@@ Line 166: / Line 166: @@
 Kirtumur verbs often have a grammatical morpheme which in the relative order of verbal prefixes precedes other morphemes is a proclitic, called the modal prefix. They perform different roles, but usually expresses [[w:Modality (natural language)|modality]] or [[w:Contrast (linguistics)|contrast]]. If a verb phrase contains more than one verb, the proclitic will be used with the main verb.
-The first group of proclitics contains the temporal prefix ''u-'', which shows the sequence of actions. For example: ''Eišilel '''u'''nilatturtu wimmuk'' "She/He left '''after''' she/he has put them into a basket" (PAST-3Sg-leave REL-3Sg.Loc-put-INV.3Pl basket-Abs). The prefix ''ut-'' has the meaning of "while" or "during" but unlike the previous prefix, it can also be a separate word, especially in old texts. Most often it is used with non-finite verb forms: '''''ut'''tarca Iktarenen'' "'''during''' the celebration of the Ascending".
+The first group of proclitics contains the dimensional prefix ''u-'', which shows the sequence of actions. For example: ''Eišilel '''u'''nilatturtu wimmuk'' "She/He left '''after''' she/he has put them into a basket" (PAST-3Sg-leave REL-3Sg.Loc-put-INV.3Pl basket-Abs). The prefix ''ut-'' has the meaning of "on" or "during" but unlike the previous prefix, it can also be a separate word, especially in old texts. Most often it is used with non-finite verb forms: '''''ut'''tarca Iktarenen'' "'''during''' the celebration of the Ascending". Another prefix, which belongs to this subgroup, is ''itu-'' ("by", "near", "around"): '''''itu'''iŋale Khekaltum'' "He/she is living '''near''' the city of Kigaldam".
+The second group has no temporal meaning, but rather expresses various kinds of modality. The prefix ''ix(i)-'' express positive or negative wishes, commands, and assertions, for instance: '''''ix'''neithachan'' "You '''must''' give it back to him/her". It can often be used with the imperative. Another proclitic is ''ŋa-'' (and its negative counterpart ''ŋem-'' which either marks contrast, if two actions are different or has the meaning of "also": '''''ŋa'''khartiki'' "I did not take it '''either'''"; '''''ŋem'''kartiki'' "'''But indeed''' I did not take it". In older texts, as well as in the noble speech the prefix ''nu-'' is often used as [[w:Hortative|hortative]], while in spoken Umunesal (the common speech) it is almost completely replaced by the optative, with the exception of some fossilised expressions: '''''nu'''lua'' "let’s go".
+Finally, the third group contains the proclitic ''i-'', which marks a subordinate clause, which can be translated as "what..." or "when...", for example: '''''i-'''ōtumta kina.'' "'''What''' you have said is true", where the proclitic marks the dependent clause "you have said". The same sentence can be without a dependent clause (using a participle instead): ''laxatumēni kina''. Both constructions are equally valid in Kirtumur, however in Umunesal phrases with dependent clauses are preferred. This clitic can also be used instead of the proclitic ''lē-'' "if", the same way as in Kērsalur, from which it was borrowed into Kirtumur instead of native ''lē-''. Another proclitic from this group is ''mu-'' "because": ''eneiyihes '''mu-'''wamitimeikha'' "He did not think about it '''because''' it was not possible".
+===Emphatic prefixes===
+There are two prefixes which have no clear meaning on their own, but can be used with verbs to express something which the speaker wishes to emphasize. These two prefixes are ''ši-'' and ''ša-'', they are always word-initial, unless preceded by a modal prefix. The prefix ''ša-'' is restricted to the past tense and the perfect, while ''ši-'' is used elsewhere, but also in the former condition before a high vowel: ''namzizim '''ši'''hisma'' "It is '''actually''' not guaranteed", ''atra '''ši'''yipheles'' "it will '''definitely''' fall eventually".
-The second group has no temporal meaning, but rather expresses various kinds of modality. The prefix ''ix(i)-'' express positive or negative wishes, commands, and assertions, for instance: '''''ix'''neithachan'' "You '''must''' give it back to him/her". It can often be used with the imperative. Another proclitic is ''ŋa-'' which either marks contrast, if two actions are different or has the meaning of "also": '''''ŋa'''khartiki'' "'''but''' I did not take it". In older texts, as well as in the noble speech the prefix ''nu-'' is often used as [[w:Hortative|hortative]], while in spoken Umunesal (the common speech) it is almost completely replaced by the optative, with the exception of some fossilised expressions: '''''nu'''lua'' "let’s go".
 ===Locative prefixes===
 The locative prefixes indicate a location or motion and precede indirect object prefixes and often occur word-initially, when a verb does not contain any proclitics. There are several locative or dimensional prefixes and they are different for every grammatical person (there is no animacy distinction in third person):
@@ Line 250: / Line 255: @@
 The comitative suffixes are not used very often and only with animate nouns: ''neihaluis'''tar''''' "I will go there with you". Inanimate nous are instead marked as oblique objects: ''muŋis nini ixi'''ca'''lakte heim'' "The child ran out of  the house '''with''' food" (food-Abs child-Abs 3Sg.And-'''3sg.IndObj'''-3sgSubj-run-PRF house-Abs).
 ===Directional prefixes===
-Two prefixes, used most commonly with verbs of motion are the [[w:Andative and venitive|andative]] prefix ''xi-'' and the [[w:Andative and venitive|venitive]] prefix ''ei-/i-''. In the general sense, the prefix "''ei''" shows movement towards the listener or the deictic centre and "''xi''" shows movement from or away from it: ''taukhiŋ '''lei'''hašalis'' "I will travel '''to you''' tomorrow" and '''''laxi'''šilais mu-ŋiarepe'' "I will leave '''(from) you''' now, since I don’t feel good". The andative is used less often, than the venitive and in some cases this prefix can be dropped, when the meaning of a phrase can be inferred from the context: ''lašilais'' ("about to leave you").
+Two prefixes, used most commonly with verbs of motion are the [[w:Andative and venitive|andative]] prefix ''xi-'' and the [[w:Andative and venitive|venitive]] prefix ''ei-/i-''. In the general sense, the prefix "''ei''" shows movement towards the listener or the deictic centre and "''xi''" shows movement from or away from it: ''taukhiŋ '''lei'''hašalis'' "I will travel '''to you''' tomorrow" and '''''laxi'''šileis mu-ŋiarepe'' "I will leave '''(from) you''' now, since I don’t feel good". The andative is used less often, than the venitive and in some cases this prefix can be dropped, when the meaning of a phrase can be inferred from the context: ''lašilais'' ("about to leave you"). The venitive prefix also has the meaning "about": ''e'''nei'''yatumu'' "We were talking '''about''' it". Also, if there is no movement involved, the venitive prefix denotes a certain nearness to the speaker and means "here": '''''nei'''halellešis'' "I will be staying '''here'''".
 ===Voice and valency===
 Verbs refer to actions and states which involve participants. The number and kinds of participants involved differ between different actions and states and thus between different verbs. In this way every verb combines with a specific set of grammatical relations (subject and objects). This set is called its [[w:Valency (linguistics)|valency]]. Kirtumur has several mechanisms which change the normal valency of a verb. The [[w:Voice_(grammar)#Middle|middle]], [[w:Passive voice|passive]] and [[w:Antipassive voice|antipassive]] voices reduce its valency. For increasing the valency of a verb, it has [[w:Causative|causative]] constructions.
+====Middle====
+Middle voice is unmarked and morphologically looks fairly similar to the active voice of intransitive verbs: ''hakaure'' "I am sleeping (active)", ''hakhat'' "I stop (middle)"; the only difference is the absence of ''"-e"'' in middle verbs. The subject of such verbs is like the subject of active verbs, but it is also affected by the action it performs. This also makes this voice similar to [[w:Reflexive verb|reflexive]], which, unlike the former, has a direct object, which is the same as the subject: ''eca'''m'''akhat'' "I stopped '''myself''' from (doing) it". After active Kyrdan verbs underwent several morphological changes, the middle voice became indistinguishable from from the active voice of intransitive verbs in some forms: ''eikhat'' "it stopped (middle)" and ''eitum'' "she/he said (active)" have the same forms (comparing to Kērsalur ''eikhat'' and ''eitume'' with the same meaning). In Umunesal, as well as in almost all spoken varieties, the middle voice is slowly becoming the [[w:Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]].
+====Antipassive====
+An antipassive is an intransitive construction derived from a transitive one by changing the agent of a transitive verb into an intransitive subject, while the former patient becomes the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]]. Unlike middle verbs, an antipassive verb must contain the adjunct and it can never be dropped: ''hakhathō'' "I stop you" (lit: I stop to/by you") from ''khathō'' "I stop you". Antipassive is rarely used on its own, it usually emphasises contrast or focuses on the intransitive subject of a sentence.
-Middle voice is unmarked and morphologically looks fairly similar to the active voice of intransitive verbs: ''hakaure'' "I am sleeping (active)", ''hakhat'' "I stop (middle)"; the only difference is the absence of ''"-e"'' in middle verbs. The subject of such verbs is like the subject of active verbs, but it is also affected by the action it performs. This also makes this voice similar to [[w:Reflexive verb|reflexive]], which, unlike the former, has a direct object, which is the same as the subject: ''eca'''m'''akhat'' "I stopped '''myself''' from (doing) it".
+In Erepursal it is common to use antipassive of transitive verbs if both participants of an action are inanimate, for example: ''hestaun nōex šakykatē'' "the hammer cracked a stone". Umunesal simply uses active voice instead: ''khilkilem nō ekukatē''. Erepursal also uses passive voice in that case, when a speaker wants to emphasise a more salient participant instead: ''hestaunex nō našakykōt'' (lit: "the stone was cracked by a hammer"). Umunesal usually does not use an equivalent construction.
-An antipassive is an intransitive construction derived from a transitive one by changing the agent of a transitive verb into an intransitive subject, while the former patient becomes the [[w:Adjunct (grammar)|adjunct]]. Unlike middle verbs, an antipassive verb must contain the adjunct and it can never be dropped: ''hakhathō'' "I am stopped by you" from ''khathō'' "I stop you". Antipassive is rarely used on its own, it usually emphasises contrast or focuses on the intransitive subject of a sentence.
-In a clause with passive voice, the patient of the main verb becomes the intransitive subject, while the former agent is deleted. Morphologically it is formed from a transitive verb by replacing its person suffix with a prefix ''m-'': ''khathō'' "I stop you" – '''''m'''ōkhathe'' "You are stopped" (here the suffix "''-e''" reappears, because it is no longer blocked by the person suffix). Unlike antipassive, passivisation always involves deleting the transitive subject, never changing it into an adjunct. This construction is called the dynamic passive, the usage of which is restricted, because it is similar to reflexive and in some cases the forms can coincide: ''meyil'' means either "it was thrown away" or "it threw itself away". Kirtumur solves this ambiguity by mainly choosing a reflexive meaning, while for a passive meaning the stative passive is used instead: ''yilauni'' "thrown away"; this is a non-finite verb form and usually such forms cannot be used on their own in a sentence, for example, the sentence ''heimnu '''ritēni''' amax'' "(this) is the place, where his/her house '''is built'''" is correct, because it contains a [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] ''amax'', while ''*heimnu '''ritēni''' yim'' "*here his/her house '''built'''" is not valid, because it requires a finite verb. A stative passive differs from a dynamic passive in that it only indicates the event or state and does not specify its duration. The form ''heim mirite'' "the house is being built" indicates that the action is ongoing, unlike the previous example.
+====Passive====
+In a clause with passive voice, the patient of the main verb becomes the intransitive subject, while the former agent is deleted. Morphologically it is formed from a transitive verb by replacing its person suffix with a prefix ''m-'': ''khathō'' "I stop you" – '''''m'''ōkhathe'' "You are stopped" (here the suffix "''-e''" reappears, because it is no longer blocked by the person suffix). Unlike antipassive, passivisation always involves deleting the transitive subject, never changing it into an adjunct. This construction is called the dynamic passive, the usage of which is restricted, because it is similar to reflexive and in some cases the forms can coincide: ''meyil'' means either "it was thrown away" or "it threw itself away". Kirtumur solves this ambiguity by mainly choosing a reflexive meaning, while for a passive meaning the stative passive is used instead: ''yilauni'' "thrown away"; this is a non-finite verb form and usually such forms cannot be used on their own in a sentence, for example, the sentence ''heimnu '''ritēni''' amax'' "(this) is the place, where his/her house '''is built'''" is correct, because it contains a [[w:Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] ''amax'', while ''*heimnu '''ritēni''' yim'' "*here his/her house '''built'''" is not valid, because it requires a finite verb. A stative passive differs from a dynamic passive in that it only indicates the event or state and does not specify its duration. The form ''heim mirite'' "the house is being built" indicates that the action is ongoing, unlike the previous example. This differs from the West Kyrdan languages that preserved the old suffix ''*-ëqa'': ''egudeˀa'' "it was built" (Cirdamur). The corresponding East Kyrdan suffix ''*-aq'' disappeared completely in Kirtumur and only shows traces in Kērsalur, since in both languages the middle voice gained a broader usage.
+====Reflexive and Reciprocal====
+A reflexive verb has the same semantic agent and patient (typically represented syntactically by the intransitive subject and thus behave the same way as intransitive verbs in Kirtumur), for example: ''mithue'' "he/she is washing him-/herself". A reciprocal verb denotes that the agents perform the mutual actions among themselves, as in English constructions using "each other", for instance: ''ukhiaŋu'' "they love each other". Thus, reflexive is marked by the prefix ''m-'', while reciprocal is marked by the prefix ''u-'' and can only be used with dual or plural forms. If used with the singular, ''u-'' becomes a patient focus instead, but this form is obsolete. Both forms are made from transitive verbs.
+====Causative====
 Kirtumur has two causative constructions, one derived from an intransitive construction and the other – from a transitive construction. In both cases the valency of the verb is increased by
 one participant. The causative of an intransitive verb becomes a regular transitive verb: the intransitive subject becomes the patient, while the causer is expressed
-by the agent. Such verbs, as "to hold" or "to do", are intransitive by default and in order to indicate the subject they require causative: ''ikhe'' "she/he is doing (something)" ''hēlnim ikhaē'' "she/he is casting a spell". The causative of a transitive construction is derived in a slightly different way. The causer is likewise expressed by the agent, but the original agent becomes the indirect object. The original patient remains unchanged: ''nakhei ŋeša uttexe'' "I made him/her do it faster" (3Sg.IndObj-do-1sgAg.3sgPat fast-INF before-DAT).
+by the agent. Such verbs, as "to hold" or "to do", are intransitive by default and in order to indicate the subject they require causative: ''ikhe'' "she/he is doing (something)" ''hēlnim khaē'' "she/he is casting a spell". The causative of a transitive construction is derived in a slightly different way. The causer is likewise expressed by the agent, but the original agent becomes the indirect object. The original patient remains unchanged: ''nakhei ŋeša uttexe'' "I made him/her do it faster" (3Sg.IndObj-do-1sgAg.3sgPat fast-INF before-DAT).
 ==Non-finite verb forms==
+Kirtumur has several [[w:Nonfinite verb|non-finite verb]] forms. As noted above,  they cannot be the root of an independent clause. These forms are further divided into two classes: [[w:Infinitive|infinitives]] and [[w:Participle|participles]], although such a division is not clearly defined.
+===Participles===
+Paticiples combine the characteristics and functions of both finite verbs and adjectives (which are non-finite stative verbs in Kirtumur). They are connected to certain grammatical tenses: there are present and past participles (future participles were present in the earliest varieties of Kirtumur, probably under the Kērsalur influence); and they also inflect for voice: active, middle, passive and antipassive. They are also exlusively deverbal, unlike adjectives.
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+|-
+! rowspan=2| Voice
+! colspan=2| Present
+! colspan=2| Past
+|-
+!{{small| (affirmative)}}
+!{{small| (negative)}}
+!{{small| (affirmative)}}
+!{{small| (negative)}}
+|-
+! Active
+| ''-in''
+| ''-imi''
+| ''-anu''
+| ''-ōmu''
+|-
+! Middle
+| ''-is''
+| ''-isma''
+| ''-ēs''
+| ''-ēsma''
+|-
+! Passive
+| ''-ēni''
+| ''-ēmi''
+| ''-auni''
+| ''-eumi''
+|-
+! Antipassive
+| ''-un''
+| ''-uma''
+| ''-ōn''
+| ''-ōma''
+|}
+The following examples illustrate how different participles are used:
+*''Eneni Wamešti '''ŋisin'''''.<br> "I saw Wameshti '''eating'''" (while she was eating).
+*''Heimax mauzenē '''curitēni'''''.<br> "There is a house, '''built''' on the mountain".
+*''Eneni namtal '''''tachatis'''''.<br> "I saw the door '''opening'''".
+*''Neizalzal Wamešti wa ŋaškin '''nicatekun'''''.<br>"He/She waits for Wameshti to '''pour''' water into a cup".
+In many cases participles can be substituted with infinitives without changing the general meaning.
+===Infinitives===
+Kirtumur infinitives are very similar to pariciples, but differ from them morhologically, having different forms. They also encompass a broader variety of forms, including [[w:Stative verb|stative verbs]]. Infinitive phrases, unlike participle phrases, often have an implied grammatical subject making them effectively clauses rather than phrases. Their subject is in the absolutive or (more rarely) dative case:
+ :{|
+|Urukum
+|mauzkannuex
+|namtartum
+|kupeita
+|...
+|-
+|Urukum
+|mauz-kan-nu-ex
+|namtartum-Ø
+|kup-a-ita
+|...
+|-
+|Urugumis
+|mountain-PL-3SG.POSS=DAT
+|border-ABS
+|stand-INF.IPFV-PL
+|...
+|-
+| colspan="5" | "The Urugumis Mountains mark the border".
+|}
+The Kirtumur infinitive has four tenses (imperfective, aorist, future and perfect). Unlike participles, infinitives have no voice distinction. They can often have adverbial meanings, for example: ''hul-kha'' "to do wrong (in a wrong way)". Infinitives are often used in declarative sentences, mostly in connexion with verbs of saying (''tuma'') or thinking (''hesa''), but also such verbs, as "hope" ''unkara'', "expect" ''pišša'': ''itum kina'' "he/she thinks he/she is correct"; in some idiomatic expression: ''neituma...'' "they say, that" (literally: "of it to say"), ''neišala...'' "I heard, that..." (lit: "of it to hear").
+All types of Kirtumur infinitives are represented in the table below:
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
+|-
+! rowspan=2| Tense
+! colspan=2| Suffix
+! rowspan=2| Example
+! rowspan=2| Translation
+|-
+!{{small| (affirmative)}}
+!{{small| (negative)}}
+|-
+! Imperfective
+| ''-a''
+| ''-akha''
+| ''rira''
+| "to write/to be writing"
+|-
+! Future
+| ''-eis''
+| ''-eiska''
+| ''rireis''
+| "to be about to write"
+|-
+! Aorist
+| ''-ei''
+| ''-eikha''
+| ''rirei''
+| "to write (once)"
+|-
+! Perfect
+| ''-tei''
+| ''-teikha''
+| ''rirtei''
+| "to have written"
+|}
+The difference between the imperfective and the aorist infinitive is aspect or state of action. More specifically, the imperfective infinitive denotes the process or course of the state of an action or being, while the aorist infinitive marks the completion of the state of an action, expressing a well-defined or well-delineated state of an action or being. The future infinitive denotes events or states, that will occur soon, and the perfect infinitive shows an action or event as whole and complete.
+==Copula==
+A copular clause is a grammatical unit which consists of three parts: a subject, a nominal or adjectival predicate, and the [[w:Copula (linguistics)|copula]] clitic. The subject of such a phrase, if present, is in the absolutive case. The predicate can be either a noun phrase, to which the copula directly attaches, or a stative verb, which does not require the clitic in many cases. Here is an example of a copular clause:
+ :{|
+|Yira
+|Mulittari
+|Kappalu
+|muiššarnuax
+|-
+|yi-ra
+|Mulittar-i
+|Kappalu
+|mu-iššar-nu-ax
+|-
+|this-time
+|Mulittar=ABS
+|Kappalu=ABS
+AGN-rule-3SG.POSS-be.3SG.S
+|-
+| colspan="4" | "at this time the ruler of Kappalu is Mulittari"
+|}
+This copular clause consists of an adjunct (''yerōnei''), a subject (''Mulittari''), and a nominal predicate (''Kappalu muiššarnuax''), which includes the copular clitic (''-ax''). Kirtumur only has only one copular clitic. Older varieties of Kirtumur also had a separate word ''ula'' ("to be somewhere") which only expresses the locational or temporal meaning, but is not present in Umunesal, using the clitic for that purpose as well. The copula is never used independently, like in Kērsalur, where even there independent copula is rare. Some old texts and Erepursal copy that usage, even though it had never been present in any spoken variety of Kirtumur: ''ektei '''ma''''' "'''it was me''', who did it" (the spoken version would instead be: ''nu eaktei''). Below are the forms of the clitic copula, based on person and number of a subject. There is no animacy distinction in the third person.
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+!
+! singular
+! dual
+! plural
+|-
+! 1st person
+| ''-ma/-am''
+| ''-mawa''
+| ''-meita''
+|-
+! 2nd person
+| ''-ō''
+| ''-ōwa''
+| ''-ōita''
+|-
+! 3rd person
+| ''-ax''
+| ''-xawa''
+| ''-xeita''
+|-
+|}
 ==Compound verbs==
-There is a limited number of ways to make new verbs in Kirtumur. The most productive way is to combine existing words to make a compound with a different meaning. This process is called [[w:Compound (linguistics)|composition]], for example: ''hatallu'' "to come and go/to go back and forth" (lit. "come-walk"). Some of such compounds cannot be separated by any words or affixes, usually when two words belong to the same class, such as in the previous example, while other compounds act as separate words phonologically. Such compounds are called phrasal verbs: ''namšarkat kapa'' "to rob" (lit."to robbery commit"), ''hulēlim kapa'' "to argue" (lit. "to arguing commit"), ''pēr šama'' "to decorate" (lit. "to hand touch"). Derivational affixes are exceedingly rare, they are no longer productive and became fossilised, apart from the causative and reduplicated forms, for instance: ''taun'' "lightning" – ''taunašna'' "to hit by lightning"; ''tara'' "to split" – ''ektara'' "to ascend".
+There is a limited number of ways to make new verbs in Kirtumur. The most productive way is to combine existing words to make a compound with a different meaning. This process is called [[w:Compound (linguistics)|composition]], for example: ''hatallu'' "to come and go/to go back and forth" (lit. "come-walk"). Some of such compounds cannot be separated by any words or affixes, usually when two words belong to the same class, such as in the previous example, while other compounds act as separate words phonologically. Such compounds are called phrasal verbs: ''namšarkat kapa'' "to rob" (lit."to robbery commit"), ''huleilim kapa'' "to argue" (lit. "to arguing commit"), ''pēr šama'' "to decorate" (lit. "to hand touch").  A special case is the word ''kha'' "to make/ to do", which is used in a large amount of compounds, for example: ''hēlnim-khaē'' "she/he is casting a spell". In fact it is used so often, that it became a clitic in most componds: ''eixula'''kta''' "he/she has made an appearance".
+Derivational affixes are exceedingly rare, they are no longer productive and became fossilised, apart from the causative and reduplicated forms, for instance: ''taun'' "lightning" – ''taunašna'' "to hit by lightning"; ''tara'' "to split" – ''ektara'' "to ascend".
+==Reduplication==
+Some verbs in their imperfective and perfect forms have special stems, which differ in form from the primary stem. Which verb has such a stem is not entirely unpredictable. These verbs typically have a [[w:Continuous and progressive aspects|progressive]] meaning or are used with collective or plural nouns. A few of the verbs with special stems have paradigms with suppletive
+stems instead, for example, the verb "to come" ''hatta'' is ''etat-'' in its aorist forms, but ''hatat-'' in its imperfective. The verb ''lu'' "to go" has a progressive counterpart ''lalak'' ("to go for a walk/to go out"). Most verbs with a special stem, however, have one which is reduplicated. For a monosyllabic verb stems of the C<sub>1</sub>VC<sub>2</sub> type reduplication is straightforward: '''''kaš'''a'' "to sew" – '''''kaškaš'''a'' "to be sewing"; '''''khar'''a'' "to cut" - '''''kharkar'''a'' "to cut into pieces". For larger verb stems or stems with a different shape there are several reduplication patterns:
+*C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub> → C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>V<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>: ''kecapa'' "to cover/to wear" – ''kecacapa'' "to get dressed";
+*C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>V<sub>3</sub>C<sub>4</sub> → C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>1</sub>V<sub>1</sub>C<sub>3</sub>V<sub>3</sub>C<sub>4</sub>: ''teppala'' "to sink/ subside" – ''tettepala'' "to dive".
+These forms are treated as separate words rather then different forms of the same word, because they can often differ in meaning. Old reduplicated verbs, inherited from Proto-Kyrdan, can often show ablaut, especially verbs that contain diphthongs: ''phela'' "to fall" – ''phelpala'' "to be falling down". Ablaut had become non-productive already in Proto-Kyrdan, but its daughter languages preserved some relics of it. Kirtumur preserves ablaut only in derivational morphology as a relic, new verbs cannot be created this way anymore: ''nila'' "to float (by itself)" – ''nala'' "to hover (with an active effort)"; ''hesa'' "to think" – ''hasta'' "to have an idea".
+Plurality is typically marked on verbs with suffixes, but some verbs have reduplicated stems instead. These forms should also be treated as separate verbs: ''itume'' "she/he says (intransitive)" – ''tumtumētu'' "they are discussing it (transitive)".
 [[Category:Kyrdan]]

Kirtumur verbs: Difference between revisions

Kirtumur verbs (view source)

Revision as of 05:47, 6 September 2021