''kde</i> /l'''ɔː'''ɡdə/ "lapped", <i>h'''ôa'''d</i> /h'''ɔː'''θ/ "head"
|  Oa oa; Ôa ôa || ɔː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| oː  -->|| <big> ــٛو</big> || Ān ān; Ân ân || Ѡ ѡ (Іѡ іѡ) || <i>l'''oa'''kde</i> /l'''ɔː'''ɡdə/ "lapped", <i>h'''ôa'''d</i> /h'''ɔː'''θ/ "head"
|-
|-
|  Åi åi || ɔɪ̯<small><sup>3</sup></small> || – || <big>ــٛـىْ</big> || 𐍉𐌾 || Ωg wg || Ѫй ѫй (Ѭй ѭй) ||  <i>'''åi'''!</i> /'''ɔɪ̯'''/ "oops!, ouch!"
|  Åi åi || ɔɪ̯ <!--|| –--> || <big>ــٛـىْ</big> || 𐍉𐌾 || Ωg wg || Ѫй ѫй (Ѭй ѭй) ||  <i>'''åi'''!</i> /'''ɔɪ̯'''/ "oops!, ouch!"
|-
|-
|  B b || b, <small>V/NN</small>-f, <small>N</small>-p<small><sup>2</sup></small> || <small>V/NN</small>-v-<small>V</small> || <big>ب ، ف </big> || 𐌱 || B b || Б б || <i>'''b'''arn</i> /'''b'''ɐrn/ "child", <i>hlä'''b'''</i> /ɬɛː'''f'''/ "bread", <i>lam'''b'''</i> /lɐm'''p'''/ "sheep"
|  B b || b, <small>V/NN</small>-f, <small>N</small>-p<small><sup>2</sup></small> <!--||<small>V/NN</small>-v-<small>V</small>--> || <big>ب ، ف </big> || 𐌱 || B b || Б б || <i>'''b'''arn</i> /'''b'''ɐrn/ "child", <i>hlä'''b'''</i> /ɬɛː'''f'''/ "bread", <i>lam'''b'''</i> /lɐm'''p'''/ "sheep"
|-
|-
|  Bj bj || d͡ʒ, <small>V/NN</small>-ʃ, <small>N</small>-t͡ʃ<small><sup>2</sup></small> || ʒ || <big>ج ، ش </big> || 𐌱𐌾 || Bg bg || Бь бь || <i>gelå'''bj'''en</i> /ɡəˈlɒ'''d͡ʒ'''n̩/ "to believe", <i>gelå'''bj'''</i> /ɡəˈlɒ'''ʃ'''/ "believe (sg. imper.)", <i>ankum'''bj'''</i> /ˈaːŋkʊn'''t͡ʃ'''/ "relax (sg. imper.)
|  Bj bj || d͡ʒ, <small>V/NN</small>-ʃ, <small>N</small>-t͡ʃ<small><sup>2</sup></small> <!--|| ʒ--> || <big>ج ، ش </big> || 𐌱𐌾 || Bg bg || Бь бь || <i>glå'''bj'''en</i> /ˈɡlɒ'''d͡ʒ'''n̩/ "to believe", <i>glå'''bj'''</i> /ɡlɒ'''ʃ'''/ "believe (sg. imper.)", <i>ankum'''bj'''</i> /ˈaːŋkʊn'''t͡ʃ'''/ "relax (sg. imper.)
|-
|-
|  C c<small><sup>3</sup></small> || k, t͡s || – || – || – || – || К к; Ц ц || <i>'''c'''al'''c'''ien</i> /ˈ'''k'''ɐl'''t͡s'''in/ "calcium"
|  C c<small><sup>3</sup></small> || k, t͡s <!--|| –--> || – || – || – || К к; Ц ц || <i>'''c'''al'''c'''ien</i> /ˈ'''k'''ɐl'''t͡s'''in/ "calcium"
|-
|-
|  Ch ch || x || – || <big>خ </big> || 𐍇 || X x || Ӿ ӿ || <i>du'''ch'''an</i> /dʊˈ'''x'''aːn/ "smoke"
|  Ch ch || x <!--|| –--> || <big>خ </big> || 𐍇 || X x || Ӿ ӿ || <i>du'''ch'''an</i> /dʊˈ'''x'''aːn/ "smoke"
|-
|-
|  D d || d, <small>V</small>-θ, <small>C</small>-t<small><sup>2</sup></small> || <small>V</small>-ð-<small>V</small> || <big>د ، ث </big> || 𐌳 || D d || Д д || <i>'''d'''al</i> /'''d'''aːl/ "valley", <i>go'''d'''</i> /goː'''θ'''/ "good", <i>hun'''d'''</i> /hʊn'''t'''/ "dog"
|  D d || d, <small>V</small>-θ, <small>C</small>-t<small><sup>2</sup></small> <!--|| <small>V</small>-ð-<small>V</small>--> || <big>د ، ث </big> || 𐌳 || D d || Д д || <i>'''d'''al</i> /'''d'''aːl/ "valley", <i>go'''d'''</i> /goː'''θ'''/ "good", <i>hun'''d'''</i> /hʊn'''t'''/ "dog"
|-
|-
|  Dj dj || z, <small>V/NN</small>-s, <small>N</small>-t͡s<small><sup>2</sup></small> || d͡ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ;<br /> ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ; d͡z || <big>ز، س </big> || 𐌳𐌾 || Dg dg || Дь дь || <i>arbe'''dj'''en</i> /ˈɐrbə'''z'''n̩/ "to work", <i>wӓde'''dj'''</i> /ˈwɛːdə'''s'''/ "robber", <i>an'''dj'''</i> /ɐn'''t͡s'''/ "end"
|  Dj dj || z, <small>N</small>-d͡z- <small>V/NN</small>-s, <small>N</small>-t͡s<small><sup>2</sup></small> <!--|| d͡ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ;<br /> ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ; d͡z --> || <big>ز، س </big> || 𐌳𐌾 || Dg dg || Дь дь || <i>arbe'''dj'''en</i> /ˈɐrbə'''z'''n̩/ "to work", <i>wӓde'''dj'''</i> /ˈwɛːdə'''s'''/ "robber", <i>an'''dj'''</i> /ɐn'''t͡s'''/ "end"
|-
|-
|  E e || ɛ, eː <small><sup>1</sup></small> ||  jɛ, jeː|| <big>ــٖـ ، ــٖی</big> ||𐌴 || E e, Ē ē || Е е (Є є),<br />Е́ е́ (Є́ є́) || <i>m'''e'''rjen</i> /ˈm'''ɛ'''ʒn̩/ "to preach", <i>w'''e'''g</i> /w'''eː'''x/ "storm"
|  E e || ɛ, eː <small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--||  jɛ, jeː-->|| <big>ــٖـ ، ــٖی</big> ||𐌴 || E e, Ē ē || Е е (Є є),<br />Е́ е́ (Є́ є́) || <i>m'''e'''rjen</i> /ˈm'''ɛ'''ʒn̩/ "to preach", <i>w'''e'''g</i> /w'''eː'''x/ "storm"
|-
|-
|  E e, I i || ə<sup>4</sup> || – || <big> ــَـ ، ــِـ</big> ||𐌰 || Ă ă || Э э (Ӭ ӭ) || <i>mak'''e'''</i> /ˈmaːk'''ə'''/ "I make", <i>hug'''i'''</i> /huːj'''ə'''/ "mind, reason"
|  E e, I i || ə<sup>4</sup> <!--|| –-->|| <big> ــَـ ، ــِـ</big> ||𐌰 || Ă ă || Э э (Ӭ ӭ) || <i>mak'''e'''</i> /ˈmaːk'''ə'''/ "I make", <i>hug'''i'''</i> /huːj'''ə'''/ "mind, reason"
|-
|-
|  É é; Ê ê || eː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || jeː || <big> ــٖی</big> ||𐌴  || Ē ē; Ê ê || Е́ е́ (Є́ є́) || <i>l'''é'''kjenen</i> /l'''eː'''t͡ʃnn̩/ "to heal", <i>w'''ê'''milhme</i> /ˈw'''eː'''ˌmiːlmə/ "stormcloud"
|  É é; Ê ê || eː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| jeː -->|| <big> ــٖی</big> ||𐌴  || Ē ē; Ê ê || Е́ е́ (Є́ є́) || <i>l'''é'''kjenen</i> /l'''eː'''t͡ʃnn̩/ "to heal", <i>w'''ê'''milhme</i> /ˈw'''eː'''ˌmiːlmə/ "stormcloud"
|-
|-
|  Ei ei || ɛɪ̯ || aɪ̯; əɪ̯; iː || <big> ــَی</big> || 𐌴𐌹 || Ei ei || Ей ей (Єй єй) || <i>'''ei'''s</i> /'''ɛɪ̯'''s/ "ice"
|  Ei ei; Êi êi || ɛɪ̯ <!--|| aɪ̯; əɪ̯; iː -->|| <big> ــَی</big> || 𐌴𐌹 || Ei ei || Ей ей (Єй єй) || <i>'''ei'''s</i> /'''ɛɪ̯'''s/ "ice"
|-
|-
|  Eu eu || œʏ̯ || ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯ || <big> ـٰـوْ</big> || 𐌴𐌿 || En en || Eў еў (Єў єў) || <i>'''eu'''</i> /'''œʏ̯'''/ "(for)ever"
|  Eu eu; Êu êu || œʏ̯ <!--|| ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯ -->|| <big> ـٰـوْ</big> || 𐌴𐌿 || En en || Eў еў (Єў єў) || <i>'''eu'''</i> /'''œʏ̯'''/ "(for)ever"
|-
|-
|  Ey ey || œʏ̯ || ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯; yː || <big> ــٗی</big> || 𐌴𐌹𐌿 || Ein ein || Ёй ёй (Іёй іёй) || <i>n'''ey'''</i> /n'''œʏ̯'''/ "new"
|  Ey ey; Êy êy || œʏ̯ <!--|| ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯; yː -->|| <big> ــٗی</big> || 𐌴𐌹𐌿 || Ein ein || Ёй ёй (Іёй іёй) || <i>n'''ey'''</i> /n'''œʏ̯'''/ "new"
|-
|-
|  F f || f || <small>VS</small>-v-<small>VS</small> || <big> ف</big> || 𐍆 || F f || Ф ф || <i>'''f'''isk</i> /'''f'''ɪsk/ "fish"
|  F f || f <!--|| <small>VS</small>-v-<small>VS</small> -->|| <big> ف</big> || 𐍆 || F f || Ф ф || <i>'''f'''isk</i> /'''f'''ɪsk/ "fish"
|-
|-
|  Fj fj || ʃ || – || <big> ش</big> || 𐍆𐌾 || Fg fg || Фь фь || <i>ha'''fj'''en</i> /ˈhɐ'''ʃ'''n̩/ "to lift"
|  Fj fj || ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big> ش</big> || 𐍆𐌾 || Fg fg || Фь фь || <i>ha'''fj'''en</i> /ˈhɐ'''ʃ'''n̩/ "to lift"
|-
|-
|  rowspan="2"| G g || ɡ, <small>V</small>-x, <small>C</small>-k<small><sup>2</sup></small> || <small>V</small>-ɣ-<small>V</small> || <big>گ </big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌲 || Г r || Г г || <i>'''g'''od</i> /'''ɡ'''oːθ/ "good", <i>da'''g'''</i> /daː'''x'''/ "day", <i>bår'''g'''</i> /bɒr'''k'''/ "city, town"
|  rowspan="2"| G g || ɡ, <small>V</small>-x, <small>C</small>-k<small><sup>2</sup></small><!-- || <small>V</small>-ɣ-<small>V</small> -->|| <big>گ </big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌲 || Г r || Г г || <i>'''g'''od</i> /'''ɡ'''oːθ/ "good", <i>da'''g'''</i> /daː'''x'''/ "day", <i>bår'''g'''</i> /bɒr'''k'''/ "city, town"
|-
|-
|  d͡ʒ-, <small>V</small>-j-<small>V</small>, -ʃ<small><sup>2,5</sup></small> || <small>V</small>-ʒ-<small>V</small> || <big>ج ، ی ، ش</big> || Ѓ ŕ || Гь гь || <i>'''g'''iben</i> /ˈ'''d͡ʒ'''iːbn̩/ "to give", <i>hu'''g'''i</i> /ˈhuː'''j'''ə/ "mind, reason", <i>gvärþi'''g'''</i> /ˈbærθɪ'''ʃ'''/ "peaceful"
|  d͡ʒ-, <small>V</small>-j-<small>V</small>, -ʃ<small><sup>2,5</sup></small><!-- || <small>V</small>-ʒ-<small>V</small> -->|| <big>ج ، ی ، ش</big> || Ѓ ŕ || Гь гь || <i>'''g'''iben</i> /ˈ'''d͡ʒ'''iːbn̩/ "to give", <i>hui'''g'''es</i> /ˈhuː'''j'''əs/ "minds", <i>gvärþi'''g'''</i> /ˈbærθɪ'''ʃ'''/ "peaceful"
|-
|-
|  Gj gj || d͡ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ || <small>V</small>-ʒ-<small>V</small>; ʒ || <big> ج</big> || 𐌲𐌾 || Гg rg  || Џ(ь) џ(ь) || <i>hu'''gj'''en</i> /ˈhʊ'''d͡ʒ'''n̩/ "to think, intend", <i>andå'''gj'''</i> /anˈdɒ'''ʃ'''/ "face", <i>an'''gj'''</i> /ɐn'''t͡ʃ'''/ "egg"
|  Gj gj || d͡ʒ, <small>V</small>-ʃ, <small>C</small>-t͡ʃ <!--|| <small>V</small>-ʒ-<small>V</small>; ʒ -->|| <big> ج</big> || 𐌲𐌾 || Гg rg  || Џ(ь) џ(ь) || <i>hu'''gj'''en</i> /ˈhʊ'''d͡ʒ'''n̩/ "to think, intend", <i>andå'''gj'''</i> /anˈdɒ'''ʃ'''/ "face", <i>an'''gj'''</i> /ɐn'''t͡ʃ'''/ "egg"
|-
|-
|  Gv gv || b, <small>V</small>-f, <small>C</small>-p || <small>V</small>-v-<small>V</small>; ɡw, <small>V</small>-x, <small>C</small>-k; gv, -kf || <big>ب ، ف</big> || 𐍁 || Ч ɥ || Гв гв || <i>'''gv'''ärþj</i> /'''b'''ærs/ "peace",<i>san'''gv'''</i> /sɐm'''p'''/ "song"
|  Gv gv || b, <small>V</small>-f, <small>C</small>-p <!--|| <small>V</small>-v-<small>V</small>; ɡw, <small>V</small>-x, <small>C</small>-k; gv, -kf--> || <big>ب ، ف</big> || 𐍁 || Ч ɥ || Гв гв || <i>'''gv'''ärþj</i> /'''b'''ærs/ "peace",<i>san'''gv'''</i> /sɐm'''p'''/ "song"
|-
|-
|  H h || h, Ø<small><sup>6</sup></small> || x; ɦ || <big> هـ</big> || 𐌷 || Һ h || Х х || <i>'''h'''und</i> /'''h'''ʊnt/ "dog", <i>na'''h'''t</i> /na'''ː'''t/ "night"
|  H h || h, Ø<small><sup>6</sup></small> <!--|| x; ɦ--> || <big> هـ</big> || 𐌷 || Һ h || Х х || <i>'''h'''und</i> /'''h'''ʊnt/ "dog", <i>na'''h'''t</i> /na'''ː'''t/ "night"
|-
|-
|  Hj hj || ʃ || ç || <big> ش</big> || 𐌷𐌾 || Һg hg || Ш(ь) ш(ь) || <i>hla'''hj'''en</i> /ɬɐ'''ʃ'''n̩/ "to laugh"
|  Hj hj || ʃ <!--|| ç--> || <big> ش</big> || 𐌷𐌾 || Һg hg || Ш(ь) ш(ь) || <i>hla'''hj'''en</i> /ɬɐ'''ʃ'''n̩/ "to laugh"
|-
|-
|  Hl hl || ɬ, -ːl(-) || xl; -ɬ- || <big>هل ، ل</big> || 𐌷𐌻 || Һλ hλ || Хл хл || <i>'''hl'''ahjen</i> /'''ɬ'''ɐʃn̩/ "to laugh", <i>ma'''hl'''e</i> /ma'''ːl'''ə/ "juice"
|  Hl hl || ɬ, -ːl(-) <!--|| xl; -ɬ- -->|| <big>هل ، ل</big> || 𐌷𐌻 || Һλ hλ || Хл хл || <i>'''hl'''ahjen</i> /'''ɬ'''ɐʃn̩/ "to laugh", <i>ma'''hl'''e</i> /ma'''ːl'''ə/ "juice"
|-
|-
|  Hn hn || n̥, -ːn(-) || xn; -n̥- || <big>هن ، ن</big> || 𐌷𐌽 || ҺN hv || Хн хн || <i>'''hn'''åt</i> /'''n̥'''ɔːt/ "nut", <i>lä'''hn'''</i> /lɛ'''ːn'''/ "loan"
|  Hn hn || n̥, -ːn(-) <!--|| xn; -n̥- -->|| <big>هن ، ن</big> || 𐌷𐌽 || ҺN hv || Хн хн || <i>'''hn'''åt</i> /'''n̥'''ɔːt/ "nut", <i>lä'''hn'''</i> /lɛ'''ːn'''/ "loan"
|-
|-
|  Hr hr || r̥, -ːr(-) || ʂ; xr; χ; -r̥- || <big> هر ، ر</big> || 𐌷𐍂 || Һp hp || Хр хр || <i>'''hr'''aben</i> /'''r̥'''aːbn̩/ "raven", <i>hu'''hr'''</i> /hu'''ːr'''/ "hunger"
|  Hr hr || r̥, -ːr(-) <!--|| ʂ; xr; χ; -r̥- -->|| <big> هر ، ر</big> || 𐌷𐍂 || Һp hp || Хр хр || <i>'''hr'''aben</i> /'''r̥'''aːbn̩/ "raven", <i>hu'''hr'''</i> /hu'''ːr'''/ "hunger"
|-
|-
|  Hv hv || f || <small>V</small>-v-<small>V</small>; ʍ; ɸ; xʷ, -x; xf; kf || <big> ف</big> || 𐍈 || Θ ɵ || Хв хв || <i>sä'''hv'''en</i> /sɛː'''f'''n̩/ "to see"
|  Hv hv || f <!--|| <small>V</small>-v-<small>V</small>; ʍ; ɸ; xʷ, -x; xf; kf -->|| <big> ف</big> || 𐍈 || Θ ɵ || Хв хв || <i>sä'''hv'''en</i> /sɛː'''f'''n̩/ "to see"
|-
|-
|  I i || ɪ, iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – || <big>ــِـ ، ــِی</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌹 || I i, Ī ī || И и (І і),<br />И́ и́ (Í í) ||
|  I i || ɪ, iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> || <big>ــِـ ، ــِی</big> || rowspan="2"|𐌹 || I i, Ī ī || И и (І і),<br />И́ и́ (Í í) || <i>sä'''hv'''en</i> /ˈsɛː'''f'''n̩/ "to see"
|-
|-
|  Í í; Î î || iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – ||  <big> ــِی</big> || Ī ī; Î î || И́ и́ (Í í)  ||
|  Í í; Î î || iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> ||  <big> ــِی</big> || Ī ī; Î î || И́ и́ (Í í)  || <i>n'''i'''þj</i> /n'''ɪ'''s/ "relative". <i>'''i'''k</i> /'''iː'''k/ "I"
|-
|-
|  Ie ie || iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || iə̯ ||  <big> ــِی</big> || 𐌹𐌰 ||  Iă iă || Иэ иэ (Іэ іэ) ||
|  Ie ie || iː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| iə̯--> ||  <big> ــِی</big> || 𐌹𐌰 ||  Iă iă || Иэ иэ (Іэ іэ) || <i>fr'''ie'''nd</i> /fr'''iː'''nt/ "friend"
|-
|-
|  J j || j || – || <big> ی</big> || 𐌾 || G g || Й й ||
|  J j || j <!--|| –--> || <big> ی</big> || 𐌾 || G g || Й й || <i>'''j'''ah</i> /'''j'''aː/ "and"
|-
|-
|  rowspan="2"| K k || k || – || <big> ک</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌺 || K k || К к ||
|  rowspan="2"| K k || k <!--|| –--> || <big> ک</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌺 || K k || К к || <i>'''k'''att</i> /'''k'''ɐt/ "cat"
|-
|-
|  t͡ʃ || ʃ || <big>چ</big> || Ḱ ḱ || Ч(ь) ч(ь) ||
|  t͡ʃ <!--|| ʃ--> || <big>چ</big> || Ḱ ḱ || Ч(ь) ч(ь) || <i>'''k'''inn</i> /'''t͡ʃ'''ɪn/ "cheek"
|-
|-
|  Kj kj || t͡ʃ || ʃ || <big> چ</big> || 𐌺𐌾 || Kg kg || Ч(ь) ч(ь) ||
|  Kj kj || t͡ʃ <!--|| ʃ--> || <big> چ</big> || 𐌺𐌾 || Kg kg || Ч(ь) ч(ь) || <i>mí'''kj'''el</i> /miː'''t͡ʃ'''l̩/ "big, great"
|-
|-
| Kv kv || p || kʷ, -k; kf || <big>پ</big> || 𐌵 || U u || Кв кв ||
| Kv kv || p <!--|| kʷ, -k; kf--> || <big>پ</big> || 𐌵 || U u || Кв кв || <i>'''kv'''imen</i> /'''p'''iːmn̩/ "to come"
|-
|-
|  L l || l || – || <big> ل</big> || 𐌻 || Λ λ || Л л ||
|  L l || l <!--|| –--> || <big> ل</big> || 𐌻 || Λ λ || Л л || <i>'''l'''amb</i> /'''l'''ɐmp/ "sheep"
|-
|-
|  Lj lj || ʎ || – || <big> ڷ</big> || 𐌻𐌾 || Λg λg || Ль ль ||
|  Lj lj || ʎ <!--|| –--> || <big> ڷ</big> || 𐌻𐌾 || Λg λg || Ль ль || <i>a'''lj'''</i> /ɐ'''ʎ'''/ "other"
|-
|-
|  M m || m || – || <big> م</big> || 𐌼 || M m || М м ||
|  M m || m <!--|| –--> || <big> م</big> || 𐌼 || M m || М м || <i>'''m'''äze</i> /'''m'''ɛːzə/ "bigger"
|-
|-
|  Mj mj || ɲ || – || <big> ݧ </big> || 𐌼𐌾 || Mg mg || Мь мь ||
|  Mj mj || ɲ <!--|| –--> || <big> ݧ </big> || 𐌼𐌾 || Mg mg || Мь мь || <i>ta'''mj'''en</i> /ˈtɐ'''ɲ'''n̩/ "to tame"
|-
|-
|  N n || n || – || <big> ن</big> || 𐌽 || N v || Н н ||
|  N n || n <!--|| –--> || <big> ن</big> || 𐌽 || N v || Н н || <i>'''n'''ame</i> /'''n'''aːmə/ "name"
|-
|-
|  Nj nj || ɲ || – || <big> ݧ</big> || 𐌽𐌾 || Ng ng || Нь нь ||
|  Nj nj || ɲ <!--|| –--> || <big> ݧ</big> || 𐌽𐌾 || Ng ng || Нь нь || <i>su'''nj'''</i> /sʊ'''ɲ'''/ "true"
|-
|-
| O o || ɔ, oː || wɔ, woː || <big>ــࣷـ ، ــࣷو</big> || rowspan="2" | 𐍉 || Ω w; Ω̄ w̄ || О о (Іо іо),<br />О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́) ||
| O o || ɔ, oː <!--|| wɔ, woː--> || <big>ــࣷـ ، ــࣷو</big> || rowspan="2" | 𐍉 || Ω w; Ω̄ w̄ || О о (Іо іо),<br />О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́) || <i>s'''o'''kjen</i> /s'''ɔ'''t͡ʃn̩/ "to search, investigate", <i>b'''o'''k</i> /b'''oː'''k/ "writing, letter, contract"
|-
|-
| Ó ó; Ô ô || oː || woː || <big>ــࣷو</big> || Ω̄ w̄; Ω̂ ŵ || О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́) ||
| Ó ó; Ô ô || oː <!--|| woː -->|| <big>ــࣷو</big> || Ω̄ w̄; Ω̂ ŵ || О́ о́ (Іо́ іо́) || <i>h'''ó'''lde</i> /h'''oː'''ldə/ "accused falsely", <i>'''ô'''n</i> /'''oː'''n/
|-
|-
| Ö ö || œ, øː || ɥœ, ɥøː || <big>ــࣹـ ، ــࣹا</big> || rowspan="2" | 𐍉𐌹 || Ωi wi; Ω̄i w̄i || Ё ё (Іё іё),<br />Ö ö (Іö іö) ||  
| Ö ö || œ, øː <!--|| ɥœ, ɥøː -->|| <big>ــࣹـ ، ــࣹا</big> || rowspan="2" | 𐍉𐌹 || Ωi wi; Ω̄i w̄i || Ё ё (Іё іё),<br />Ö ö (Іö іö) || <i>'''ö'''strogen</i> /'''œ'''stroˈɡeːn/, <i>f'''ö'''tus</i> /ˈf'''øː'''tus/ "fetus"
|-
|-
| Eo eo; Êo êo || øː || ɥøː || <big>ــࣹو </big> || Ω̄i w̄i; Ω̂i ŵi || Ö ö (Іö іö) ||
| Eo eo; Êo êo || øː <!--|| ɥøː -->|| <big>ــࣹو </big> || Ω̄i w̄i; Ω̂i ŵi || Ö ö (Іö іö) ||
|-
|-
|  Oi oi || œʏ̯ || ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯ː || <big> ــࣷی</big> || 𐌰𐌿𐌹 || Ani ani || Ой ой (Іой іой) ||
|  Oi oi; Ôi ôi || œʏ̯ <!--|| ɔɪ̯; aʏ̯; əʏ̯; œɪ̯ː -->|| <big> ــࣷی</big> || 𐌰𐌿𐌹 || Ani ani || Ой ой (Іой іой) ||  
|-
|-
|  Ou ou || ɔʊ̯ || aʊ̯; əʊ̯; uː || <big> ــࣷـوْ</big> || 𐍉𐌿 || Ωw Ωw || Оў оў (Іоў іоў) ||
|  Ou ou; Ôu ôu || ɔʊ̯ <!--|| aʊ̯; əʊ̯; uː -->|| <big> ــࣷـوْ</big> || 𐍉𐌿 || Ωw Ωw || Оў оў (Іоў іоў) ||
|-
|-
|  P p || p || – || <big> پ</big> || 𐍀 || П ր || П п ||
|  P p || p <!--|| –--> || <big> پ</big> || 𐍀 || П ր || П п ||
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
|  Q q<sup><small>3</small></sup> || q || k || <big> ق</big> || 𐍀 || 𐌺 || K̂ k̂ ||
|  Q q<sup><small>3</small></sup> || q || k || <big> ق</big> || 𐍀 || 𐌺 || K̂ k̂ ||
|-->
|-->
|  Pj pj || t͡ʃ || – || <big> چ</big> || 𐍀𐌾 || Пg րg || Пь пь ||
|  Pj pj || t͡ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big> چ</big> || 𐍀𐌾 || Пg րg || Пь пь ||
|-
|-
| R r || r || ɹ; ʀ; ʁ || <big> ر </big> || 𐍂 || R p || Р р ||
| R r || r <!--|| ɹ; ʀ; ʁ--> || <big> ر </big> || 𐍂 || R p || Р р ||
|-
|-
| Rj rj || ʒ || – || <big>ژ</big> || 𐍂𐌾 || Rg pg || Рь рь ||
| Rj rj || ʒ <!--|| –--> || <big>ژ</big> || 𐍂𐌾 || Rg pg || Рь рь ||
|-
|-
| S s || s || <small>VS</small>-z-<small>VS</small> || <big>س</big> || 𐍃 || S s || С с ||
| S s || s <!--|| <small>VS</small>-z-<small>VS</small>--> || <big>س</big> || 𐍃 || S s || С с ||
|-
|-
| Sj sj || ʃ || – || <big>ش</big> || 𐍃𐌾 || Sg sg || Сь сь ||
| Sj sj || ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big>ش</big> || 𐍃𐌾 || Sg sg || Сь сь ||
|-
|-
|  rowspan="2"| Sk sk || sk || – || <big>سک</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐍃𐌺 || Sk sk || Ск ск ||
|  rowspan="2"| Sk sk || sk <!--|| –--> || <big>سک</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐍃𐌺 || Sk sk || Ск ск ||
|-
|-
|  ʃ || – || <big>ش</big> || Sḱ sḱ || Щ(ь) щ(ь) ||
|  ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big>ش</big> || Sḱ sḱ || Щ(ь) щ(ь) ||
|-
|-
|  Skj skj || ʃ || – || <big>ش</big> || 𐍃𐌺𐌾 || Skg skg || Щ(ь) щ(ь) ||
|  Skj skj || ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big>ش</big> || 𐍃𐌺𐌾 || Skg skg || Щ(ь) щ(ь) || <i>hna'''skj'''</i> /n̥ɐ'''ʃ'''/ "soft"
|-
|-
| T t || t || – || <big>ت</big> || 𐍄 || T t || Т т ||
| T t || t <!--|| –--> || <big>ت</big> || 𐍄 || T t || Т т ||
|-
|-
| Tj tj || t͡s || s || <big>ڃ</big> || 𐍄𐌾 || Tg tg || Ть ть ||
| Tj tj || t͡s <!--|| s--> || <big>ڃ</big> || 𐍄𐌾 || Tg tg || Ть ть ||
|-
|-
|  Þ þ || θ || <small>VS</small>-ð-<small>VS</small> || <big> ث</big> || 𐌸 || Ψ ф || Ѳ ѳ ||
|  Þ þ || θ <!--|| <small>VS</small>-ð-<small>VS</small>--> || <big> ث</big> || 𐌸 || Ψ ф || Ѳ ѳ ||
|-
|-
|  Þj þj || s || – || <big> س</big> || 𐌸𐌾 || Ψg фg || Ѳь ѳь || <i>ni'''þj'''</i> /nɪ'''s'''/ "relative"
|  Þj þj || s <!--|| –--> || <big> س</big> || 𐌸𐌾 || Ψg фg || Ѳь ѳь || <i>ni'''þj'''</i> /nɪ'''s'''/ "relative"
|-
|-
|  U u || ʊ, uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – || <big>ــُـ ، ــُو</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌿 || Ո n, Ո̄ n̄ || У у (Ю ю),<br />У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́) ||
|  U u || ʊ, uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> || <big>ــُـ ، ــُو</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌿 || Ո n, Ո̄ n̄ || У у (Ю ю),<br />У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́) ||
|-
|-
|  Ú ú; Û û || uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || – ||  <big> ــُو</big> || Ո̄ n̄; Ո̂  n̂ || У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́) ||
|  Ú ú; Û û || uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| –--> ||  <big> ــُو</big> || Ո̄ n̄; Ո̂  n̂ || У́ у́ (Ю́ ю́) ||
|-
|-
|  Ue ue || uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || uə̯ ||  <big> ــُو</big> || 𐌿𐌰 || Ոă nă || Уэ уэ (Юэ юэ) ||
|  Ue ue || uː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| uə̯ -->||  <big> ــُو</big> || 𐌿𐌰 || Ոă nă || Уэ уэ (Юэ юэ) ||
|-
|-
|  V v<small><sup>3</sup></small> || v, -f || – || <big> ڤ</big> || 𐌱 || B b || В в ||
|  Ui ui || uː<small><sup>7</sup></small> <!--|| ʊɪ̯ -->|| <big> ــُو</big> || 𐌿 || Ո̄ n̄ || У у (Ю ю) || <i>h'''ui'''g</i> /ˈh'''uː'''ʃ/ "mind, reason"
|-
|-
|  W w || w || v; β || <big> و</big> || 𐍅 || Y y || В в; Ў ў ||
|  V v<small><sup>3</sup></small> || v, -f <!--|| –--> || <big> ڤ</big> || 𐌱 || B b || В в ||
|-
|-
|  Y y || ʏ, yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || ɪ, iː<small><sup>1</sup></small>  || <big>ــࣺـ ، ــࣺو</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌹𐌿 || In in, Īn īn || Ѵ ѵ (Іѵ іѵ),<br />Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́) ||
|  W w || w <!--|| v; β -->|| <big> و</big> || 𐍅 || Y y || В в; Ў ў ||
|-
|-
|  Ý ‎‎ý; Ŷ ŷ || yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || iː<small><sup>1</sup></small>  || <big> ــࣺو</big> || Īn īn; În în || Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́) ||
|  Y y || ʏ, yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| ɪ, iː<small><sup>1</sup></small>  -->|| <big>ــࣺـ ، ــࣺو</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌹𐌿 || In in, Īn īn || Ѵ ѵ (Іѵ іѵ),<br />Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́) ||
|-
|-
|  Ye ye || yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> || yə̯; iə̯ ||  <big> ــࣺو</big> || 𐌹𐌿𐌰 || Ină ină || Ѵэ ѵэ (Іѵэ іѵэ) ||
|  Ý ‎‎ý; Ŷ ŷ || yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| iː<small><sup>1</sup></small>  -->||  <big> ــࣺو</big> || Īn īn; În în || Ѵ́ ѵ́ (Іѵ́ іѵ́) ||
|-
|-
| Z z || z, -s || – || <big>ز</big> || || Z z || З з ||
| Ye ye || yː<small><sup>1</sup></small> <!--|| yə̯; iə̯ -->|| <big> ــࣺو</big> || 𐌹𐌿𐌰 || Ină ină || Ѵэ ѵэ (Іѵэ іѵэ) ||
|-
|-
| Zj zj || ʒ, -ʃ || – || <big>ژ</big> || 𐌶 || Zg zg || Зь зь ||
| Z z || z, -s <!--|| –--> || <big>ز</big> || || Z z || З з ||
|-
|-
| rowspan="2"| Zg zg || zɡ || – || <big>زگ</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌶𐌲 || Zr zg || Зг зг ||
| Zj zj || ʒ, -ʃ <!--|| –--> || <big>ژ</big> || 𐌶 || Zg zg || Зь зь ||
|-
|-
|  ʒ || – || <big> ژ</big> || Zŕ zŕ || Ж(ь) ж(ь) ||
|  rowspan="2"| Zg zg || zɡ <!--|| –--> || <big>زگ</big> || rowspan="2"| 𐌶𐌲 || Zr zg || Зг зг ||
|-
|-
|  Zgj zgj || ʒ || – || <big>ش</big> || 𐌶𐌲𐌾 || Zrg zrg || Ж(ь) ж(ь) ||
|  ʒ <!--|| –--> || <big> ژ</big> || Zŕ zŕ || Ж(ь) ж(ь) ||
|-
|  Zgj zgj || ʒ <!--|| –--> || <big>ش</big> || 𐌶𐌲𐌾 || Zrg zrg || Ж(ь) ж(ь) ||
|-
|-


|}
|}
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Unmarked vowels are lengthened by default in “unchecked" syllables (i.e. stressed and followed by no more than one consonant) and are shortened otherwise. Short unchecked vowels are indicated by doubling the following consonant, and long checked vowels are indicated with special long forms. The circumflexed long forms are used when a letter (usually "b" or "g") has been dropped. Compound words and loanwords do not always conform to these rules. Note that long vowels may be somewhat shortened in closed and/or unstressed syllables.
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Unmarked vowels are lengthened by default in “unchecked" syllables (i.e. stressed and followed by no more than one consonant) and are shortened otherwise. Short unchecked vowels are indicated by doubling the following consonant, and long checked vowels are indicated with special long forms. The circumflexed long forms are used when a letter (usually "b" or "g") has been dropped. Compound words and loanwords do not always conform to these rules. Note that long vowels may be pronounced shorter in closed and/or unstressed syllables; however, this shortening is non-phonemic.


<small><sup>2</sup></small> <small>V</small> = vowel; <small>C</small> = consonant; <small>N</small> = nasal consonant; <small>NN</small> = non-nasal consonant; <small>FV</small> = front vowel; <small>VS</small> = voiced sound
<small><sup>2</sup></small> <small>V</small> = vowel; <small>C</small> = consonant; <small>N</small> = nasal consonant; <small>NN</small> = non-nasal consonant; <small>FV</small> = front vowel; <small>VS</small> = voiced sound


<small><sup>3</sup></small> In interjections and loanwords.
<small><sup>3</sup></small> In loanwords.


<small><sup>4</sup></small> Unstressed. Written ⟨e⟩ in the Latin script, except adjacent to palatalized ⟨g⟩, where it is written ⟨i⟩ if there is no other indicator of palatalization. Dropped in pronunciation when followed by another vowel in the next syllable, unless that leads to a forbidden consonant cluster. Not written before sonorants in Gothic and Cyrillic scripts.
<small><sup>4</sup></small> Unstressed. Written ⟨e⟩ in the Latin script, except adjacent to palatalized ⟨g⟩, where it is written ⟨i⟩ if there is no other indicator of palatalization. Dropped in pronunciation when followed by another vowel in the next syllable, unless that leads to a forbidden consonant cluster. Not written before sonorants in Gothic and Cyrillic scripts.
Line 431: Line 460:


<small><sup>6</sup></small> Lengthens preceding vowel, even if an intervening consonant is present.
<small><sup>6</sup></small> Lengthens preceding vowel, even if an intervening consonant is present.
<small><sup>7</sup></small> Used before palatalized ⟨g⟩ when palatalization would not otherwise be indicated.
====Latin alphabet (Lateinske)====
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA !! Alternative<br />forms<sup><small>1</small></sup>
|-
| A a || a || [aː] || á; â
|-
| Ä ä || ä brädet || [ɛː brɛːdət] || ea; êa
|-
| Å å || å brädet || [ɔː brɛːdət] || oa; ôa
|-
| B b || be || [beː] || –
|-
| C c || ce || [t͡seː] || –
|-
| D d || de || [deː] || –
|-
| E e || e || [eː] || é; ê
|-
| F f || eff || [ɛf] || –
|-
| G g || ge || [d͡ʒeː] || –
|-
| Gv gv || gviss || [bɪs] || –
|-
| H h || ha || [haː] || –
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA !! Alternative<br />forms
|-
| Hv hv || hvär || [fɛːr] || –
|-
| I i || i || [iː] || í; î
|-
| J j || jott || [jɔt] || –
|-
| K k || ka || [kaː] || –
|-
| Kv kv || kvärne || [pærnə] || –
|-
| L l || ell || [ɛl] || –
|-
| M m || emm || [ɛm] || –
|-
| N n || enn || [ɛn] || –
|-
| O o || o || [oː] || ó; ô
|-
| Ö ö || ö || [øː] || eo; êo
|-
| P p || pe || [peː] || –
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA !! Alternative<br />forms
|-
| (Q q) || ku || [kuː] || –
|-
| R r || err || [ɛr] || –
|-
| S s || ess || [ɛs] || –
|-
| T t || te || [teː] || –
|-
| Þ þ || þyþ || [θyːθ] || –
|-
| U u || u || [uː] || ú; û
|-
| V v || vau || [vaʊ̯] || –
|-
| W w || we || [weː] || –
|-
| (X x) || eks || [ɛks] || –
|-
| Y y || y/ypsilon || [yː]/[ʏpsɪlɔn] || ý; ŷ
|-
| Z z || zete || [zeːtə] || –
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> These are treated as the same letter for purposes of alphabetization.
=====Non-alphabetic letters/digraphs=====
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Letter/digraph !! Name !! IPA
|-
| Á á (etc) || a langet (etc) || [aː lɐŋɡət] (etc)
|-
| Â â (etc) || a ibenet (etc) || [aː iːbnət] (etc)
|-
| Ea ea (etc) || ä brädet langet (etc) || [ɛː brɛːdət lɐŋɡət] (etc)
|-
| Bj bj (etc) || be hnaskjet (etc) || [beː n̥ɐʃət] (etc)
|-
| Ei ei (etc) || e i (etc) || [eː iː] (etc)
|-
| Ch ch || che/ce ha || [xeː]/[t͡seː haː]
|}
====Gothic alphabet (Gutske)====
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="3" | Letter !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
!Alþgutske !! Miþgutske !! Neygutske !! Neygutske !! Lateinske
|-
| 𐌰 || == || A a || avs || ans || [ɐns]
|-
| 𐌱 || == || B b || baipkă || bärke || [bærkə]
|-
| 𐌲 || == || Γ r|| rībă || gibe || [d͡ʒiːbə]
|-
| 𐌳 || == || D d || dār || dag || [daːx]
|-
| 𐌴 || == || E e || āiɵ || ähv || [ɛːf]
|-
| 𐌵 || == || U u || uaipvă || kvärne || [pærnə]
|-
| 𐌶 || == || Z z || ēzăk || ezek || [eːzək]
|-
| 𐌷 || == || Һ h || hārλ || hagel || [haːgl̩]
|-
| 𐌸 || == || Ψ ф || фīnф || þyþ || [θyːθ]
|-
| 𐌹 || == || I i || eis || eis || [ɛɪ̯s]
|-
| 𐌺 || == || K k || knsmă || kusme || [kʊzmə]
|-
| 𐌻 || == || Λ λ || λār || lag || [laːx]
|-
| 𐌼 || == || M m || mavvă || manne || [mɐnə]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="3" | Letter !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
!Alþgutske !! Miþgutske !! Neygutske !! Neygutske !! Lateinske
|-
| 𐌽 || == || N v || vānф || nåþ || [nɔːθ]
|-
| 𐌾 || == || G g || gēp || jer || [jeːr]
|-
| 𐌿 || == || Ո n || onp || our || [ɔʊ̯r]
|-
| 𐍀 || == || П ր || րaipфă || pärþe || [pærθə]
|-
| 𐍁 || == || Ч ɥ || ɥiss || gviss || [bɪs]
|-
| 𐍂 || == || R p || pāidă || räde || [rɛːdə]
|-
| 𐍃 || == || S s || saniλ || soil || [sœʏ̯l]
|-
| 𐍄 || == || T t || tein || tey || [tœʏ̯]
|-
| 𐍅 || == || Y y || yivgă || winje || [wɪɲə]
|-
| 𐍆 || == || F f || fāih || fäh || [fɛː]
|-
| 𐍇 || == || X x || ivɥ || ingv || [ɪmp]
|-
| 𐍈 || == || Θ ɵ || ɵāip || hvär || [fɛːr]
|-
| 𐍉 || == || Ω w || w̄фλ || oþel || [oːθl̩]
|}
|}
=====Accented characters=====
These occur in the New Gothic (''Neygutske'') script and optionally in the Middle Gothic (''Miþgutske'') script.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="2" | Character !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
! Miþgutske !! Neygutske !! Neygutske !! Lateinske
|-
| == || Ā ā (etc) || avs λavrăs (etc) || ans langes (etc) || [ɐns lɐŋɡəs] (etc)
|-
| == || Â â (etc) || avs ībvǎs (etc) || ans ibenes (etc) || [ɐns iːbnəs] (etc)
|-
| ==|| Ă ă || avs smāλăs || ans smales || [aː smaːləs]
|-
| == || Ѓ ŕ || rībă hvasugă || gibe hnaskje || [d͡ʒiːbə n̥ɐʃə]
|-
| == || Ḱ ḱ || knsmă hvasugă || kusme hnaskje || [kʊzmə n̥ɐʃə]
|-
| == || Ą ą (etc)<small><sup>1</sup></small> || avs vāsirăs || ans nasiges || [ɐns naːsiːs]
|}
'''Notes:'''
<small><sup>1</sup></small> Used for nasal vowels, which do not occur in Standard Modern Gothedish but did occur in earlier forms and still occur in some dialects.
====Perso-Arabic (Arabske)====
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Character !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
! Arabske !! Lateinske
|-
| ا || الف || ällif || [ˈælif]
|-
| ب || بی || be || [beː]
|-
| پ || پی || pe || [peː]
|-
| ت || تی || te || [teː]
|-
| ث || ثی || þe || [θeː]
|-
| ج || جیم || gim || [d͡ʒiːm]
|-
| چ || چیم || kim || [t͡ʃiːm]
|-
| ڃ || ڃیم || tjim || [t͡siːm]
|-
| ح || حا || ḥa || [ħɑː, hɑː]
|-
| خ || خا || cha || [xɑː]
|-
| د || دال || däl || [dɛːl]
|-
| ذ || ذال || ðäl || [ðɛːl]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Character !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
! Arabske !! Lateinske
|-
| ر || ری || re || [reː]
|-
| ز || زی || ze || [zeː]
|-
| ۯ || ۯی || zje || [ʒeː]
|-
| س || سین || sin || [siːn]
|-
| ش || شین || sjin || [ʃiːn]
|-
| ص || صاد || ṣad || [s(ˤ)ɑːt]
|-
| ض || ضاد || ḍad || [d(ˤ)ɑːt, ð(ˤ)ɑːt]
|-
| ط || طا || ṭa || [t(ˤ)ɑː]
|-
| ظ || ظا || ẓa || [ð(ˤ)ɑː]
|-
| ع || عین || qhain || [(ʕ)aɪ̯n]
|-
| غ || غین || ghain || [ɣaɪ̯n]
|-
| ف || فی || fe || [feː]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Character !! colspan="2" | Name !! rowspan="2" | IPA
|-
! Arabske !! Lateinske
|-
| ڤ || ڤی || ve || [veː]
|-
| ق || قاف || qaf || [qɑːf, kɑːf]
|-
| ک || کاف || käf || [kɛːf]
|-
| گ || گاف || gäf || [ɡɛːf]
|-
| ل || لام || läm || [lɛːm]
|-
| ڷ || ڷام || ljäm || [ʎɛːm]
|-
| م || میم || mim || [miːm]
|-
| ن || نون || nun || [nuːn]
|-
| ݧ || ݧون || njun || [ɲuːn]
|-
| و || واو || wau || [waʊ̯]
|-
| ه || هی || he || [heː]
|-
| ی || یی || je || [jeː]
|}
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> These are treated as the same letter for purposes of alphabetization.
-->
=====Diacritics and non-alphabetical symbols=====
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2"| Symbol !! colspan="3"| Name <!--!! colspan="2" | Sound--> !! rowspan="2" | Remarks
|-
! Arabske !! width="120" | Lateinske !! width="100" | IPA <!--!! IPA !! Lateinske equivalent-->
|-
| ء، أ، ؤ، ئ || همزه || hamze || [ˈhɐmzə] || Used for glottal stop and/or hiatus between vowels. Depending on position and the surrounding vowels, may be written on its own or on a "supporting" alif, waw, or ya'.
|-
| ة || تی بندنه || te bundene || [teː ˈbʊnd.nə] || Used as an ending in mostly feminine nouns, especially those of Arabic origin. Usually replaced with ه or ت.
|-
| ـَ ||  || ufertän (fatḥe) || [ˈuːfr̩ˌtɛːn]  || Literally "overtwig", used for the vowel ''a'' /ɐ, aː/.
|-
| ـِ ||  || undertän (kasre) || [ˈʊndr̩ˌtɛːn] || Literally "undertwig", used for the vowel ''i'' /ɪ, iː/.
|-
| ـُ ||  || uferhranke (ḍamme) || [ˈuːfr̩ˌr̥ɐŋkə] || Literally "overtendril", used for the vowel ''u'' /ʊ, uː/.
|-
| ـٰ ||  || uferhrunge || [ˈuːfr̩ˌr̥ʊŋə] || Literally "overstaff", used for the vowel ''ä'' /æ, ɛː/.
|-
| ـٖ ||  || underhrunge ||  [ˈʊndr̩ˌr̥ʊŋə] || Literally "understaff"', used for the vowel ''e'' /ɛ, eː/.
|-
| ـٛ ||  || uferhlän || [ˈuːfr̩ˌɬɛːn] || Literally "overhill", used for the vowel ''å'' /ɒ, ɔː/.
|-
| ـࣷ ||  || ufergilþe || [ˈuːfr̩ˌd͡ʒɪlθə] || Literally "oversickle", used for the vowel ''o'' /ɔ, oː/.
|-
| ـࣹ ||  || undergilþe || [ˈʊndr̩ˌd͡ʒɪlθə] || Literally "undersickle", used for the vowel ''ö'' /œ, øː/.
|-
| ـࣺ ||  || underhranke || [ˈʊndr̩ˌr̥ɐŋkə]  || Literally "undertendril", used for the vowel ''y'' /ʏ, yː/.
|-
| ـْ ||  || gehaben (sukun) || [gəˈhaːbn̩] || Literally "withholding", used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
|-
| ـّ ||  || starkjen (tasjdid) || [ˈstɐrt͡ʃn̩] || Literally "strengthening", used for a geminate or pseudo-geminite consonant (mainly in loanwords and at morpheme boundaries).
|-
| ـً ||  || twäsinþ ufertän (tanwin fatḥe) ||  || Literally "twice overtwig". Used for ''-an'' in Arabic phrases (which may be pronounced as ''-en'' /ən/ when used in Gothedish).
|-
| ـٍ ||  || twäsinþ undertän (tanwin kasre) ||  || Literally "twice undertwig". Used for ''-in'' in Arabic phrases.
|-
| ـٌ ||  || twäsinþ uferhranke (tanwin ḍamme) ||  || Literally "twice overtendril". Used for ''-un'' in Arabic phrases.
|-
|}


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
In native words, stress is most often on the first syllable unless the word begins in an unstressed prefix. Loanwords may be stressed on any syllable.
In native words, stress is most often on the first syllable unless the word begins in an unstressed prefix. Loanwords may be stressed on any syllable.
 
Stress is not normally indicated in writing.


====Intonation====
====Intonation====
Line 444: Line 819:
The following changes affect voiced stops, fricatives, and affricates when they occur word-finally:
The following changes affect voiced stops, fricatives, and affricates when they occur word-finally:
*'''b''' /b/, '''bj''' /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /p, t͡ʃ/ after nasals; otherwise devoiced and fricatized to /f, ʃ/.
*'''b''' /b/, '''bj''' /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /p, t͡ʃ/ after nasals; otherwise devoiced and fricatized to /f, ʃ/.
*'''d''' /d/, '''g''' /ɡ/, '''gj''' /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /t, k, t͡ʃ/ after consonants; devoiced and fricatized to /θ, x, ʃ/ after vowels.
*'''d''' /d/, '''g''' /ɡ/ (non-palatal environment), '''gj''' /d͡ʒ/: devoiced to /t, k, t͡ʃ/ after consonants; devoiced and fricatized to /θ, x, ʃ/ after vowels.
*'''dj''' /z/: devoiced and defricatized to /t͡s/ after nasals; otherwise devoiced to /s/.
*'''dj''' /d͡z/ (after nasal): devoiced to /t͡s/.
*'''g''' /j/: devoiced and fricatized to /ʃ/.
*'''dj''' /z/ (not after nasal): devoiced to /s/.
*'''z''' /z/: devoiced to /s/.
*'''g''' /j/ (palatal environment): devoiced and fricatized to /ʃ/.
*'''z''' /z/, '''zj''' /ʒ/, '''v''' /v/: devoiced to /s, ʃ, f/.
Loanwords may not undergo fricatization - e.g. ''kitab'' /kɪˈtaːp/ "book". Some speakers may avoid this irregularity by completely replacing the final consonant with its unvoiced counterpart - e.g. ''ketap'' /kəˈtaːp/ (nativized form of ''kitab'').
Loanwords may not undergo fricatization - e.g. ''kitab'' /kɪˈtaːp/ "book". Some speakers may avoid this irregularity by completely replacing the final consonant with its unvoiced counterpart - e.g. ''ketap'' /kəˈtaːp/ (nativized form of ''kitab'').


Line 461: Line 837:
*i, ei, oi, ie, ye unaffected
*i, ei, oi, ie, ye unaffected


There is another form of palatalization that affects the consonants ''c'', ''k'', and ''g'' as well as the clusters ''sk'' and ''zg''. These are palatalized before front vowels (''ä, e, i, ö, y, ei, ey, eu, ie, ye'') to /t͡s, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ- ~ -j-, ʃ, ʒ/ respectively. Additionally, ''g'' is palatalized to /-j- ~ -ʃ/ after orthographic ''i'' (which therefore excludes ''ie'' and includes ''ei, oi,'' ''ai'', and unstressed ''i'' /ə/). Unstressed ''e'' /ə/ does not cause palatalization.
There is another form of palatalization that affects the consonants ''c'', ''k'', and ''g'' as well as the clusters ''sk'' and ''zg''. These are palatalized before front vowels (''ä, e, i, ö, y, ei, ey, eu, ie, ye'') to /t͡s, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ- ~ -j-, ʃ, ʒ/ respectively. Additionally, ''g'' is palatalized to /-j- ~ -ʃ/ after orthographic ''i'' (which therefore excludes the digraph ''ie'' and includes the digraphs ''ei, oi, ai,'' and ''ui'' as well as unstressed ''i'' /ə/). Unstressed ''e'' /ə/ does not cause palatalization.


The palatalization of ''(s)k'' and ''(z)g'' can be blocked by adding ''h'' after the consonant/cluster (i.e. ''(s)kh, (z)gh''). This only occurs in loanwords. Some common words and morphemes do not indicate the lack of palatalization - e.g. ''kitab'' /kɪˈtaːp/ "book", ''-logie'' /lɔˈgiː/ "-logy". Many of these have nativized forms that may be preferred by some speakers - e.g. ''ketap'' /kəˈtaːp/, ''-logjie'' /lɔˈd͡ʒiː/.
The palatalization of ''(s)k'' and ''(z)g'' can be blocked by adding ''h'' after the consonant/cluster (i.e. ''(s)kh, (z)gh''). This only occurs in loanwords. Some common words and morphemes do not indicate the lack of palatalization - e.g. ''kitab'' /kɪˈtaːp/ "book", ''-logie'' /lɔˈgiː/ "-logy". Many of these have nativized forms that may be preferred by some speakers - e.g. ''ketap'' /kəˈtaːp/, ''-logjie'' /lɔˈd͡ʒiː/.


====Addition of -t-====
====Addition of -t-====
These changes occur in the past stem of class 1 weak verbs (where ''-d-'' becomes ''-t-'' after obstruents) and the second person singular past indicative of strong verbs (which has the ending ''-t''). Before applying these changes to class 1 weak verbs, remove the ''-j-'' in the present stem.
These changes occur in the past stem of class 1 weak verbs (where ''-d-'' becomes ''-t-'' after obstruents) and the second person singular past indicative of strong verbs (which has the ending ''-t''). Before applying these changes to class 1 weak verbs, remove the ''-j-'' of the present stem.
*p, b + t → ft
*p, b + t → ft
*nt, nd + t → nt
*nt, nd + t → nt
*t, d, z + t → st
*t, d, z, ts + t → st
*k, nk, g, ng + t → ht. This leads to the following changes to the preceding vowels (''N'' represents a dropped nasal):
*k, nk, g, ng + t → ht. This leads to the following changes to the preceding vowels (''N'' represents a dropped nasal):
**u + ht → åht
**u + ht → åht
Line 476: Line 852:
**ei, iN + ht → iht
**ei, iN + ht → iht
**unstressed e /ə/ + ht → aht
**unstressed e /ə/ + ht → aht
====Vowel shortening====
====Vowel shortening====
When the addition of a consonantal suffix causes an originally open syllable preceded by a long vowel to become closed, vowel length is usually preserved. This is indicated with an acute accent or, in the case of ''ä, å,'' and ''ö'', by replacing them with ''ea, oa,'' and ''eo'' respectively. However, the vowel is shortened (unless it has a circumflex or is followed by ''h'') in the following circumstances:
When the addition of a consonantal suffix causes an originally open syllable preceded by a long vowel to become closed, vowel length is usually preserved. This is indicated with an acute accent or, in the case of ''ä, å,'' and ''ö'', by replacing them with ''ea, oa,'' and ''eo'' respectively. However, the vowel is shortened (unless it has a circumflex or is followed by ''h'') in the following circumstances:
Line 483: Line 860:
====Compound words====
====Compound words====
Compound words are head-final (like in German). Note that this differs from noun phrases, which are generally head-initial. The modifying noun(s) undergo the following changes (in this order) before adding onto the head noun:
Compound words are head-final (like in German). Note that this differs from noun phrases, which are generally head-initial. The modifying noun(s) undergo the following changes (in this order) before adding onto the head noun:
#If the noun ends in an iotated consonant, the iotation is removed. Otherwise, leave it as it is.
#If the noun ends in an iotated consonant, the iotation is removed.
#If the noun now ends in a ''-b'' or ''-d'' that would be fricativized, replace it with its fricative counterpart (''f'' and ''þ'' respectively). Other voiced consonants are devoiced as usual, but this is not indicated in writing.
#If the noun now ends in a ''-b'' or ''-d'' that would be fricativized, replace it with its fricative counterpart (''f'' and ''þ'' respectively). However, this replacement does not occur if the consonant is followed by an identical consonant or its voiceless counterpart. Other voiced consonants are devoiced as usual, but this is not indicated in writing.
#If the noun ends in a schwa, it is dropped.
#If the noun ends in a schwa, it is dropped.
In some compounds, the modifying noun occurs in the genitive, in which case the above changes do not apply.
In some compounds, the modifying noun occurs in the genitive, in which case the above changes do not apply.


In compound words, the vowel length in each component is independent from the other component words. For example, under normal rules, the ''-u-'' in ''Guþþyde'' "Gothede" (< ''Gud'' "God" + ''þyde'' "slave") would be expected to be pronounced short due to being followed by two orthographic consonants. However, since it is followed by a single consonant in ''Guþ-'', it is in fact pronounced long. <!--This applies even if the vowel is short in the original word due to a following ''-j-''.-->
In compound words, the vowel length in each component is independent from the other component words. For example, under normal rules, the ''-u-'' in ''Guþþyde'' "Gothede" (< ''Gud'' "God" + ''þyde'' "slave") would be expected to be pronounced short due to being followed by two orthographic consonants. However, since it is followed by a single consonant in ''Guþ-'', it is in fact pronounced long. <!--This applies even if the vowel is short in the original word due to a following ''-j-''.-->
===Historical phonology===
====Gothic to Old Gothedish====
*Nasalization of geminate voiced plosives.
*C + j > geminate palatalized consonant
*Unstressed vowel shortening/reduction.
====Old Gothedish to Middle Gothedish====
*Further vowel reduction.
====Middle Gothedish to Modern Gothedish====
*Diphthongization of long high vowels.
*Palatalization of velars before (and sometimes after) front vowels.
*Vowel lengthening in stressed, unchecked syllables and shortening in checked syllables.
*Vowel simplifications.
*Partial loss of unstressed vowels.
*Hardening of voiced fricatives.
*Labiovelars > Labials (except /w/).
*Analogical changes.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Cases===
===Cases===
Gothedish has four cases: nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The genitive can be further declined as an adjective to agree with the noun it modifies/replaces, in which case final post-vocalic ''-s'' becomes ''-z-'' and genitives ending in a vowel add ''-z-''.
Gothedish has four cases: nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive. The genitive can be further declined as an adjective to agree with the noun it modifies/replaces, in which case final post-vocalic ''-s'' becomes ''-z-'' and genitives ending in ''-e'' add ''-z-''. In formal language outside of poetry, personal pronouns generally use the declined genitive in all cases, while nouns use the invariant genitive unless there is no other indicator of case.


e.g. ''mag'' "boy": ''mages'' "boyʼs", ''mage'' "boysʼ" (undeclined genitive) + ''-es'' → ''magezes'' "boyʼs / boysʼ (''nom. m. sg.'')"
e.g. ''mag'' "boy": ''mages'' "boyʼs", ''mage'' "boysʼ" (undeclined genitive) + ''-es'' → ''magezes'' "boyʼs / boysʼ (''nom. m. sg.'')"
:''Isses ist <b>magezes</b>.'' "This is '''a boy's'''." ≈ ''Isses ist <b>þas mages</b>.'' "This is '''that of a boy'''."


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
Nouns may be either strong or weak.
Nouns may be either strong or weak.
====Strong nouns====
====Strong nouns====
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float : left;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; float : left;"
|+ Strong Noun Declension
|+ Strong noun declension
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Case !! rowspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
! rowspan="2" | Case !! rowspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2" | Plural
Line 544: Line 942:
!Genitive
!Genitive
| brådes || bråde
| brådes || bråde
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Strong noun declension
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular
| -(e) || -(e) || -e || -es
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masc./fem.
| -es || -es ||  rowspan="2" | -em || rowspan="2" | -e
|-
! Neuter
| -e || -e
|}
{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of masculine strong noun: ''hläb'' "bread"
|-
! !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! Singular
| hläb || hläb || hläbe || hläbes
|-
! Plural
| hläbes || hläbes || hläbem || hläbe
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of neuter weak noun: ''bråd'' "crumb"
|-
! !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! Singular
| bråd || bråd || bråde || brådes
|-
! Plural
| bråde || bråde || brådem || bråde
|}
|}
|}


====Weak nouns====
====Weak nouns====
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Weak noun declension
|+ Weak noun declension
Line 566: Line 1,006:
| colspan="2" | -es || colspan="2" | -en
| colspan="2" | -es || colspan="2" | -en
|}
|}
 
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Weak noun declension
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" | Singular !! Masc./fem.
| -e || -en || rowspan="2" | -en || rowspan="2" | -es
|-
! Neuter
| -e || -e
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masc./fem.
| -es || -es || rowspan="2" | -em || rowspan="2" | -en
|-
! Neuter
| -en || -en
|}
{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of feminine weak noun: ''kvine'' "woman"
|-
! !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! Singular
| kvine || kvinen || kvinen || kvines
|-
! Plural
| kvines || kvines || kvinem || kvinen
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of neuter weak noun: ''härte'' "heart"
|-
! !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! Singular
| härte || härte || härten || härtes
|-
! Plural
| härten || härten || härtem || härten
|}
|}
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Example of feminine weak noun: ''kvine'' "woman"
|+ Example of feminine weak noun: ''kvine'' "woman"
Line 599: Line 1,083:
| härtes || härten
| härtes || härten
|}
|}
-->


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Line 605: Line 1,090:
Adjectives have a special unmarked gender that can be used when the gender is unknown/unspecified/unimportant. It is more commonly used in informal language, and is proscribed when referring to an entity with known gender.
Adjectives have a special unmarked gender that can be used when the gender is unknown/unspecified/unimportant. It is more commonly used in informal language, and is proscribed when referring to an entity with known gender.
====Strong adjectives====
====Strong adjectives====
The gender-marked form is identical to the neuter in the plural. When referring to human beings, the masculine plural is used informally instead of the unmarked plural.
The gender-unmarked form is identical to the neuter in the plural. However, the masculine plural is used instead when referring to human beings, except in very formal language.
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Strong adjective declension
|+ Strong adjective declension
Line 644: Line 1,130:
!  Genitive  
!  Genitive  
| colspan="7" | skånjes  
| colspan="7" | skånjes  
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Strong adjective declension
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| -es || -en || rowspan="3" | -em || rowspan="4" | -es
|-
! Neuter
| -et || -et
|-
! Unmarked
| - || -
|-
! Feminine
| -e || -e || -es
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| -e || -es || rowspan="3" | -em || rowspan="3" | -es
|-
! Neut./unm.
| -e || -e
|-
! Feminine
| -es || -es
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of strong adjective: ''skånj'' "beautiful"
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| skånjes || skånjen || rowspan="3" | skånjem || rowspan="4" | skånjes
|-
! Neuter
| skånjet || skånjet
|-
! Unmarked
| skånj || skånj
|-
! Feminine
| skånje || skånje || skånjes
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| skånje || skånjes || rowspan="3" | skånjem || rowspan="3" | skånjes
|-
! Neut./unm.
| skånje || skånje
|-
! Feminine
| skånjes || skånjes
|}
|}


====Weak adjectives====
====Weak adjectives====
Declined identically to weak nouns. The gender-unmarked form is identical to the neuter in both the singular and plural. In informal language, the masculine/feminine form is used in place of the unmarked (in both singular and plural) when referring to a human being.
Declined identically to weak nouns. The gender-unmarked form is identical to the neuter in both the singular and plural. Except in very formal language, the masculine/feminine form is used in place of the unmarked (in both singular and plural) when referring to a human being.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
<!--{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of weak adjective: ''skånj'' "beautiful"
|+ Example of weak adjective: ''skånj'' "beautiful"
|-
|-
Line 666: Line 1,205:
!  Genitive  
!  Genitive  
| colspan="2" | skånjes || colspan="2" | skånjen
| colspan="2" | skånjes || colspan="2" | skånjen
|}-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of weak adjective: ''skånj'' "beautiful"
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="2" | Singular !! Masc./fem.
| skånje || skånjen || rowspan="2" | skånjen || rowspan="2" | skånjes
|-
! Neuter/unm.
| skånje || skånje
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masc./fem.
| skånjes || skånjes || rowspan="2" | skånjem || rowspan="2" | skånjen
|-
! Neuter/unm.
| skånjen || skånjen
|}
|}


Line 699: Line 1,255:
| jous || izzues || izzues || izzuer
| jous || izzues || izzues || izzuer
|-
|-
<!--
! rowspan="8" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
! rowspan="8" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| is || in || rowspan="3" | imm || rowspan="3" | is
| is || in || rowspan="3" | imm || rowspan="3" | is
Line 720: Line 1,277:
| ies || ies
| ies || ies
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Reflexive
-->
! rowspan="8" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| sa || hin || rowspan="3" | himm || rowspan="4" | his
|-
! Neuter
| hit || hit
|-
! Unmarked
| þa || þa
|-
! Feminine
| si || si || his
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| þä || þans || rowspan="3" | þäm || rowspan="3" | þis
|-
! Neut./unm.
| þo || þo
|-
! Feminine
| þos || þos
|-
! colspan="2" | Middle
| sei || sik || sis || sein
| sei || sik || sis || sein
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> In formal language, dual pronouns are used to refer to two people. They are rare in informal language and are considered archaic in most dialects (similar to English "thou").
<sup><small>2</small></sup> Gothedish has a T-V distinction in second person pronouns.
====Reflexive pronouns====
Gothedish has the reflexive pronoun ''silbe'' "self", which can optionally be combined with the stems of personal pronouns to form personal relexive pronouns (as shown in the below table).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish reflexive pronouns
|-
! colspan="3" | Person and number !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="3" | 1<sup>st</sup> !! colspan="2" | Singular
| misilbe || misilben || misilben || misilbes
|-
! colspan="2" | Dual
| unksilbes || unksilbes || unksilbem || unksilben
|-
! colspan="2" | Plural
| unsilbes || unsilbes || unsilbem || unsilben
|-
! rowspan="5" | 2<sup>nd</sup> !! rowspan="2" | Singular || Informal
| þusilbe || þusilben || þusilben || þusilbes
|-
! Formal
| eysilbe || eysilben || eysilben || eysilbes
|-
! colspan="2" | Dual
| inkvsilbes || inkvsilbes || inkvsilbem || inkvsilben
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural || Informal
| eysilbes || eysilbes || eysilbem || eysilben
|-
! Formal
| izzusilbes || izzusilbes || izzusilbem || izzusilben
|-
! rowspan="8" | 3<sup>rd</sup> !! rowspan="2" | Singular !! Masc./fem.
| sisilbe || sisilben || rowspan="2" | sisilben || rowspan="2" | sisilbes
|-
! Neuter/unm.
| sisilbe || sisilbe
|-
! rowspan="2" | Plural !! Masc./fem.
| sisilbes || sisilbes || rowspan="2" | sisilbem || rowspan="2" | sisilben
|-
! Neuter/unm.
| sisilben || sisilben
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Demonstratives====
====Demonstratives====
Demonstratives can be used independently as pronouns, or postnominally as determiners. There are three demonstratives in Gothedish: near (or proximal), middle (or medial), and far (or distal).
The near demonstrative is used for objects near to the speaker. It is declined as a regular strong adjective with the stem ''iss-''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish near demonstrative
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| isses || issen || rowspan="3" | issem || rowspan="4" | isses
|-
! Neuter
| isset || isset
|-
! Unmarked
| iss || iss
|-
! Feminine
| isse || isse || isses
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| isse || isses || rowspan="3" | issem || rowspan="3" | isses
|-
! Neut./unm.
| isse || isse
|-
! Feminine
| isses || isses
|}
The middle demonstrative is used for objects near to the listener. It is also used as a generic demonstrative without reference to distance. It is declined irregularly. Note that the plural forms are identical to the corresponding 3<sup>rd</sup> person personal pronouns.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish middle demonstrative
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| þas || þan || rowspan="3" | þamm || rowspan="4" | þis
|-
! Neuter
| þat || þat
|-
! Unmarked
| þa || þa
|-
! Feminine
| þo || þo || þis
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| þä || þans || rowspan="3" | þäm || rowspan="3" | þis
|-
! Neut./unm.
| þo || þo
|-
! Feminine
| þos || þos
|}
The far demonstrative is used for objects that are far from both the speaker and listener. It declines as a regular strong adjective with the stem ''jän-''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish far demonstrative
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| jänes || jänen || rowspan="3" | jänem || rowspan="4" | jänes
|-
! Neuter
| jänet || jänet
|-
! Unmarked
| jän || jän
|-
! Feminine
| jäne || jäne || jänes
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| jäne || jänes || rowspan="3" | jänem || rowspan="3" | jänes
|-
! Neut./unm.
| jäne || jäne
|-
! Feminine
| jänes || jänes
|}
====Articles====
The definite article occurs before a noun to show that the noun is definite. <!--It is used less often then in English.-->It always unstressed, and is declined as below:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish definite article
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| þes || þen || rowspan="3" | þem || rowspan="4" | þes
|-
! Neuter
| þet || þet
|-
! Unmarked
| þe || þe
|-
! Feminine
| þe || þe || þes
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| þe || þes || rowspan="3" | þem || rowspan="3" | þes
|-
! Neut./unm.
| þe || þe
|-
! Feminine
| þes || þes
|}
There is no indefinite article.
====Interrogative pronouns====
The interrogative pronoun ''hva'' "what, who" is declined as the middle demonstrative.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Declension of interrogative pronoun ''hva'' "what, who"
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| hvas || hvan || rowspan="3" | hvamm || rowspan="4" | hvis
|-
! Neuter
| hvat || hvat
|-
! Unmarked
| hva || hva
|-
! Feminine
| hvo || hvo || hvis
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| hvä || hvans || rowspan="3" | hväm || rowspan="3" | hvis
|-
! Neut./unm.
| hvo || hvo
|-
! Feminine
| hvos || hvos
|}
The interrogative pronouns/determiners ''hvaþer'' "which (of two)" and ''hvarj'' "which (of many)" are declined as regular strong adjectives.
===Numbers===
{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
!0
| null || nulde
|-
!1
| än || frume
|-
!2
| twa || twade/anþer
|-
!3
| þrie || þridje
|-
!4
| fidduer || fidduerde
|-
!5
| fimf || fimfte
|-
!6
| sähs || sähste
|-
!7
| siben || sibende
|-
!8
| aht || ahtede
|-
!9
| nyn || nynde
|-
!10
| tähn || tähnde
|-
!11
| älb || älfte
|-
!12
| twálb || twalfte
|-
!13
| þrietähn || þrietähnde
|-
!14
| fidduertähn || fidduertähnde
|-
!15
| fimftähn || fimftähnde
|-
!16
| sähstähn || sähstähnde
|-
!17
| sibentähn || sibentähnde
|-
!18
| ahtähn || ahtähnde
|-
!19
| nýntähn || nýntähnde
|-
!20
| twätig || twätigde
|}
| <!--column break-->
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
!21
| twätig jah än|| twätigj jah frume
|-
!30
| þreitig || þreitigde
|-
!40
| fidduertig || fidduertigde
|-
!50
| fimftig || fimftigde
|-
!60
| sähstig || sähstigde
|-
!70
| sibentig || sibentigde
|-
!80
| ahtig || ahtigde
|-
!90
| nýntig || nýntigde
|-
!100
| tähntig || tähntigde
|-
!110
| älftig || älftigde
|-
!120
| twalftig || twalftigde
|-
!130
| þrietähntig || þrietähntigde
|-
!200
| twahunde || twahunte
|-
!210
| twahunde tähn || twahunde tähnde
|-
!300
| þriehunde || þriehunte
|-
!1,000
| þousendj || þousente
|-
!2,000
| twos þousendjes || twosþousente
|-
!10<sup>6</sup>
| miljon || miljónde
|-
!2 × 10<sup>6</sup>
| twos miljones || twosmiljónde
|-
!10<sup>9</sup>
| miljard || miljarde
|-
!2 × 10<sup>6</sup>
| twos miljardes || twosmiljarde
|-
!10<sup>12</sup>
| biljon || biljónde
|}
|}
<!--
'''Note:''' ''Twade'' is the general word for "second", while ''anþer'' specifically means "second/other (of two)"<!-- (similar to Ancient Greek ἕτερος ''héteros'')-->
''Null'' "zero" declines as a masculine strong noun. ''Än'' "one" declines as a strong adjective.
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Declension of ''än'' "one"
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="4" | Singular !! Masculine
| änes || änen || rowspan="3" | änem || rowspan="4" | änes
|-
! Neuter
| änet || änet
|-
! Unmarked
| än || än
|-
! Feminine
| äne || äne || änes
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| äne || änes || rowspan="3" | änem || rowspan="3" | änes
|-
! Neut./unm.
| äne || äne
|-
! Feminine
| änes || änes
|}-->
''Twa'' "two" and ''þrie'' "three" decline irregularly as below:
{|style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center"
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Declension of ''twa'' "two"
|-
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masculine
| twä || twans || rowspan="3" | twäm || rowspan="3" | twangj
|-
! Neut./unm.
| twa || twa
|-
! Feminine
| twos || twos
|-
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Declension of ''þrie'' "three"
! colspan="2" | !! Nominative || Accusative || Dative || Genitive
|-
! rowspan="3" | Plural !! Masc./fem.
| þreis || þrins || rowspan="3" | þrim || rowspan="3" | þringj
|-
! Neut./unm.
| þrie || þrie
|}
|}
Numbers from 4-999 that do not end in 1-3 have a dative in ''-em'' and genitive in ''-e'' and do not otherwise decline. ''Þousendj'' "thousand" and higher numbers decline as feminine strong nouns.
Ordinal numbers are declined as weak adjectives (except for ''anþer'' "second", which is always strong).
===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Gothedish verbs fall in three main categories: strong verbs, weak verbs, and preterite-present verbs. Each of these verb types are sub-divided in classes. All verbs form their infinitive in ''-(e)n'' and present participle in ''-(e)nd''.
Gothedish verbs fall in three main categories: strong verbs, weak verbs, and preterite-present verbs. The conjugation of regular verbs follows the table below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Gothedish verb conjugation <br />(– = present stem; <sup><small>S</small></sup>– = singular past stem; <sup><small>P</small></sup>– = plural past stem; <sup><small>PP</small></sup>– = past participle stem)
|-
! colspan="4" | Infinitive
| colspan="5" | -(e)n<sup><small>1</small></sup>
|-
! colspan="4" | Present participle
| colspan="5" | -(e)nd
|-
! colspan="4" | Past participle (strong)
| colspan="5" | <sup><small>PP</small></sup>-(e)n
|-
! colspan="4" | Past participle (weak)
| colspan="5" | -d
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past (strong) !! colspan="2" | Past (weak) !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| -e || -e || <sup><small>S</small></sup>– || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-je || -de || -dje || -e
|-
! 2S
| -(e)s || -es || <sup><small>S</small></sup>-t || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-jes || -des || -djes || –
|-
! 3S
| -(e)þ || -e || <sup><small>S</small></sup>– || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-je || -de || -dje || -eþ
|-
! 1P
| -(e)m || -em || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-(e)m || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-jem || -dem || -djem || -em
|-
! 2P
| -(e)ts || -ets || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-(e)ts || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-jets || -dets || -djets || -ets
|-
! 3P
| -(e)n || -en || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-(e)n || <sup><small>P</small></sup>-jen || -den || -djen || -en
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> ''-(e)-'' indicates a schwa that is dropped in vowel-final verbs.
 
<sup><small>2</small></sup> Preterite-present verbs conjugate as a strong past in the present, and as a weak past in the past. The plural present has the same stem as the infinitive.
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs form their past tense by vowel change (ablaut). There are seven classes of strong verbs, depending on how the stem changes in the past tense and past participle. The past participle is formed with the ending ''-(e)n''.
Strong verbs form their past tense and past participle by vowel change (ablaut). There are seven classes of strong verbs, depending on how the stem changes.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Stem vowels of strong verbs by class
|-
! rowspan="2" | Class !! rowspan="2" | Subclass !! rowspan="2" | Present || colspan="2"| Past || rowspan="2" | Past participle
|-
! Singular !! Plural/subj.
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1 !! regular
| -ei-/-i-/-i[ä]-<sup><small>1</small></sup> || -ä- || -i[ä]- || -i[ä]-
|-
! u-stem
| -ey- || -eu- || -y- || -y-
|-
! 2 !! regular
| -y-<!--/-ou-/-u[å]--> || -å- || -u[å]- || -u[å]-
|-
! 3 !! regular
| -i[ä]- || -a- || -u[å]- || -u[å]-
|-
! 4 !! regular
| -i[ä]- || -a- || -e- || -u[å]-
|-
! rowspan="2" | 5 !! regular
| -i[ä]- || -a- || -e- || -i[ä]-
|-
! u-stem
| -y- || -å- || -eu- || -y-
|-
! 6 !! regular
| -a- || colspan="2" | -o- || -a-
|-
! 7 !! regular
| (varies) || colspan="2" | -ä(Ce)-<sup><small>2</small></sup> || (same as present)
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> In strong verbs, expected ''-i-'' and ''-u-'' are replaced with ''-ä-'' and ''-å-'' respectively whenever they occur before ''h'', ''r'', or ''hv''. This is represented as ''-i[ä]-'' and ''-u[å]-'' respectively.
 
<sup><small>2</small></sup> Class 7 strong verbs have reduplication in the past tense. The exact formation of the past tense depends on the verb, but it generally involves a reduplication of the initial consonant followed by schwa - e.g. ''släsep'' "slept" (past of ''slepen'' "to sleep"), ''säse'' "sowed" (past of ''sän'' "to sow").
<!-- =====Class I strong verbs=====
<!-- =====Class I strong verbs=====
=====Class II strong verbs=====
=====Class II strong verbs=====
Line 738: Line 1,799:
=====Class VII strong verbs=====
=====Class VII strong verbs=====
=====Irregular strong verbs===== -->
=====Irregular strong verbs===== -->
There are a few irregular strong verbs:
*Class 2: ''glouken, glåk, glukje, gluken'' "to lock" - irregular present stem vowel
*Class 4: ''truden, trad, tredje, truden'' "to tread" - irregular present stem vowel
*Class 5: ''bidjen, bad, bedje, biden'' "to request, pray" - irregular iotation in present stem
*Class 5: ''iten, et, etje, iten'' "to eat" - irregular past singular stem
*Class 5: ''frähnen, frah, frehje, frähen'' "to question" - irregular ''-n-'' in present stem
*Class 6: ''fraþjen, froþ, froþje, fraþen'' "to understand" - irregular iotation in present stem
**Similar verbs: ''hahjen'' "to raise"; ''hlahjen'' "to laugh"; ''graþjen'' "to count"; ''skapjen'' "to create"; ''skaþjen'' "to injure"; ''wahsjen'' "to grow"
*Class 6: ''standen, stoþ, stoþje, staþen'' "to stand" - irregular ''-n-'' and voicing in present stem
*Unclassified: ''wisen'' "to be"; ''gangen'' "to go" - these are technically strong verbs, but they are treated separately due to their high degree of irregularity (see [[Gothedish#Suppletive_verbs|suppletive verbs]] below).
All verbs derived from a prefixed irregular verb are irregular themselves.
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of regular strong verb: '''drinken''' "to drink" (class 3)
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | drinken
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | drinkend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | drunken
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| drinke || drinke || drank || drunkje || drinke
|-
! 2S
| drinkes || drinkes || draht || drunkjes || drink
|-
! 3S
| drinkeþ || drinke || drank || drunkje || drinkeþ
|-
! 1P
| drinkem || drinkem || drunkem || drunkjem || drinkem
|-
! 2P
| drinkets || drinkets || drunkets || drunkjets || drinkets
|-
! 3P
| drinken || drinken || drunken || drunkjen || drinken
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of irregular strong verb: '''standen''' "to stand" (class 6)
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | standen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | standend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | staþen
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| stande || stande || stoþ || stoþje || stande
|-
! 2S
| standes || standes || stost || stoþjes || stand
|-
! 3S
| standeþ || stande || stoþ || stoþje || standeþ
|-
! 1P
| standem || standem || stoþem || stoþjem || standem
|-
! 2P
| standets || standets || stoþets || stoþjets || standets
|-
! 3P
| standen || standen || stoþen || stoþen || standen
|}
|}


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs form their past tense and past participle with a dental suffix. There are two classes of weak verbs.
Weak verbs form their past tense and past participle with a dental suffix. There are two classes of weak verbs.
<!-- =====Class I weak verbs=====
 
=====Class II weak verbs=====
Class 1 weak verbs have an iotated present stem. In the past tense, ''-d-'' is devoiced to ''-t-'' after obstruents, which are fricatized (see [[Gothedish#Addition_of_-t-|morphophonology]] for more information).
=====Irregular weak verbs===== -->
 
In class 2 weak verbs, the past ''-d-'' does not affect the preceding consonant and is only devoiced if preceded by a devoiced consonant. Vowel length is preserved.
 
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of class 1 weak verb: '''þankjen''' "to think"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | þankjen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | þankjend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | þaht
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| þankje || þankje || þahte || þahtje || þankje
|-
! 2S
| þankjes || þankjes || þahtes || þahtjes || þankj
|-
! 3S
| þankjeþ || þankje || þahte || þahtje || þankjeþ
|-
! 1P
| þankjem || þankjem || þahtem || þahtjem || þankjem
|-
! 2P
| þankjets || þankjets || þahtets || þahtjets || þankjets
|-
! 3P
| þankjen || þankjen || þahten || þahtjen || þankjen
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of class 2 weak verb: '''skamen''' "to shame"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | skamen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | skamend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | skámd
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| skame || skame || skámde || skámdje || skame
|-
! 2S
| skames || skames || skámdes || skámdjes || skam
|-
! 3S
| skameþ || skame || skámde || skámdje || skameþ
|-
! 1P
| skamem || skamem || skámdem || skámdjem || skamem
|-
! 2P
| skamets || skamets || skámdets || skámdjets || skamets
|-
! 3P
| skamen || skamen || skámden || skámdjen || skamen
|}
|}
There is one irregular weak verb (along with its derivatives): ''bringen'' "to bring" (past stem: ''braht-'').
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Conjugation of '''bringen''' "to bring"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | bringen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | bringend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | braht
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| bringe || bringe || brahte || brahtje || bringe
|-
! 2S
| bringes || bringes || brahtes || brahtjes || bring
|-
! 3S
| bringeþ || bringe || brahte || brahtje || bringeþ
|-
! 1P
| bringem || bringem || brahtem || brahtjem || bringem
|-
! 2P
| bringets || bringets || brahtets || brahtjets || bringets
|-
! 3P
| bringen || bringen || brahten || brahtjen || bringen
|}


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
====Non-finite forms====
Preterite-present verbs are special in that their present tense conjugates as a strong past. In the past tense, they take a dental suffix and conjugate as weak verbs.
Participles function as adjectives. When nominalized, they can act as agent/patient nouns.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Example of preterite-present verb: '''witen''' "to know"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | witen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | witend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | wist
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| wät || witje || wiste || wistje || wite
|-
! 2S
| wäst || witjes || wistes || wistjes || wit
|-
! 3S
| wät || witje || wiste || wistje || witeþ
|-
! 1P
| witem || witjem || wistem || wistjem || witem
|-
! 2P
| witets || witjets || wistets || wistjets || witets
|-
! 3P
| witen || witjen || wisten || wistjen || witen
|}
Preterite-present verbs are a closed class of mostly modal verbs. They are listed with their principal parts in the table below:
<!--
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Preterite-present verbs
|-
! Infinitive !! 1S present <br />indicative !! Past participle !! Meaning !! Notes
|-
| witen || wät || wist || to know (that) || rowspan="3" | All three verbs can be translated as "to know", but they have different usages.
|-
| lisen || läs || list || to know; to recognize; to be familiar (with)
|-
| kunnen || kann || kund || to know (how to)
|-
| þårben || þarb || þårft || to need (to); to have to; must; should || rowspan="3" | All 3 verbs can mean "to have to", but they have different usages. ''Þårben'' is used for requirements due to need, while ''skulen'' is used for requirements due to external factors (rules, laws, norms, commands, etc). ''Ägen'' is similar in meaning to ''skulen'' but more emphatic.
|-
| skulen || skal || skuld || to have to; to be required (to); must; should
|-
| ägen || äg || äht || to have to; to be obligated (to); must; to owe
|-
| magen || mag || maht || will; to be going to || Forms future tense.
|-
| dårsen || dars || dårst || to try (to) ||
|-
| gedårsen || gedars || gedårst || to dare (to) ||
|-
| dugen || dag || dåht || to succeed (in) ||
|-
| munen || man || mund || to think (that); to believe (that) ||
|-
| gemunen || geman || gemund || to remember ||
|-
| fremunen || freman || fremund || to forget ||
|-
| unnen || ann || und || to allow (to); to permit (to) ||
|-
| frunnen || frann || frund || to forbid (from) ||
|-
| benåhen || benah || benåht || to be allowed (to) ||
|-
| genåhen || genah || genåht || to be enough; to suffice ||
|-
| ogen || og || oht || to fear; to be afraid (of)
|-
| gemoten || gemot || gemost || to be able (to) ||
|}
-->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of preterite-present verbs
|-
! Infinitive !! 1S present <br />indicative !! Past <br />participle !! Meaning !! style="width:400px" | Notes
|-
| witen || wät || wist || to know (that) || rowspan="2" | ''Witen'' is used in the sense of knowing a piece of information, while ''lisen'' is used for knowledge of people, places, things, or subject matters.
|-
| lisen || läs || list || to know; to be familiar (with)
|-
| kunnen || kann || kund || to know (how to); to be able (to) || rowspan="2" | ''Kunnen'' means "to be able to" in the sense of having the prerequisite knowledge or capacity, while ''gemoten'' means "to be able to" in the sense of having favourable circumstances.
|-
| gemoten || gemot || gemost || to be able (to)
|-
| þårben || þarb || þårft || to need (to); to have to || rowspan="3" |''Þårben'' is used for requirements due to need, while ''skulen'' is used for requirements due to external factors (rules, laws, commands, expectations, etc). ''Ägen'' is similar in meaning to ''skulen'' but more emphatic.
|-
| skulen || skal || skuld || to have to; to be required (to)
|-
| ägen || äg || äht || to have to; to be obligated (to); to owe
|-
| magen || mag || maht || will || Forms future tense.
|-
| dårsen || dars || dårst || to try (to) ||
|-
| gedårsen || gedars || gedårst || to dare (to) ||
|-
| dugen || dag || dåht || to succeed (in) ||
|-
| munen || man || mund || to think; to believe ||
|-
| gemunen || geman || gemund || to remember (to) ||
|-
| fremunen || freman || fremund || to forget (to) ||
|-
| bemunen || beman || bemund || to remind (to) ||
|-
| unnen || ann || und || to allow (to) ||
|-
| frunnen || frann || frund || to forbid (from) ||
|-
| benåhen || benah || benåht || to be allowed (to) ||
|-
| genåhen || genah || genåht || to suffice; to be enough ||
|-
| ogen || og || oht || to fear ||
|}
 
====Suppletive verbs====
In addition to the irregular strong and weak verbs mentioned above, there are two highly irregular verbs that are generally treated as a class of their own. These are ''wisen'' "to be" and ''gangen'' "to go". Any verbs derived by prefixing these are conjugated similarly.
{|
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Conjugation of '''wisen''' "to be"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | wisen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | wisend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | wisen
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| im || sie || was || wesje || wise
|-
! 2S
| is || sies || wast || wesjes || wis
|-
! 3S
| ist || sie || was || wesje || wiseþ
|-
! 1P
| seim || siem || wesem || wesjem || wisem
|-
! 2P
| seits || siets || wesets || wesjets || wisets
|-
! 3P
| sein || sien || wesen || wesjen || wisen
|}
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Conjugation of '''gangen''' "to go"
|-
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="4" | gangen
|-
! colspan="3" | Present participle
| colspan="4" | gangend
|-
! colspan="3" | Past participle
| colspan="4" | gangen
|-
! rowspan="2" | !! colspan="2"| Present !! colspan="2" | Past !! rowspan="2" | Imperative
|-
! Indicative !! Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! 1S
| gange || gange || ingje || ingje || gange
|-
! 2S
| ganges || ganges || ingjes || ingjes || gang
|-
! 3S
| gangeþ || gange || ingje || ingje || gangeþ
|-
! 1P
| gangem || gangem || ingjem || ingjem || gangem
|-
! 2P
| gangets || gangets || ingjets || ingjets || gangets
|-
! 3P
| gangen || gangen || ingjen || ingjen || gangen
|}
|}
 
====Principal parts====
*'''Strong verbs:''' infinitive, 1S past indicative, 1S past subjunctive, past participle
*'''Weak verbs:''' infinitive, past participle
*'''Preterite-present verbs:''' infinitive, 1S present indicative, past participle
*'''The verb ''gangen'' "to go" and derived verbs:''' infinitive, 1S past indicative, past participle
*'''The verb ''wisen'' "to be" and derived verbs:''' infinitive, 1S present indicative, 1S present subjunctive, 1S past indicative, 1S past subjunctive, past participle
 
====Non-finite forms and derived nouns/adjectives====
*'''Infinitive'''
*'''Present participle:''' Acts as an adjective, equivalent to English ''-ing''. When nominalized, can function as an agent noun - e.g. ''gangende'' "one who goes/is going; goer".
*'''Past participle:''' Acts as an adjective. Passive for transitive verbs, and active for intransitive verbs. When nominalized, can function as a patient noun for transitive verbs - e.g. ''itene'' "that which is eaten; food". Nominalized intransitive past participles form perfect agent nouns - e.g. ''gangene'' "one who has gone".
*'''Agent noun:''' Formed by replacing ''-n'' of infinitive with ''-rj''. Similar in meaning to nominalized present participle, but refers to a more permanent state - e.g. ''bakerj'' "baker (i.e. someone whose profession is baking)" vs ''bakende'' "one who bakes/is baking (i.e. someone who sometimes bakes or who is currently baking, but who may not be a baker by profession)".


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
Gothedish has a relatively free constituent word order, although there are preferred word orders depending on the clause type.
====Main clauses====
Word order is generally V2, although it may be V1 when the verb's subject is a dropped pronoun. The preverbal position can be occupied by any constituent. If the subject is present and not in the preverbal position, it occurs immediately after the verb. Non-finite verbs can either occur before or after the direct object. They tend to occur clause-finally (like German) in simpler sentences and immediately after the verb (like Swedish) in more complex sentences. Adverbs most often occur before the direct object.
:e.g. ''Hund warþ in Kanada gebåren.'' (''dog was in Canada born'') "A dog was born in Canada."
::''Gebåren warþ hund in Kanada.'' (''born was dog in Canada'') "A dog was '''born''' in Canada."
::''Ebenþ warþ hund in Kanada gebåren.'' (''yesterday was dog in Canada born'') "A dog was born yesterday in Canada."
::''Hund warþ gebåren in house míkjelem broþeres meines juhses.'' (''dog was born in house large brother.<small>GEN</small> mine.<small>GEN</small> younger.<small>GEN</small>'') "A dog was born in the big house of my younger brother."
====Relative clauses====
Relative clauses are generally verb-final. However, if the clause has complex arguments, the verb is usually moved to the beginning of the clause (preceded by the subject if applicable).
====Adverbial clauses====
Adverbial clauses ('if', 'until', etc) follow the same word order rules as main clauses.
===Negation===
The general negation particle is ''ne'' "not". It precedes the word it negates.
Some words combine with a preceding negative particle.
*''ne'' + ''wisen, im, sie, was, wesje, wisen'' "to be" → ''nisen, nim, nesie, nas, nesje, nisen'' "to not be"
*''ne'' + ''wäht'' "(some)thing" → ''näht'' "nothing"
*''ne'' + ''än'' "one" → ''nän'' "none"
*''ne'' + ''wiljen, wild'' "to want" → ''niljen, nild'' "to not want"
*''ne'' + ''witen, wät, wist'' "to know" → ''niten, nät, nist'' "to not know"
*''ne'' + ''wärþen, warþ, wårþje, wårþen'' "to become" → ''närþen, narþ, nårþje, nårþen'' "to not become"
*etc
A sentence/clause can be negated by negating the verb, or by placing ''niss'' (< earlier ''nistj'' < ''nist ei'' "[it] is not that") at the beginning of the clause.
===Questions===
===Noun phrase===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
====Tenses, aspects, moods====
*'''Simple present:''' present indicative - e.g. ''Ik <b>sähve</b> þuk.'' "I '''see''' you."
**'''Subjunctive:''' present subjunctive - e.g. ''Jabe ik <b>sähve</b> þuk, <b>afgange</b>.'' "If I '''see''' you, I '''will leave'''."
*'''Simple past:''' past indicative - e.g. ''Ik <b>sahv</b> þuk.'' "I '''saw''' you."
**'''Subjunctive:''' past subjunctive - e.g. ''Jabe ik <b>sehje</b> þuk, <b>afingje</b>.'' "If I '''saw''' you, I '''would leave'''."
*'''Jussive/hortative:''' present subjunctive - e.g. ''<b>Afgange</b>.'' "I '''should leave'''."
*'''Imperative:''' imperative - e.g. ''<b>Afgang</b>!'' "'''Leave'''!"
**'''Negative:''' ''ne'' + present subjunctive - e.g. ''<b>Ne afganges</b>!'' "'''Don't leave'''!"
*'''Present/past continuous:''' present/past of ''wisen'' "to be" + present participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. ''<b>Im afgangendes</b>.'' "I '''am leaving'''."
*'''Present/past perfect:'''
**'''Intransitive verbs of motion/change of state:''' present/past of ''wisen'' "to be" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. ''<b>Im afgangenes</b>.'' "I '''have left'''."
**'''Other verbs:''' present/past of ''haben'' "to have" + past participle (agrees with direct object) - e.g. ''<b>Habe</b> þuk <b>sähvenes</b>.'' "I '''have seen''' you."
*'''Future:''' present of ''magen'' + infinitive - e.g. ''Ik <b>mag</b> þuk <b>sähven</b>.'' "I '''will see''' you."
**The future is often left unmarked if clear from context - e.g. ''Gistredagi <b>sähve</b> ik þuk.'' "I '''[will] see''' you tomorrow."
*'''Present conditional:''' There are two ways of forming the conditional tenses<!-- with different usages-->. <!--The forms labelled ''I'' are used in conditional sentences, while the forms labelled ''II'' can be used on their own. -->The ''II'' forms can also be used as a polite way to express wishes.
**'''I:''' past subjunctive - e.g. ''Jabe <b>kvemjes</b>, ik <b>sehje</b> þuk.'' "If you '''came''', I '''would see''' you."
**'''II:''' present subjunctive of ''magen'' + infinitive - e.g. ''Ik <b>magje</b> þuk <b>sähven</b>.'' "I '''would see''' you. / I '''would like to see''' you."
*'''Past conditional:'''
**'''I:''' past subjunctive of perfect auxiliary (''wisen/haben'') + past participle (agrees with subject/direct object) - e.g. ''Jabe <b>hadjes kvumen</b>, ik <b>hadje</b> þuk <b>sähvenes</b>.'' "If you '''had come''', I '''would have seen''' you."
**'''II:''' past subjunctive of ''magen'' + infinitive - e.g. ''Ik <b>mahtje</b> þuk <b>sähven</b>.'' "I '''would have seen''' you. / I '''would have liked to see''' you."
====Voice====
*'''Active:''' Basic form - e.g. ''Ik <b>sähve</b> þuk.'' "I '''see''' you."
*'''Middle:''' Use object pronouns for first and second persons, and the middle pronoun for third person - e.g. ''Þou <b>sähves þuk</b>.'' "You '''are visible'''."
*'''Passive:''' There are two kinds of passive.
**'''General passive''': appropriate form of ''wisen'' "to be" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. ''Þou <b>wast</b> sähvenes.'' "You '''were seen'''."
**'''Inchoative passive''' (refers to beginning of state): appropriate form of ''wärþen'' "to become" + past participle (agrees with subject) - e.g. ''Þou <b>warst</b> sähvenes.'' "You '''were sighted'''."
*'''Reflexive:''' Use reflexive pronouns - e.g. ''Ik sähve <b>(mi)silben</b>.'' "I see '''myself'''."
*'''Reciprocal:''' Use the reciprocal pronoun ''hvarjander'' "each other" in the appropriate case - e.g. ''Jous sähvets <b>hvarjander</b>.'' "You see <b>each other</b>."
===Sentence phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
==Vocabulary==
<!-- etc. etc. -->
===Time - ''Mel''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Jermeles''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| spring || waser
|-
| summer || asen
|-
| fall || harbest
|-
| winter || winter
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Hijri months - ''Ménþes higjries''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| Muharram || Muharram
|-
| Safar ||
|-
| Rabi' al-Awwal ||
|-
| Rabi' ath-Thani ||
|-
| Jumada al-Ula ||
|-
| Jumada al-Akhirah ||
|-
| Rajab ||
|-
| Sha'ban ||
|-
| Ramadan ||
|-
| Shawwal ||
|-
| Dhu'l-Qa'dah ||
|-
| Dhu'l-Hijjah ||
|-
|}-->
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Ménþes miladies''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| January || Winterménþ
|-
| February || Hårnménþ
|-
| March || Waserménþ
|-
| April || Paskeménþ
|-
| May || Winjeménþ
|-
| June || Wäzdeménþ
|-
| July || Heuménþ
|-
| August || Asenménþ
|-
| September || Wiþménþ
|-
| October || Wenménþ
|-
| November || Harbestménþ
|-
| December || Frysménþ
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Wikendages''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| Sunday || Kyrkje
|-
| Monday || Anþerdag
|-
| Tuesday || Þriddag
|-
| Wednesday || Miþwike
|-
| Thursday || Fårskje
|-
| Friday || Gjume<!--; (''obsolete'') Párskje-->
|-
| Saturday || Sambete
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Dagesdäles''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| day || dag
|-
| dawn || sunnerrun
|-
| morning || mårgjen
|-
| noon || middag
|-
| afternoon || seiþ
|-
| evening || andenaht
|-
| dusk || sunnesankv
|-
| night || naht
|-
| midnight || miþnaht
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Meléanþes''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| second || þänige; sekunde
|-
| minute || dakhike; minute
|-
| hour || hveile
|-
| day || dag
|-
| week || wike
|-
| month || ménþ
|-
| season || jermel
|-
| year || jer
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Biwårdes mellikes''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| now || nu
|-
| then || þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago || skårt
|-
| earlier || fårþes
|-
| soon, shortly || är
|-
| later || biþe
|-
| always || sinten, eu
|-
| often || ufte
|-
| sometimes || atmelem
|-
| rarely || silden
|-
| never || neu
|-
| ever || eu
|-
| still, yet || nå
|-
| already || ju
|-
| today || hindage
|-
| tonight || hinahte
|-
| yesterday || fårdage
|-
| last night || fårnahte
|-
| tomorrow || gisterdage
|-
| before yesterday || fårfårdage
|-
| two nights ago || fårfårnahte
|-
| after tomorrow || afergisterdage
|-
| this week || wike isse
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
|}
 
===Colours - ''Ränge''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''Ränge''
! English !! Gothedish
|-
| white || hveit
|-
| grey || greu
|-
| black || swart
|-
| red || råþ
|-
| orange || pårtakalen
|-
| brown || broun
|-
| yellow || gul
|-
| green || gronj
|-
| blue || bleu
|-
| pink || rosen
|-
| purple || fjolen
|-
| golden || gulþen
|-
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
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'''Perso-Arabic:''' ال منسکس ورثن گبورن فری یاه ایبن ان ورد یاه رهتم۔ فرس یاه مثوست سند بهبد، یاه سکولن فژندر ان اهمن بروثرسکپس هندلن۔
'''Perso-Arabic:''' ال منسکس ورثن گبورن فری یاه ایبن ان ورد یاه رهتم۔ فرس یاه مثوست سند بهبد، یاه سکولن فژندر ان اهمن بروثرسکپس هندلن۔


'''Old Gothic:''' 𐌰𐌻𐌻𐌰 𐌼𐌰𐌽𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍃 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌽 𐌲𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰 𐍆𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌹𐌱𐌽𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌳𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍄𐌼˙ 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌸𐌲𐌰 𐌲𐌰𐌷 𐌼𐌹𐌸𐍅𐌹𐍃𐍄 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌳 𐌱𐌰𐌷𐌹𐌱𐌳𐌰. 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌽 𐍈𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐌰𐌷𐌼𐌽 𐌱𐍂𐍉𐌸𐍂𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌰𐍃 𐌷𐌰𐌽𐌳𐌻𐌽˙
'''Old Gothic:''' 𐌰𐌻𐌻𐌰 𐌼𐌰𐌽𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍃 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌸𐌰𐌽 𐌲𐌰𐌱𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽𐌰 𐍆𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌹𐌱𐌽𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐍅𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌳𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍂𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍄𐌼˙ 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌸𐌲𐌰 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐌼𐌹𐌸𐍅𐌹𐍃𐍄 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌳 𐌱𐌰𐌷𐌹𐌱𐌳𐌰. 𐌾𐌰𐌷 𐍃𐌺𐌿𐌻𐌽 𐍈𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌰𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌰 𐌹𐌽 𐌰𐌷𐌼𐌽 𐌱𐍂𐍉𐌸𐍂𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌰𐍃 𐌷𐌰𐌽𐌳𐌻𐌽˙


'''New Gothic:''' Aλλă manskăs yaipфv găbānpvă fpeiă gah ībnă iv yaipdă gah paihtm. Fpaфgă gah miфyist sivd băhibdă, gah skn̄lv ɵapgavdră iv ahmv brw̄фpskăpăs handλv.
'''New Gothic:''' Aλλă manskăs yaipфv găbānpvă fpeiă gah ībnă iv yaipdă gah paihtm. Fpaфgă gah miфyist sivd băhibdă, gah skn̄lv ɵapgavdră iv ahmv brw̄фpskăpăs handλv.
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'''Cyrillic 2.0:''' Алле манскес вӓрҫен гебåрене фреје јах ибене ин вӓрде јах рӓхтем. Фраҫье јах миҫвист синд бехибде, јах скулен хварьандере ин ахмен броҫерскепес ханделен.
'''Cyrillic 2.0:''' Алле манскес вӓрҫен гебåрене фреје јах ибене ин вӓрде јах рӓхтем. Фраҫье јах миҫвист синд бехибде, јах скулен хварьандере ин ахмен броҫерскепес ханделен.


'''IPA:''' /ˈɐlə ˈmɐnskəs ˈwærθn̩ gəˈbɔːrnə ˈfrɛɪ̯ə jaː ˈiːbnə ɪn ˈwærdə jaː ˈrɛːtm̩ || ˈfrʌsə jaː ˈmɪθwɪst sɪnt bəˈhɪbdə | jaː ˈskuːln̩ ˈfɐʒɐndrə ɪn ˈaːmn̩ ˈbroːθr̩ˌskəpəs ˈhɐndln̩/
'''IPA:''' /ˈɐlə ˈmɐnskəs ˈwærθn̩ gəˈbɔːrnə ˈfrɛɪ̯ə jaː ˈiːbnə ɪn ˈwærdə jaː ˈrɛːtm̩ || ˈfrɐsə jaː ˈmɪθwɪst sɪnt bəˈhɪbdə | jaː ˈskuːln̩ ˈfɐʒɐndrə ɪn ˈaːmn̩ ˈbroːθr̩ˌskəpəs ˈhɐndln̩/


'''Gloss:'''<!--
'''Gloss:'''<!--
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[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:East Germanic languages]]
[[Category:East Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
Shariifka
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