Hantza/Verbs

Verb template

Hantza verbs obey a position class template; their affixes are added to the stem in a specific order. The table below illustrates this template:

Person prefixes			Other prefixes				Stem	Suffixes
1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
object	direct object	indirect object	deontic	secondary aspect	primary aspect	copula	stem	evidentiality	negative

Despite the large number of slots, it is impossible for all ten of these slots to be occupied by a single conjugated verb and highly unusual for only one to be left vacant.

An extreme example, where seven of the ten slots are occupied, would be the translation of the English "apparently he may not give it to you". This is provided below.

o-po-ku/kw-IRR-FUT-give-REP-mò
o/w-	-po/pw-	-ku/kw-	-Ø-	-IRR-	-FUT-	-Ø-	-give-	-REP-	-mò
1SG	3SG.IN	2SG	Ø	IRR	FUT	Ø	give	REP	NEG

Person marking

Verbs in Hantza have polypersonal agreement; they are conjugated for subject, direct object and indirect object. Since all the information required is provided on the verb Hantza is a pro-drop language. In addition to the nine grammatical persons marked for by possession prefixes, verbs may be conjugation for the reflexive and reciprocal. Neither the reflexive nor the reciprocal may occur in the subject position and the reciprocal cannot occur with a singular subject. In the list provided below the first prefix is used preconsonantly, the second prevocalically. Note that regressive phonological changes triggered by the verb stem that effect an alteration in the mode prefixes may in turn alter the person prefixes.

• First person singular: o-, w-
• First person plural: as-, azz-
• Second person singular: ku-, kw-
• Second person plural: ra-, r-
• Third person animate singular: tzi-, tz-
• Third person animate plural: ang-, ang-
• Third person inanimate: po-, pw-
• Obviative: ma-, m-
• Indefinite: bi-, biy-
• Reflexive: -an-, -an-
• Reciprocal -e-, -y-

Mode

Grammatical tense is not a significant category in Hantza verbs (though there is an overt morphological future/non-future distinction). Verbs are instead aspect and mood heavy. This conflation of tense, aspect and mood is termed "mode" in Hantza; there are thirteen such modes. These are divided into three categories. Categories I and II can co-occur with one another but category III prefixes cannot occur with any other mode prefixes and all person marking is optional. Category I prefixes denote "primary aspect", category II "secondary aspect" and category III "deontic". The first prefix provided below is used preconsonantly, the second prevocalically

Category I - primary aspect:

• Imperfective: unmarked
• Iterative: -nini-, -nin-
• Delimitative: reduplication of following syllable
• Perfective: -la-, -l-
• Retrospective: -of-, -of-
• Future: -ti-', -ty-

Category II - secondary aspect:

• Inchoative: -ki-, -ky-
• Cessative: -ò-, -ok-
• Irrealis: -tu-, -tw-

Category III - deontic:

• Optative: -ngo-, -ng-
• Cohortative: -mi-, -miy-
• Imperative: unmarked
• Jussive: -bè-, -bek-

Copula

In Hantza there is no verb that corresponds directly to the English "to be".

A common way of expressing the verb "to be" in Hantza is by using a particle.

When talking being in the sense of location the irregular verb ABCDEFG is used. This may be translated variously as "to be", "to stay", "to remain", "to become" or "to get".

A noun can also be turned into a verb that means "to be X" by adding a copular prefix to the root noun. The relevant prefixes marking person and mode are then added. This strategy is only used when the subject of the noun is not being modified by anything adjective-like. In such case the normal copular construction is used.

Possession

Nor is there a verb "to have".

Statives

Stative verbs include predicative adjectives.

Transitivity and valency

Hantza is extremely strict in regard to a given verb's transitivity and valency and its required prefixes.

Mediopassive

There is a mediopassive voice which is formed by an infix inserted in the verb stem.

Polarity

Negatives are formed by the suffix -mò.

Evidentiality

Evidentiality is marked on the verb by suffixation.

The division of evidentials is similar to that of the South American languages Aymara and Quechua; there exists a three way distinction. The first version provided is used post-consonantally, the second post-vocalically

• Witness: -am-, -am-
• Inferential: -ang-, -ng-
• Reportative: -ikap-, -kap-