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:'' | : {{distinguish|text= the [[Lahob languages]]}} | ||
[[Lakovic languages/Lexicon|Lexicon of Proto-Lakovic roots]]<br/> | |||
[[Lakovic languages/Swadesh list|Swadesh lists for the Lakovic languages]]<br/> | |||
[[Lakovic languages/Sketchbook]] | |||
{{Infobox language family | |||
| setting = [[Verse:Hmøøh|Hmøøh]] | |||
| region = Bjeheond, Talma, Etalocin, Txapoalli | |||
| name = Lakovic | |||
| familycolor = lakovic | |||
| family = One of Hmøøh's primary language families | |||
| protoname = Proto-Lakovic | |||
| child1 = [[Naengic languages|Naengic]] | |||
| child2 = Häskä | |||
| child3 = Tseer | |||
| child4 = Tumhanic | |||
| child5 = Txapoallian Lakovic | |||
| child6 = Pfiunic | |||
}} | |||
The '''Lakovic languages''' (/ləˈkoʊvɪk/ ''lə-KOH-vik''; [[Naeng]]: ''fi imbrits Lăcof'' <small>Bjeheondian:</small> [vɪ (ʔ)ɪmˈbrits ləˈkaov]) are a major [[Verse:Hmøøh|Hmøøhian]] language family, originally native to [[Verse:Hmøøh/Bjeheond|Bjeheond]]. The most populous members of the family are the Nakwax dialect continuum spoken in Txapoalli, the [[Æ]] language of northwest Taivíor, and the (usually mutually intelligible) vernaculars derived from Classical Tseer. The family is inspired by Semitic, Mon-Khmer and Austronesian languages. | |||
The family is named after *lakof, the PLak reconstructed word for 'human'. *lakof is the etymon of [[Naeng]] ''Wen Lăchua'' '(poetic) [[Verse:Hmøøh/Wen Dămea|Wen Dămea]]', [[Tseer]] ''lakow'' 'free', and several other ethnonyms of Lakovic-speaking peoples such as [[Dak'ox]]. | |||
{{Windermere sidebar}} | |||
==Todo== | |||
Language with dissimilated reduplicated plurals/verbs | |||
some confusion between derivational affixes and trigger/applicatives in Ashanic | |||
an ergative Lakovic language | |||
a Txapoallian Lakovic language with a possessed classifier system | |||
A Dinka-like language | |||
==Urheimat== | |||
The Proto-Lakovic urheimat is thought to have been [[Verse:Hmøøh/Bjeheond|Bjeheond]], based on the distribution of the family and reconstructed Proto-Lakovic vocabulary for Bjeheondian fauna and flora and Mediterranean-climate rainy winters and dry summers. | |||
===Proto-Lakovic culture=== | |||
==Phylogeny== | ==Phylogeny== | ||
== | Most scholars agree on the following major branches: | ||
*[[Naeng languages|Naengic]] (aka Ashanic) | |||
**[[Naeng/Classical|Classical Naeng]] | |||
***[[Naeng|Modern Naeng]] | |||
***[[Sătmașian]] | |||
***[[Trây]] | |||
***[[Pradiul]] | |||
*Tseeric | |||
**Classical Tseer | |||
***Modern [[Tseer]] | |||
*[[Häskä]] | |||
* [[Shalaian]] | |||
*[[Pfiunian]] dialect continuum (Pseudo-Swiss German) | |||
*Txapoallian Lakovic | |||
**[[Tsăloșian]] dialect continuum (near Sowaazhpi) | |||
**Lakwax/Dakwax/Nakwax (Ejective-y head-final language; influenced [[Naquian]]) | |||
* Lakovic isolates: | |||
** [[!Zoom]] | |||
** [[Æ]] | |||
==Phonology== | |||
The reconstructed phonology of PLak | |||
===Consonants=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan= | ! colspan=2 | | ||
| '''m''' /m/ | ! | Labial | ||
| '''n''' /n/ | ! | Dental/Alveolar | ||
! | Lateral | |||
! | Palatal | |||
! | Velar | |||
! | Laryngeal | |||
|-align=center | |||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | |||
| '''*m''' /m/ | |||
| '''*n''' /n{{den}}/ | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| '''*ŋ''' /ŋ/ | |||
| '''ŋ''' /ŋ/ | | | ||
| | |-align=center | ||
|- | ! rowspan="3" | Plosive | ||
! rowspan="3" |Plosive | ! <small>voiceless</small> | ||
! | | '''*p''' /p/ | ||
| '''p''' /p/ | | '''*t''' /t{{den}}/ | ||
| '''t''' /t/ | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | '''*k''' /k/ | ||
| '''k''' /k/ | | '''*ʔ''' /ʔ/ | ||
| '''ʔ''' /ʔ/ | |-align=center | ||
|- | ! <small>voiced</small> | ||
! | | '''*b''' /b/ | ||
| '''b''' /b/ | | '''*d''' /d{{den}}/ | ||
| '''d''' /d/ | | | ||
| | |||
| '''*g''' /ɡ/ | |||
| | |||
|-align=center | |||
! <small>implosive</small> | |||
| '''*ƀ''' /ɓ/ | |||
| '''*đ''' /ɗ/ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Affricate | |||
| | | | ||
| '''*c''' /t͡{{den}}s{{den}}/ | |||
| '''*ć''' /t͡ɬ/ | |||
| ''' | |||
| ''' | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|-align=center | |||
! colspan="2" | Fricative | |||
| '''*f''' /ɸ/ | |||
| '''*s''' /s{{den}}/ | |||
| '''*ś''' /ɬ/ | |||
| '''*š''' /ʃ/ | |||
| '''*x''' /χ/ | |||
| '''*h''' /ɦ/ | |||
|-align=center | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2 | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Resonant | |||
| ''' | | '''*w''' /w/ | ||
| ''' | | '''*r''' /r/ | ||
| '''*l''' /l{{den}}/ | |||
| '''*y''' /j/ | |||
| ''' | |||
| ''' | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
The voiceless stops '''p t k ts tś''' were weakly aspirated like Japanese voiceless stops. | |||
'''m n l r''' could be syllabic in unstressed affixes. | |||
===Vowels=== | |||
''i u e o ă a'' | |||
''ă'' is thought to have been short /a/ or /ɐ/ while ''a'' was long /aː/. ''a'' could not occur unstressed and regularly reduced to ''ă''. | |||
===Phonotactics=== | |||
Proto-Lakovic was dominated by CV or CVC syllables. Some prefixes and infixes resulted in CC- initials. | |||
==Proto-Lakovic morphology== | ==Proto-Lakovic morphology== | ||
===Root structure=== | |||
Roots consisted of a sequence of consonants plus an inherent vowel. There was schwebeablaut: the vowel could change position within the root. The roots could be of the form | |||
#biconsonantal roots alternating between CVC and CCV. Example: sep ~ spe 'to walk' | |||
#triconsonantal roots alternating between CCVC, CVCC, and CVCVC. Example: ptsun ~ putsn ~ putsun 'to live' | |||
#4-consonant roots like cpalg ~ cplag 'to cry out' (Wdm. ''tspong'' 'to demand' and ''tsloc'' 'to cry out') | |||
Statistically, biconsonantal roots in Lakovic are somewhat more common than in Semitic; triconsonantal roots are derived from biconsonantals via root extensions. One example is *Hedn "being" and *Hdek "to inhabit", both derived from the root *Hed "to exist". | |||
Various prefixes, infixes and suffixes were added to derive words. Some infixes had 2 allomorphs, either as an infix or as a prefix: C<əC>CVC or C-CVC/C-CVCC. | |||
Three-consonant roots had 3 ablaut grades, traditionally called: | |||
*'''Verbal grade''': CCVC | |||
*'''Nominal grade''': CVCC | |||
*'''Long nominal grade''': CVCVC | |||
The CVCC grade had some reflexes with either the first C assimilating into V or the second C (explain some words like muad, yar or -b, -d finals) | |||
The long nominal grade first arose in Late Proto-Lakovic: the nominal grade CVCC turned to CVCVC when doing so epenthesized less "nice" consonant clusters. Then CVCVC became analyzed as a new ablaut grade. | |||
====Weak roots==== | |||
''Weak roots'' such as *yriš 'to think' and *săpQ 'to pull' have irregularities in their allomorphs, like weak roots in Semitic. The weak consonants are y, w, H, and Q. | |||
With week roots, either the verbal stem (e.g. ''yriš'' > ''riš'') or the nominal stem (''sap''' > ''sap'' 'to pull, to drag') or both are shortened, and either drops or assimilates the weak consonant. This leads to apparent irregularities like nominal yirš ~ verbal riš. | |||
===Nouns=== | ===Nouns=== | ||
Proto-Lakovic | Nouns were pluralized by total reduplication: | ||
*''lăkof'' 'person' > ''lăkof-lăkof'' 'people' | |||
*''lban'' 'water > ''lban-lban'' 'a lot of water' | |||
Nouns had no morphological case; genitive noun phrases were formed by concatenation. | |||
Naengic developed a new associative plural suffix ''-am'', from PLak ''păm'' 'that; those (distal demonstrative)' (the ''-am'' in Modern Windermere plural pronouns ''łănam'', ''ănam''). | |||
===Pronouns=== | |||
Most branches of Lakovic show evidence for the following PLak pronouns: | |||
*''*riH'' = I | |||
*''*băŋ'' = we (dual inclusive) | |||
*''*śen'' = thou | |||
*''*śens'' = thou (hon) | |||
*''*ʔin'' = s/he | |||
*''*ʔins'' = s/he (hon) | |||
PLak had no plural pronouns; it made do with associative plurals or demonstratives instead. | |||
===Verbs and adjectives=== | |||
Proto-Lakovic was a verb-heavy language: verbs contained enough information that a sentence could consist of just a verb, and context made sense of the meaning. | |||
Verbs inflected for triggers, TAM, pluractionality, evidentiality, and gender agreement. Present-day Lakovic languages preserve these inflections to varying levels. | |||
====TAM==== | |||
The following verb affixes marked lexical aspect and voice/transitivity/denominality. | |||
*unmarked or li- = imperfective | |||
*-H = perfective | |||
*hem- = change of state for statives? | |||
*various reduplifixes for other TAMs: | |||
**F(M)ă- = iterative | |||
**FaL- = intensive | |||
**{{angbr|iL}}, qol-{{angbr|iL}}- almost X, X a little | |||
**săL- = inceptive | |||
**HenFă- = frequentative | |||
**tăFi- = graduative | |||
**ongFă- = X for oneself, X in advance | |||
* {{angbr|ăp}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăŋ}} | |||
* {{angbr|it}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăm/năm}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăg}} | |||
* {{angbr|kăm}} | |||
* {{angbr|lis}} | |||
====Nominalization==== | |||
The most common ways to form deverbal nouns were: | |||
*Using the nominal grade CVCC of the root | |||
*The {{angbr|ăy}} infix | |||
*using instrument, place and agent affixes. | |||
===Derivational morphology=== | |||
====Schwebeablaut==== | |||
Three-consonant roots had 3 ablaut grades, traditionally called: | |||
*'''Verbal grade''': CCVC | |||
*'''Nominal grade''': CVCC | |||
*'''Long nominal grade''': CVCVC | |||
The distinction is best preserved in non-Talman Lakovic languages, and to an extent Naeng; the Talman ones went fast and loose with ablaut grades just like most branches of IE did. | |||
====Root extensions==== | |||
There is much evidence that the truly basic roots were CVC~CCV roots, and CVCC~CCVC roots were derived from CVC~CCV via suffixing a third root consonant. | |||
*ngit = to happen | |||
**ngitw~ngtiw = new | |||
====Affixes==== | |||
*{{angbr|-s}}: honorific, nominalization | |||
**Source of breathy voice ablaut in Wdm. | |||
*{{angbr|r}} prefix or infix: non-volitional or passive verbs | |||
**Ashanic *{{angbr|àr}}, Wdm. {{angbr|ră}}, {{angbr|ngăr/măr}} | |||
*{{angbr|ăy}} = deverbal noun | |||
*{{angbr|ong}} = place noun | |||
*{{angbr|X}} = agentive or instrument | |||
**Wdm root vowel breathiness | |||
*{{angbr|ăf}} = verb forming prefix or infix | |||
**Wdm initial voicing, sometimes also breathy root vowel | |||
*bif- = agentive | |||
**Wdm. ''pă-'' + voicing (not productive) | |||
**Tseer ''ba-'' | |||
*xă- = resultative (passive in Windermere) | |||
*t- = intensive, denominals | |||
**Wdm. ''th-'' or ''t-'' (not productive) | |||
*Qu- = intensive | |||
**Wdm. ''th-u-'' | |||
*yă- = adjectivizer; from ''yă'' 'with' | |||
**Wdm. ''yă-'', Tseer ''xi-'', Häskä ''yə-'' | |||
* ''f-'' = negative; the opposite or undoing of X | |||
**not productive in Wdm | |||
** Tseer ''ø-'' | |||
==Proto-Lakovic syntax== | ==Proto-Lakovic syntax== | ||
Proto-Lakovic had unmarked word order VSO. | |||
===Triggers=== | |||
*''spe-f fit Qopr-is ŋă rif'' (walk-PFV IND height-FEM DIR 1SG) = I walked up high (neutral) | |||
*''s<əŋ>pe-f fit rif ŋă Qopris'' (<DEST>walk-PFV IND 1SG DIR high) = I walked up high (emphasis on "up high") | |||
===Copular sentences=== | |||
Proto-Lakovic was zero-copula (different descendants use different etymologies for the copula). | |||
This caused some triggers to be reinterpreted as noun-deriving affixes in some daughter languages. Demonstration by contrived example, with the instrument trigger: | |||
:'''''p{{angbr|ăk}}tuś fit rif fit Qin ŋă măXokis.''''' | |||
:{{angbr|INST}}stab IND 1SG IND 3SG.M DIR stone-F | |||
:''I stabbed him with the stone.'' | |||
was reinterpreted as something like "The stone was my stabbing-instrument [for piercing] him". | |||
Copular sentences are zero-copula and do not use case markers except ''Hit'': ''biHdaŋ Hit lakoF.'' = 'The person is a soldier/warrior.' | |||
Some "adjectives" are actually prepositional phrases instead of verbs: | |||
''*Xu Qopr fit fedn Xtăr.'' (PRED high.NOM DIR creature black) 'The black one is up high.' | |||
== Sample text == | |||
=== The Round Table === | |||
<!--x = some laryngeal idk what | |||
Pre-Wdm homorganic nasals cause urú in Wdm while heteroganic nasals become homorganic nasals? | |||
Pre-Naengic word for word "reconstruction", not guaranteed to be grammatical in PLak | |||
<poem> | |||
Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
ŋiHt Vntor måŋgår se dak kaHt. "meH ra śenam?" dambic pin bindaq PN. | |||
Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ." | |||
"mi ngXnuung katkHat nåtaX hemrecal sen Hdån: "šruk day ătsHiw: dak månknas, tap day amHuc tramp, liw atsalHiw, tak malHuc, n-dHon talak." (implying mp > bh > φ?) | |||
"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
"Ha-na meH ra, sru xeHden gråt nåtaX?" dambic pin bindaq PN. (PLak -aq > -a while -a > *-ā > -o) | |||
"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ. | |||
Åb gaŋaq, pin Binta: cår bindik panradHaŋ, day Famsak (Fanpsak?) pinkawandik nåtaX yaq pin gråt pi! emp-tHåk(?) pin kaHt. | |||
"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
qaroy šaX-kaHt se se caruŋ sen tapal panaw panaw." empsxngim šaX pin kaHt pin bindaq PN. | |||
</poem> | |||
(todo: double check, account for Grassmann. This also omits gender affixes.) | |||
--> | |||
''**ŋift ntor mangār se dak kaft. "mef raq śen ʔam?" dambic pin bindaq PN. mi qangfnung katkfat nataX qemrecal sen Hdān: "šruk day qatsHiw: dak manknas, tap day amfuc ftom, liw qatsalfiw, tak malfuc, n-dHon talak." "fna mef raq, sru fenfden grāt nataX? dambic pin bindaq PN. "gaŋaX, pin bindaq: cār bindik panratfaŋ, day fanpsak binkawantik nataX ya pin grāt pi!" "qaruy šaX-kaft se caruŋ sen tapal panaw panaw." empsfŋim šaX pin kaft pin bindaq PN.'' | |||
=== Another one === |
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