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Khad languages: Difference between revisions
→Central Khad
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|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| ''dnagn'' [nɑŋ˥] || ''dnagtyen'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕeŋ꜋] || ''mkrayin'' [ | | ''dnagn'' [nɑŋ˥] || ''dnagtyen'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕeŋ꜋] || ''mkrayin'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.jiŋ꜌] || ''kranyen'' [t͡ʂaː˨.jiŋ꜌] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Ergative | ! Ergative | ||
| ''dnagyi'' [nɑ˥.d͡ʑi꜊] || ''dnagtyi'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕi꜊] || ''mkrakyi'' [ | | ''dnagyi'' [nɑ˥.d͡ʑi꜊] || ''dnagtyi'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕi꜊] || ''mkrakyi'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.t͡ʂi꜌] || ''kranyi'' [t͡ʂaː˨.ɲi꜌] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| ''dnagla'' [ | | ''dnagla'' [nɑː˥.la˥] || ''dnagtyala'' [nɑː˥.t͡ɕa꜋.la˥] || ''mkrala'' [t͡ʂaː˧˨.la˥] || ''krala'' [t͡ʂaː˨.la˥] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Terminative | ! Terminative | ||
| ''dnagsog'' [ | | ''dnagsog'' [nɑ˥.t͡ʂɔ˥] || ''dnagtyug'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕø˥] || ''mkraug'' [t͡ʂoː˧˨] || ''kraug'' [t͡ʂoː˨] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Comitative | ! Comitative | ||
| ''dnagstang'' [ | | ''dnagstang'' [nɑ˥.taŋ˧] || ''dnagtyang'' [nɑ˥.t͡ɕaŋ˧] || — || — | ||
|} | |} | ||
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Verbs did not inflect for person or number. Morphologically, most verbs had several stem forms for different tenses, distinguishing the “present”, “progressive”, “aorist”, “perfect”, “future” and “imperative”. These so-called tenses typically had a broader use, conveying the sense of necessity, probability, completeness etc. Not every verb could inflect for all six tenses. | Verbs did not inflect for person or number. Morphologically, most verbs had several stem forms for different tenses, distinguishing the “present”, “progressive”, “aorist”, “perfect”, “future” and “imperative”. These so-called tenses typically had a broader use, conveying the sense of necessity, probability, completeness etc. Not every verb could inflect for all six tenses. | ||
The majority of verbs fell into one of two categories, traditionally called "voluntary" and "involuntary", expressing whether the agent was involved directly or indirectly. Most involuntary verbs lacked an imperative stem. Later languages developed this feature into separate [[w:Volition (linguistics)|volition]] or [[w:Telicity|telicity]] verb categories. Kyem-Khad verbs exhibit a conjugation system more similar to the Thad languages, than to both Proto-Lámeyi and other Khad verb conjugation, indicating a possible close contact with the Eastern languages. Different verb forms often showed ablaut of the root vowel – a trend that expanded further among the later Kyem languages. The stems of verbs were also distinguished by the addition of various affixes that share their origin with the same affixes in the Thad languages. Since the descendants of Classical Khad underwent consonant cluster reduction and simplification, this similarity remained only in the written form. All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling). | The majority of verbs fell into one of two categories, traditionally called "voluntary" and "involuntary", expressing whether the agent was involved directly or indirectly. Most involuntary verbs lacked an imperative stem. Later languages developed this feature into separate [[w:Volition (linguistics)|volition]] or [[w:Telicity|telicity]] verb categories. Kyem-Khad verbs exhibit a conjugation system more similar to the Thad languages, than to both Proto-Lámeyi and other Khad verb conjugation, indicating a possible close contact with the Eastern languages. Different verb forms often showed ablaut of the root vowel – a trend that expanded further among the later Kyem languages. The stems of verbs were also distinguished by the addition of various affixes that share their origin with the same affixes in the Thad languages. Since the descendants of Classical Khad underwent consonant cluster reduction and simplification, this similarity remained only in the written form. The table below shows four verbs being conjugated in the Shanyi language: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Meaning !! infinitive !! present !! progressive !! aorist !! perfect !! future !! imperative | |||
|- | |||
| do || ''kduln'' [tʰuːŋ˧˥] || ''bkdulni'' [duː˥.ni꜊] || ''kdulnud'' [tʰyː˧˥.ny꜊] || ''kdusg'' [tʰyː˧˥] || ''kdulyod'' [tʰyː˧˥.jø꜊] || ''gkdul'' [duː˧˥] || ''kdulbs'' [tyː˥] | |||
|- | |||
| take || ''len'' [leŋ˧] || ''blei'' [liː˥] || ''lebni'' [lʌ˧.ni꜊] || ''laisg'' [leː˧˥] || ''leyod'' [le˧.jø꜊] || ''gla'' [laː˥] || ''labs'' [lɑː˥] | |||
|- | |||
| finish || '''srubn'' [ʂuŋ˥] || ''bsrubi'' [d͡ʐu˥.wi꜊] || — || ''srubsg'' [ʂyː˧˥] || ''srubyod'' [ʂyː˥.jø꜊] || ''gsrub'' [d͡ʐu˧˥] || ''srubs'' [d͡ʐu˥] | |||
|- | |||
| make || ''zin'' [d͡ziŋ˧] || ''bzini'' [d͡zi˧.ni꜊] || ''zibna'' [d͡zʌ˧.na꜊] || — ||''ziyod'' [d͡ziː˧.jø꜊] || ''gzi'' [d͡zi˧˥] || ''zibs'' [d͡zʌ˥] | |||
|} | |||
Shanyi reintroduced pronominal clitics with a similar function to the auxilary verb in Proto-Lámeyi: | |||
: kyis qekgdepa fod | |||
:''kyis qek=g-depa fod'' | |||
:(2sg.Obj 1sgSubj.2sgObj=FUT-see soon) | |||
:“I will see you soon” | |||
All Kyem-Khad languages are written with the '''Milpram script''', with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Classical Khad phonology, which helps unify the Central Khad language area, but also makes learning the orthography very difficult. For this reason, a different script, called '''Milngum''' (“one, that is spoken”) is used among speakers of more northern languages, such as '''Shanyi'''. The script was based on the Eastern writing with additional diacritics for tone. Milngum is not a common script and is mostly used by foreigners and merchants. Unlike Milpram it is not standardised, for example certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as ''“Síkpons”'' for the Shipon valley (''Msigpoms'' in the Milpram spelling). | |||
[[Category:Aiwanic languages]] | [[Category:Aiwanic languages]] | ||