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===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Burungian verbs are conjugated, by means of agglutination, for aspect, tense, mood and valency by suffixes added to the verb stem. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs.
Burungian verbs are conjugated for aspect, tense, mood and valency primarily by suffixes added to the verb stem. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs. The table below shows the maximal structure of the verb.  


Only a handful of verbs (called the '''true verbs''') actually allow conjugation in this way and the majority of these are used to describe basic actions or states, including a wide range of verbs associated with motion along a specific path, a number associated with basic human functions and a handful of others. These true verbs are a closed class and there is no recorded instance of a new true verb coming into existence. The majority of other verbs exist only in non-finite forms and are conjugated by compounding with the true verbs as auxiliary; each auxiliary offering a different meaning. Other parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives and adverbs, can also be compounded with auxiliaries, offering relatively free reign for creating new verbs.  
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Prefix !! 0 !! I !! II !! III || IV || V
|-
| Verbal noun <br /> Causative <br /> Pejorative || Root || Applicative || Aspect || Modal || Conditional || Tense/Mood
|}
 
Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria:
* Tense: present or non-present
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
* Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative.
 
Only a handful of verbs (called the '''true verbs''') actually allow conjugation in this way and the majority of these are used to describe basic actions or states, including a wide range of verbs associated with motion along a specific path, a number associated with basic human functions and a handful of others. These true verbs are a closed class and there is no recorded instance of a new true verb coming into existence. The majority of verbs exist only in non-finite forms and form '''compound verbs''' with the true verbs as auxiliary; each auxiliary offering a different meaning. Other parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives and adverbs, can also be compounded with auxiliaries, offering relatively free reign for creating new verbs.  


====Verb Stems====
====Verb Stems====
The basic part of a verb, which conveys its primary meaning, is the root, e.g. ''-ang-'' "eat", ''-toz-'' "move up to". Burungian verbal roots cannot occur independently; they must be accompanied by at least one prefix or be the second element in a compound. The most common prefix, which effectively makes a verbal noun from the root, occurs as ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'', e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''etoz'' "move up to". This prefix occurs in both true verbs and in non-conjugable verbal nouns, e.g. ''yosh'' "sew", ''enoros'' "bury, plant".
The basic part of a verb, which conveys its primary meaning, is the root, e.g. ''-ang-'' "eat", ''-toz-'' "move up to". Burungian verbal roots cannot occur independently; they must be accompanied by at least one prefix or be the second element in a compound. The most common prefix, which effectively makes a verbal noun from the root, occurs as ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'', e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''etoz'' "move up to". This prefix occurs in both true verbs and in non-conjugable verbal nouns, e.g. ''yosh'' "sew", ''enoros'' "bury, plant".


The verbal stem of true verbs may be extended to alter its meaning:
The root of a true verb may be reduplicated to show '''intensive''' or '''frequentative''' meaning, e.g. ''ewaiwash'' "collapse, drop" < ''ewash'' "go down", ''inuanua'' "babble, chatter" < ''inua'' "speak".
* the infix ''-ra-'', placed between the prefix and the stem, creates a '''causative''' verb, e.g. ''erakash'' "teach" < ''ekash'' "learn", ''erayeki'' "build, erect" < ''eyeki'' "stand".
 
* the infix ''-na-'' creates a '''pejorative''' verb, specifically denoting  perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances and does not suggest that the action of the verb was performed badly. E.g. ''enaro'' "molest" < ''ero'' "touch", ''enaus'' "flee, escape" < ''yus'' "move away".
The verbal noun prefix (''e-, i-, y-'') may be replaced by ''ena-'' to form a pejorative verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. enaro "molest" < ero "touch", enaus "flee, escape" < yus "move away".
* the root may be reduplicated to show intensive or frequentative meaning, e.g. ''ewaiwash'' "collapse, drop" < ''ewash'' "go down", ''inuanua'' "babble, chatter" < ''inua'' "speak".
 
====Verbal Aspect====
There are only two aspects within Burungian verbs, the imperfect and the perfect. The '''imperfective''' indicates that the action of the verb is ongoing, either in a continuous sense or in a more general, gnomic sense and it is shown by the simple form of the verb stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eating, eats".
 
The '''perfective''' indicates that the action of a verb has been completed and is shown with the addition of the suffix ''-i'' to the imperfect verb, e.g. ''yangi'' "eaten", ''erayekii'' "built".
 
====Valency====
Suffixes added to the imperfect or perfect stem indicate a mixture of tense, mood and valency. Separate endings exist for transitive and intransitive verbs. Depending on the semantics of the verbal stem, verbs may take one or other set of endings, or both according to meaning.
 
The '''causative''' is created with the prefix ''era-'', replacing verbal noun ''e-, i-, y-'', e.g. ''erakash'' "teach" < ''ekash'' "learn", ''erayeki'' "build, erect" < ''eyeki'' "stand". The causative verb must take the transitive endings in conjugation.
 
An '''applicative''' affix ''-ki-'' may be added to the verb stem to promote the indirect object (dative) of the verb to the direct object (accusative). The resulting direct object indicates the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the verb, depending on context and the meaning of the verb. The affix may be added to an intransitive verb, creating a transitive, or to a transitive verb creating a either ditransitive, in which both objects take the accusative, or another transitive verb in which the original direct object is incorporated or unexpressed. E.g. ''erakaiki'' "teach (someone)", ''iniirakaiki'' "teach (someone) hunting", ''aratobanki'' "feed (someone)".
 
====Tense and Mood====
Tense and mood are interlinked through a series of suffixes, given below, which are added to either the imperfective or perfective stem:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective
|-
| Present || ''da ''|| ''zu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''egoizu'' "cooks, is cooking, will cook".  <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''egoshizu'' "has cooked".
|-
| Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''egoifong'' "was cooking" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''egoshifong'' "had cooked".
|-
| Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''egoilu'' "may be cooking". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''egoshilu'' "may have cooked".
|-
| Hortative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' or an entreaty, e.g. ''egoipyo'' "let's cook"
|-
| Imperative || -- || -- || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to give a direct command, e.g. ''egosh!'' "cook!"
|}
 
====Modals====
Modality is expressed by a series of infixes placed after the stem. Modal verbs are always conjugated with the ''-zu'' (transitive) series of endings, even when they are semantically intransitive, e.g. ''ni ba ekaineizu'' "I want to learn", ''fu ba logimbeezu'' "you need to sleep".  
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
|-
| ''-nau-'' || can, may || expresses ability, including cabability, knowledge how and ability according to circumstances
|-
| ''-bee-''|| must, need || expresses necessity
|-
| ''-nei-'' || want || expresses desire to do something
|}
 
====Conditional ''-ba-''====
The conditional infix ''-ba-'' is effectively the equivalent of the English 'if', inserted between the stem and the tense/mood suffix. It may be added to the imperfective or perfective stem and used with the present, past and hypothetical suffixes. E.g. ''esuambada'' "if (he) is lying down", ''egosibafong'' "if (he) had thrown", ''ilubali'' "if (he) were dying".
 
====True Verbs====
 
====Compound Verbs
 
====Negation====
 
====Final Particles====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
| ''au''|| interrogative || asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. ''yi ka ewang au-da?'' "are you going?"
|-
| ''ba'' || assertive || emphasises the point and expresses strongly
|-
| ''te'' || uncertainty || expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ''ngane ka loging te-da'' "perhaps he is sleeping"
|-
| ''meng'' || hearsay || indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ''ngange ka loging meng-da'' "I heard he is sleeping"
|}


====The Perfect Stem====
The verbal stem may be formed into a perfective by the addition of the suffix ''-i'', e.g. ''yangi'' "eaten", '''erayekii''' "built". This functions as part of the conjugation system described below, but also occurs independently as a perfect participle, e.g. ''yangi ugi'' "eaten bread".




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** An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix ''-(e)s'' may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (''weng'' "foot" + ''ibii'' "move"), ''aneetoopa'' "cut with knife" (''aneeto'' "knife" + ''eba'' "cut, incise").  
** An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix ''-(e)s'' may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (''weng'' "foot" + ''ibii'' "move"), ''aneetoopa'' "cut with knife" (''aneeto'' "knife" + ''eba'' "cut, incise").  
** An adverb consisting of an adjective + ''-ki'' may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. ''laitekibii'' "move quickly" (''laitez'' "quick"), ''byukinua'' "to babble, speak in tongues" (''byuz'' "twisted").
** An adverb consisting of an adjective + ''-ki'' may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. ''laitekibii'' "move quickly" (''laitez'' "quick"), ''byukinua'' "to babble, speak in tongues" (''byuz'' "twisted").
====Conjugation====
Verbs are conjugated largely by means of particles that follow the main verb. Verbs may express the following:
* Tense: present or non-present
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, imperative
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective
* Valency: transitive, intransitive or causative.
The verb stem, whether primary or secondary, is considered imperfective in sense. A perfective sense is indicated by adding the suffix ''-i'' to the stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eats, eating" > ''yangi'' "ate", ''inuapush'' "asks, asking" > ''inuapushi'' "asked".
There are two main sets of particles to indicate tense, mood and valency: ''da'' particles are used with intransitive verbs and ''zu'' particles with transitive and causative verbs. Each set has a different particle for present and past indicative, hypothetical and imperative. These are placed directly after the main verb, e.g. ''yang zu'' "is eating", ''erayekii fong'' "was building".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective
|-
| Present || ''da ''|| ''zu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''egosh zu'' "cooks, is cooking, will cook".  <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''egoshi zu'' "has cooked".
|-
| Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''egosh fong'' "was cooking" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''egoshi fong'' "had cooked".
|-
| Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''egosh lu'' "may be cooking". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''egoshi lu'' "may have cooked".
|-
| Imperative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to denote a command (2nd person) or an entreaty (1st and 3rd person), e.g. ''egosh byo'' "cook!"
|}
Other particles may precede the main particle, giving further shades of meaning. These are usually joined with a hyphen, e.g. ''ngane ka etoz au-da?'' "will he come?"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
|-
| ''es'' || negative || negates any verb, e.g. ''nepa ka ilui es-heng'' "she did not die"
|-
| ''au''|| interrogative || asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. ''yi ka ewang au-da?'' "are you going?"
|-
| ''te'' || uncertainty || expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ''ngane ka loging te-da'' "perhaps he is sleeping"
|-
| ''meng'' || hearsay || indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ''ngange ka loging meng-da'' "I heard he is sleeping"
|-
| ''ba'' || "if" || indicates the conditional, e.g. ''yi ewang ba-da'' "if you are going".
|}
====Modals====
Modality is expressed by means of other secondary particles, placed before the main tense particle, which is always in the ''zu'' series, even if the verb is intransitive.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
|-
| ''anau'' || can, may || expresses ability, including cabability, knowledge how and ability according to circumstances, e.g. ''ni ba irixinua anau-zu'' "I can sing".
|-
| ''beez''|| must, need || expresses necessity, e.g. ''ni ba lowash beez-zu'' "I need to go to sleep".
|-
| ''nei'' || want || expresses desire to do something, e.g. ''ni ba eshe a ewang nei-fong'' "I wanted to go home".
|}


===Postpositions===
===Postpositions===
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