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| ===Verbs=== | | ===Verbs=== |
| Burungian verbs are conjugated for aspect, tense, mood and valency primarily by suffixes added to the verb stem. Person, gender and number are not marked on verbs. The table below shows the maximal structure of the verb.
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| {| class="wikitable"
| | Burunking verbs are usually composed of two elements: the '''main verb''' which contains the semantic information and an '''auxiliary verb''' that contains most of the conjugation information. Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria: |
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| ! Prefix !! 0 !! I !! II !! III || IV || V
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| | Verbal noun <br /> Causative <br /> Pejorative || Root || Applicative || Aspect || Modal || Conditional || Tense/Mood
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| |}
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| Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria: | |
| * Tense: present or non-present | | * Tense: present or non-present |
| * Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative | | * Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative |
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| * Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative. | | * Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative. |
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| Only a handful of verbs (called the '''true verbs''') actually allow conjugation in this way and the majority of these are used to describe basic actions or states, including a wide range of verbs associated with motion along a specific path, a number associated with basic human functions and a handful of others. These true verbs are a closed class and there is no recorded instance of a new true verb coming into existence. The majority of verbs exist only in non-finite forms and form '''compound verbs''' with the true verbs as auxiliary; each auxiliary offering a different meaning. Other parts of speech, including nouns, adjectives and adverbs, can also be compounded with auxiliaries, offering relatively free reign for creating new verbs.
| | ====Main Verbs==== |
| | | Main verbs contain the primary semantic information of the Burunking verb form. At the heart of the main verb is a verbal root, one of a small closed class of elements denoting either basic physical processes (e.g. ''ANG'' "eat"), states (e.g. ''YEKI'' "stand") or types of movement (e.g. ''BII'' "move"). Verbal roots cannot occur independently and, at the most basic, must be accompanied by the prefix ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'' to create a simple non-finite verb stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''eyeki'' "stand", ''ibii'' "move". |
| ====Verb Stems==== | |
| The basic part of a verb, which conveys its primary meaning, is the root, e.g. ''-ang-'' "eat", ''-toz-'' "move up to". Burungian verbal roots cannot occur independently; they must be accompanied by at least one prefix or be the second element in a compound. The most common prefix, which effectively makes a verbal noun from the root, occurs as ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'', e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''etoz'' "move up to". This prefix occurs in both true verbs and in non-conjugable verbal nouns, e.g. ''yosh'' "sew", ''enoros'' "bury, plant".
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| The root of a true verb may be reduplicated to show '''intensive''' or '''frequentative''' meaning, e.g. ''ewaiwash'' "collapse, drop" < ''ewash'' "go down", ''inuanua'' "babble, chatter" < ''inua'' "speak".
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| The verbal noun prefix (''e-, i-, y-'') may be replaced by ''ena-'' to form a pejorative verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. enaro "molest" < ero "touch", enaus "flee, escape" < yus "move away".
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| ====Verbal Aspect====
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| There are only two aspects within Burungian verbs, the imperfect and the perfect. The '''imperfective''' indicates that the action of the verb is ongoing, either in a continuous sense or in a more general, gnomic sense and it is shown by the simple form of the verb stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eating, eats".
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| The '''perfective''' indicates that the action of a verb has been completed and is shown with the addition of the suffix ''-i'' to the imperfect verb, e.g. ''yangi'' "eaten", ''erayekii'' "built".
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| ====Valency====
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| Suffixes added to the imperfect or perfect stem indicate a mixture of tense, mood and valency. Separate endings exist for transitive and intransitive verbs. Depending on the semantics of the verbal stem, verbs may take one or other set of endings, or both according to meaning.
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| The '''causative''' is created with the prefix ''era-'', replacing verbal noun ''e-, i-, y-'', e.g. ''erakash'' "teach" < ''ekash'' "learn", ''erayeki'' "build, erect" < ''eyeki'' "stand". The causative verb must take the transitive endings in conjugation.
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| :: <small>''Note:'' When a verb is made causative, the agent of the original verb is marked by the '''dative''' (whether the original is intransitive or transitive). The direct object of an original transitive verb remains in the '''accusative'''. E.g. ''ni ba (Faransekyo ke) ekaita'' "I am learning (French)" → ''Kitzu ba (Faransekyo ke) ni ni erakaita'' Christophe is teaching me (French). </small>
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| An '''applicative''' affix ''-ki-'' may be added to the verb stem to promote the indirect object (dative) of the verb to the direct object (accusative). The resulting direct object indicates the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the verb, depending on context and the meaning of the verb. The affix may be added to an intransitive verb, creating a transitive, or to a transitive verb creating a either ditransitive, in which both objects take the accusative, or another transitive verb in which the original direct object is incorporated or unexpressed. E.g. ''erakaiki'' "teach (someone)", ''iniirakaiki'' "teach (someone) hunting", ''aratobanki'' "feed (someone)".
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| ====Tense and Mood====
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| Tense and mood are interlinked through a series of suffixes, given below, which are added to either the imperfective or perfective stem:
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective
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| | Present || ''da ''|| ''zu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''egoizu'' "cooks, is cooking, will cook". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''egoshizu'' "has cooked".
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| | Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''egoifong'' "was cooking" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''egoshifong'' "had cooked".
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| | Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''egoilu'' "may be cooking". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''egoshilu'' "may have cooked".
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| | Hortative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' or an entreaty, e.g. ''egoipyo'' "let's cook"
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| | Imperative || -- || -- || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to give a direct command, e.g. ''egosh!'' "cook!"
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| |}
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| ====Modals====
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| Modality is expressed by a series of infixes placed after the stem. Modal verbs are always conjugated with the ''-zu'' (transitive) series of endings, even when they are semantically intransitive, e.g. ''ni ba ekaineizu'' "I want to learn", ''fu ba logimbeezu'' "you need to sleep".
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
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| | ''-nau-'' || can, may || expresses ability, including cabability, knowledge how and ability according to circumstances
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| | ''-bee-''|| must, need || expresses necessity
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| | ''-nei-'' || want || expresses desire to do something
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| |}
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| ====Conditional ''-ba-''====
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| The conditional infix ''-ba-'' is effectively the equivalent of the English 'if', inserted between the stem and the tense/mood suffix. It may be added to the imperfective or perfective stem and used with the present, past and hypothetical suffixes. E.g. ''esuambada'' "if (he) is lying down", ''egosibafong'' "if (he) had thrown", ''ilubali'' "if (he) were dying".
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| ====True Verbs====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="2;" | <big>ibii</big> <br /> ''move''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''ibiyi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | travel, flow, run
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>ebang</big> <br /> ''move up''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''ebangi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | move up, ascend, rise; grow; improve
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | ascend sth
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>eroz</big> <br /> ''move down''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''erozi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | move down, descend; fall; worsen
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | descend sth
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="2;" | <big>isuru</big> <br /> ''move past''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''isurui'''
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | pass, traverse, move through, move across, move under, move beside
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="2;" | <big>ero</big> <br /> ''touch''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''eroi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | touch, come into contact, rub
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>etoz</big> <br /> ''move up to''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''etozi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | come, arrive
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | come to, arrive at, reach
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>yus</big> <br /> ''move away from''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''yusi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | leave, go away
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | leave sth, move away from
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>euging</big> <br /> ''come''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''eugingi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | come, approach
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | move towards, approach sth (from swh)
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>ewang</big> <br /> ''go''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''ewangi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | go, move away
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | move away from, go from (towards)
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>exaz</big> <br /> ''move in''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''exazi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | come in, go in, move in, enter
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | move into, penetrate, enter
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>yuki</big> <br /> ''move out''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''yukii'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | move out, leave, exit
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | move out of, leave sth, exit
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>egong</big> <br /> ''remain''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''egongi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | remain, wait, stay, dwell; continue, persist
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" |
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| | width="120px;" rowspan="2;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | noun + '''-gong''' || width="300px;" | be a
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| | adj. + '''-gong''' || be (in a state)
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>yaz</big> <br /> ''sit''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''yazi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | sit, be located, be situated
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | set, put, place
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>esuang</big> <br /> ''lie''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''esuangi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | lie (down), be located horizontally
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | lay
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>eyeki</big> <br /> ''stand''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''eyekii'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | stand, be located vertically
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | stand sth
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| ! width="120px;" rowspan="3;" | <big>yehang</big> <br /> ''be''
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| | colspan="2;" | Perfective '''yehangi'''
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| | width="120px;" | Intransitive || width="300px;" | be, exist
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| | width="120px;" | Transitive || width="300px;" | be sth
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| | width="120px;" | Auxiliary || width="120px;" | || width="300px;" |
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| |}
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| ====Compound Verbs====
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| By far the majority of Burungian verbs are formed by compounding one of the true verbs with another part of speech, a verb, noun, adjective or adverb. The true verb is always the last element in the compound and loses the verbal noun prefix ''e-, i-, y-'' or reduces the prefixes ''era-'' and ''ena-'' to ''ra-, na-''. The initial element usually precedes the verb directly, undergoing any of the usual sound changes in compounds, e.g. ''ootoz'' "go cold" < ''os + etoz''.
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| * '''Verb + Verb''', in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second
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| ====Negation====
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| ====Final Particles====
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| {| class="wikitable"
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| ! Particle !! Meaning !! Uses
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| | ''au''|| interrogative || asks simple yes/no questions, e.g. ''yi ka ewang au-da?'' "are you going?"
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| | ''ba'' || assertive || emphasises the point and expresses strongly
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| | ''te'' || uncertainty || expresses uncertainty about the action of the verb, e.g. ''ngane ka loging te-da'' "perhaps he is sleeping"
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| | ''meng'' || hearsay || indicates that the speaker does not know in person, e.g. ''ngange ka loging meng-da'' "I heard he is sleeping"
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| |}
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| {| width="90%;" class="wikitable"
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| ! width="10%;" | Verb !! width="20%;" | Primary !! width="30%;" | Secondary !! width="40%;" | Key Derivatives
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| ! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Motion
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| ! ''ibii''
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| | (vi.) move (without reference to path) || travel; flow || ''erabii'' (vt.) drive, goad, propel, impel
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''egang''
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| | (vi.) go up || rise, improve; grow || ''eragang'' (vt.) improve; raise, lift
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| | (vt.) go up || ascend, climb ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''ewash''
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| | (vi.) go down || descend, fall; deteriorate || ''enawash'' (vi.) fall <br/> ''erawash'' (vt.) fell, drop
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| | (vt.) go down sth || descend ||
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| ! ''isuru''
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| | (vt.) move past || move beside/under/over/through ||
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| ! ''ero''
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| | (vt.) come into contact with sth || touch, rub || ''eroro'' (vt.) hit, strike <br/> ''enaro'' (vt.) molest, grope
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| ! ''ero''
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| | (vt.) come into contact with sth || touch, rub || ''eroro'' (vt.) hit, strike <br/> ''enaro'' (vt.) molest, grope
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| ! ''etoz''
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| | (vi.) move (up to sth) || come; approach, reach; arrive ||
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| ! ''yus''
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| | (vt.) move away (from sth) || go, leave || ''enaus'' (vt.) abandon, flee from
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| ! ''euging''
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| | (vt.) come (from-to) || ||
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| ! ''ewang''
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| | (vi.) go (to-from) || ||
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| ! ''exaz''
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| | (vt.) move into || enter, penetrate || ''enaxaz'' (vt.) infiltrate, violate
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| ! ''yuki''
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| | (vt.) move out of || exit, leave ||
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| ! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Location & State
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| ! ''egong''
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| | (vi.) remain || wait, stay; dwell; rest || ''eragong'' keep, detain, maintain
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''ebeng''
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| | (vi.) sit || be located, be situated || ''erabeng'' (vt.) put, place, establish, fix
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| | (vt.) set || put, place, set down ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''esuang''
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| | (vi.) lie (down) || be located horizontally; spread out, extend || ''enasuang'' (vt.) block, obstruct
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| | (vt.) lay || ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''eyeki''
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| | (vi.) stand || be located vertically || ''erakash'' (vt.) build, erect
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| | (vt.) stand sth up || ||
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| ! ''yehang''
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| | (vi.) be || exist, live ||
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| ! colspan="4;" | Change of State
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''egosh''
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| | (vi.) heat || cook, boil, warm ||
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| | (vt.) heat || cook, boil, warm || ''enagosh'' burn, overcook
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''eresh''
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| | (vi.) constrict || narrow, shrink, tighten ||
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| | (vt.) constrict sth || press, squeeze || ''ereiresh'' (vt.) crush <br/> ''enaresh'' (vt.) restrain, constrain
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| ! ''exoz''
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| | (vt.) begin sth || beget, produce, create, conceive ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''iji''
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| | (vi.) appear || come into view; seem, look like ||
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| | (vt.) show || explain, illustrate ||
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| ! ''ilu''
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| | (vi.) die || break, stop, cease || ''eralu'' (vt.) kill, break <br/> ''ilulu'' (vi.) die
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''iluaz''
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| | (vi.) spread || scatter, disperse || ''eraluaz'' (vt.) cause to scatter, dispel
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| | (vt.) spread sth || scatter, disperse, distribute ||
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| ! ''yata''
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| | (vi.) happen || || ''eraata'' (vt.) cause sth to happen, instigate <br/> ''enaata'' (vi.) befall
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| |-
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| ! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Action
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| ! ''eba ''
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| | (vt.) incise || cut, scratch, carve; mark || ''ebaba'' (vt.) hack; ''enaba'' (vt.) slash, wound
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| ! ''ebang''
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| | (vt.) give || offer, pay; provide ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''ebei''
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| | (vi.) come together || assemble, congregate, swarm, herd || ''enabei'' swarm, throng
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| | (vt.) bring together || collect, gather, assemble; herd || ''ebeibei'' hoard, amass
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| ! ''egos''
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| | (vt.) throw || shoot, cast; release ||
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| ! ''elaz''
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| | (vt.) divide sth || split; separate ||
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| ! ''ewas''
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| | (vi.) step || pace, tread; measure || ''ewaawas'' (vt.) trample, trod <br/> ''enawas'' (vi.) misstep, stumble
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| ! ''iging''
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| | (vt.) make, do || ||
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| ! ''ilung''
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| | (vt.) hold || have, possess; use ||
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''inua''
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| | (vi.) speak || make a sound, resound || ''eranua'' (vt.) ring, play
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| | (vt.) say sth || speak sth, make a sound ||
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| ! ''izung''
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| | (vi. & vt.) expel || defecate, emit; reject || ''enazung'' (vi. & vt.) vomit, abort
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| ! ''yang''
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| | (vt.) take in || consume, eat, drink; receive, accept ||
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| ! ''yosh''
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| | (vt.) puncture || pierce || ''enaush'' (vt.) stab
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| ! ''egas''
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| | (vt.) get || obtain, receive; understand || ''eragas'' (vt.) explain, inform; give
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| ! colspan="4;" | Verbs of Perception
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| ! rowspan="2;" | ''ekash''
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| | (vi.) obtain knowledge || learn, comprehend || rowspan="2;" | ''ekaikash'' (vi.) study <br/> ''erakash'' (vt.) teach , educate, instruct s.o. <br/> ''erakaiki'' (vt.) teach sth
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| | (vt.) obtain knowledge of sth || learn sth
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| ! ''ipush''
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| | (vt.) perceive || know; sense ||
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| |-
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| ! ''ishi''
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| | (vt.) regard || consider, think; view ||
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| |}
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| ====Compound Verbs====
| | ::<small>'''''Note''''': where verbal roots are shown alone in this article, they will be written in caps to indicate their dependent status, e.g. ''ANG''</small> |
| The range of meaning of each true verb is extended considerably by compounding with other forms, according to a few simple rules. In each case the other element precedes the main verb and the meaningless prefix of the base form is lost (''era-, ena-'' are also reduced to ''-ra-, -na-'').
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| * '''Noun + Verb''' in which the noun denotes the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''burushigos'' "to throw a spear", ''bazenua'' "to laugh" (lit. "to say laughter" < ''baze'' "laughter"). | | The meaning of the verbal root may be modified by one of three processes: |
| ** In many cases the first element is effectively a verbal noun, which is usually followed by ''-ging'' "do", e.g. ''loging'' "to sleep" (''lo'' "sleep, sleeping"), ''ezeging'' "to burn" (''eze'' "burning").
| | * '''Reduplication''' of the root creates an intensive or '''frequentative''' meaning, e.g. ''ibiibii'' "flit about", ''yangang'' "scoff, gobble", ''inuanua'' "chatter, babble" (< ''NUA'' "speak, make noise"). |
| ** Any action denoting the making of sound is created with ''-nua'' "speak", e.g. ''xennua'' "to name, to call" (''xeng'' "name"), ''ozonua'' "to roar, bellow" (''ozo'' "roaring").
| | * '''The infix ''-na-''''' may precede the root to create a '''pejorative''' verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enaro'' "molest, chafe" < ''RO'' "touch", ''enaus'' "flee, escape" < ''US'' "move away". |
| ** ''-lung'' "have" is used to denote possession of characteristics or emotions, e.g. ''neilung'' "to desire" (''nei'' "desire, want"). | | * '''The suffix ''-ki''''' may be added to the end of the root, creating an '''applicative''' whereby the direct object of the verb denotes the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb, e.g. ''egonki'' "wait for" < ''GONG'' "wait, stay". |
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| ** Where the noun is the true direct object, the resulting verb becomes intransitive (note the difference between ''burushi ke egos '''zu''''' "throwing a spear" (trans.) and ''burushigos '''da''''' (intrans.)). However, in many cases the incorporated noun is a generic object extending the sense of the verb. Where a more specific direct object is required, the verb remains transitive. Consider the following sentences
| | The majority of main verbs replace the prefix with a nominal element that alters the meaning of the root. The initial element may be: |
| :::: ''Ama ba arato ke omba ni ebang zu'' <br/> mother-TOP food-ACC child-DAT give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother gives food to a child" (no incorporation)
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| :::: ''Ama ba omba ni aratobang da'' <br/> mother-TOP child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.intrans <br/> "A mother gives food to (feeds) a child"
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| :: In the second example the verb is intransitive and the direct object slot remains empty. It may be filled by a specific type of food, and the verb must become transitive:
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| :::: ''Ama ba heene ke omba ni aratobang zu'' <br/> mother-TOP milk-ACC child-DAT food-give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother feeds milk to a child"
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| :: Where there is no specific direct object, the natural indirect object may be promoted to the grammatical object (taking ''ke'') by the addition of the suffix ''-ki'' to the end of the verb. This has the effect of creating a more intimate relationship between the subject and object:
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| :::: ''Ama ba ombe '''ke''' aratoban'''ki''' zu'' <br/> mother-TOP child-ACC food-give PRT.pres.trans <br/> "A mother feeds a child"
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| * '''Adjective + Verb''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, depending on the verb used: | | * a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''burushigos'' "throw a spear" (< ''burushi'' "spear" + ''GOS'' "throw"), ''xennua'' "call by name" (< ''xeng'' "name" + ''NUA'' "speak"). These verbs may be intransitive, with the incorporated noun acting as the true direct object, or transitive taking a new direct object, e.g. ''az ba burushigos da'' "he throws a spear", ''Furiko ba ni eng yata az ni ke xennua zu'' "my father calls me Furiko". |
| ** ''-toz'' "come" means "become, turn", e.g. ''furitoz'' "turn white" (''furi'' "white"), ''eregitoz'' "lighten" (''eregi'' "light").
| | * a '''verbal noun''' denoting the primary action or state of the verb, e.g. ''loging'' "sleep" (< ''lo'' "sleep, sleeping" + ''GING'' "do"), ''neilung'' "want, desire" (< ''nei'' "wanting, desire" + ''LUNG'' "have"). |
| ** ''-ging'' "make" is a transitive verb meaning "to turn ...", e.g. ''beleeking'' "make dark" (''beles'' "black").
| | * an '''adjective''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, or to denote the subject's opinion depending on the verb used, ''furitoz'' "become white" (< ''furi'' "white" + ''TOZ'' "come"), ''onshi'' "like, approve" (< ''ong'' "good" + ''SHI'' "think, consider"). |
| ** ''-shi'' "consider, view" forms verbs referring to the subject's opinion of something, e.g. ''onshi'' "like, approve of" (''ong'' "good), ''xinshi'' "believe" (''xing'' "true"). | | * an '''adverb''' indicating the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (< ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' "move"), ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" (< ''laitekki'' "quickly" + ''BII''). |
| * '''Verb + Verb''' in which the first verb modifies the sense of the second.
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| * '''Adverb + Verb''' in which the adverbs denotes the method, direction or means of doing the action. | |
| ** An adverb derived from a noun plus the adverbial suffix ''-(e)s'' may precede a verb to show the instrument by which the action is achieved, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (''weng'' "foot" + ''ibii'' "move"), ''aneetoopa'' "cut with knife" (''aneeto'' "knife" + ''eba'' "cut, incise").
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| ** An adverb consisting of an adjective + ''-ki'' may precede a verb to denote manner, e.g. ''laitekibii'' "move quickly" (''laitez'' "quick"), ''byukinua'' "to babble, speak in tongues" (''byuz'' "twisted"). | |
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| ===Postpositions=== | | ===Postpositions=== |