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Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). They include [k, g, x, ng].
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). They include [k, g, x, ng].
Palatovelar consonants are articulated with the back part of the tongue against the hard palate. They include [k', g', x', ng']. For example, [k'] is pronounced as the k in keen.
Palatovelar consonants are articulated with the back part of the tongue against the hard palate. They include [k', g', x', ng']. For example, [k'] is pronounced as the k in keen.
voiced and voiceless pharyngeal fricatives;
a glottal stop that is used to distinguish word meaning;
a three-way contrast between voiced, voiceless, and emphatic consonants which may be realized as velarized, glottalized, pharyngealized, ejective, orimplosive.
use of semivowels /w/ and /j/ in the role of consonants
{| class="wikitable IPA"
|+ Correspondences in Afro-Asian languages<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Dolgopolsky|1999}}, pp. 38-39.</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Prasse|2000}}, p. 346.</ref>
! Proto-Afroasiatic
! [[Proto-Semitic language|Proto-Semitic]]
! [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]]
! [[Berber language|Berber]]
! [[East Cushitic]]
! [[West Chadic]]
|-
| *b
| {{transl|sem|*b}}
| {{transl|sem|b}}
| {{transl|sem|*β, ? *b, *-∅-}}
| {{transl|sem|*b}}
| {{transl|sem|*b, *ḅ<sup>1</sup>}}
|-
| *p
| rowspan="2" | {{transl|sem|*p}}
| {{transl|sem|p}}
| {{transl|sem|*f, ? *b}}
| rowspan="2" | {{transl|sem|*p}}
| rowspan="2" | {{transl|sem|*p, *f, *ḅ<sup>1</sup>}}
|-
| *f
| f
| f
|-
| *d
| {{transl|sem|*d}}
| {{transl|sem|d}}
| {{transl|sem|*d}}
| {{transl|sem|*d}}
| {{transl|sem|*d, *ḍ<sup>1</sup>}}
|-
| *t
| {{transl|sem|*t}}
| {{transl|sem|t}}
| {{transl|sem|*t}}
| {{transl|sem|*t}}
| {{transl|sem|*t}}
|-
| *ṭ
| {{transl|sem|*ṭ}}
| {{transl|sem|d}}(~t)
| {{transl|sem|*ḍ [dˁ] / *ṭ (→ *ṭṭ [tˁː])}}
| {{transl|sem|*ṭ (→ *ḍ)}}
| {{transl|sem|*ḍ}}
|-
|
| {{transl|sem|*ð}}
| {{transl|sem|?? d}}
| {{transl|sem|*z}}
| {{transl|sem|*z}}
| {{transl|sem|*dʒ}}
|-
|
| {{transl|sem|*θ}}
| {{transl|sem|s, ?? š}}
| {{transl|sem|*s}}
| {{transl|sem|*s}}<sub>1</sub>(={{transl|sem|*s}})
|
|-
|
| {{transl|sem|*θ̣}}
| {{transl|sem|ḏ-}}
| {{transl|sem|*ẓ [zˁ]}}
| [[South Cushitic]]<br />{{transl|sem|*ṭṣ}}
|
|-
|
| {{transl|sem|*z}}
| {{transl|sem|z}}
| {{transl|sem|*z}}
| {{transl|sem|*z}}
| {{transl|sem|*dz}}
|-
| *s
| {{transl|sem|*s}}
| {{transl|sem|s}}
| {{transl|sem|*s- ?}}
| {{transl|sem|*s}}<sub>1</sub>|{{transl|sem|s}}<sub>2</sub>-
| {{transl|sem|*ts}}
|}
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
!rowspan="2"|[[labial consonant|Labial]]
!rowspan="2"|[[coronal consonant|Coronal]]
!rowspan="2"|[[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan="3"|[[dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
!rowspan="2"|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryngeal]]
|-
!<small>"palato-velar"</small>
!<small>"plain velar"</small>
!<small>"labiovelar"</small>
|-
!colspan="2"|[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|align=center|{{PIE|*m}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!rowspan="3"|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]||<small>
[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]</small>
|align=center|{{PIE|*p}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*t}}
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*ḱ}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*k}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*kʷ}}
|&nbsp;
|-
!<small>[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]</small>
|align=center|{{PIE|*b}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*d}}
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*g}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*gʷ}}
|&nbsp;
|-
!<small>[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]</small>
|align=center|{{PIE|*bʰ}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*dʰ}}
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*gʰ}}
|align=center|{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|&nbsp;
|-
!colspan="2"|[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*s}}
|
|
|
|
|align=center|{{PIE|[[Laryngeal theory|*h₁, *h₂, *h₃]]}}
|-
!colspan="2"|[[liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*r, *l}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
!colspan="2"|[[Semivowel]]
|
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*y}}
|
|
|align=center|{{PIE|*w}}
|
|}
'''Alternative notations:''' The aspirated stops are sometimes written as {{PIE|*bh, *dh, *ǵh, *gh, *gʷh}}; for the palatals, {{PIE|*k̑, *g̑}} are often used; and {{PIE|*i̯, *u̯}} can replace {{PIE|*y, *w}}.
The following are the main characteristics of PIE consonants:
*PIE had a large number of [[stop consonant|stop]]s, but few [[fricative]]s.  The traditional (pre-laryngeal) reconstruction included only one fricative, {{PIE|*s}}; however, the modern theory includes three additional fricatives, commonly known as [[laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] and assumed to have been pronounced far back in the mouth (i.e. [[Fricative consonant#Central non-sibilant fricatives|velar]], [[uvular fricative|uvular]]{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2013}}, [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] and/or [[glottal fricative|glottal]]{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2013}}).  Laryngeals disappeared from all PIE languages except (to some extent) the [[Anatolian language]]s, but reveal themselves in their effects on nearby sounds.  For example, short {{PIE|*e}} adjacent to {{PIE|*h₂}} and {{PIE|*h₃}} is colored to {{PIE|*a}} and {{PIE|*o}}, respectively, and short vowels preceding a laryngeal are usually lengthened. The exact [[Laryngeal theory#Pronunciation|pronunciation of the laryngeals]] is disputed; some linguists have even asserted that {{PIE|*h₁}} might not have been a fricative at all, but a [[glottal stop]].
*Both the number of [[dorsal consonant]]s (''k''-type sounds, i.e. stops pronounced in the back of the mouth) and their actual pronunciation are sources of controversy.  In particular, the existence of the "plain velar" series as phonemically distinct consonants has long been a source of contention.  The traditional theory, which most linguists still adhere to, calls for three series of dorsals, traditionally termed "[[palatovelar]]", "[[velar|plain velar]]" and "[[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelar]]". These terms should be viewed as notional rather than expressing any particular commitment to the actual pronunciation of the sounds: in particular, a number of linguists<ref name = "huld">{{Citation | contribution = Satəm, Centum, and Hokum | first = Martin E | last = Huld | year = 1997 | title = Festschrift for Eric P. Hamp | editor-first = Douglas Q | editor-last = Adams | pages = 115–38}}</ref>{{Sfn | Clackson | 2007 | p = 52}}{{Sfn | Ringe | 2006}}{{Rp | needed = yes |date= November 2012}} have argued that the pronunciations implied by the traditional terms are unlikely given later developments, and that a more likely pronunciation was as plain velar, [[uvular consonant|uvular]], and [[labialization|labialized]] velar, respectively.  The dispute over the status of the traditional plain velar series concerns the fact that this is the least-common series; is mostly confined to specific environments (e.g. before /a/ or /r/), and the palatovelar series is not often found in these same environments; and is reflected identically to one of the other two series in all, or nearly all, of the daughters.  This has led some linguists to reconstruct only two series, with the distinction between "palatovelar" and "plain velar" a secondary distinction that arose as an [[areal feature]] in some of the daughters (especially the "[[satem]]" languages).
*PIE is traditionally reconstructed with three types of [[voice (phonetics)|voicing]]s for its stops: [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]], [[voiced consonant|voiced]], and [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] (traditionally termed "voiced aspirated"). This is typologically uncommon, and in fact the reconstructed breathy-voiced series appears as such only in [[Indo-Aryan languages]].  Thus, some linguists have proposed the [[glottalic theory]], which proposes a very different reconstruction of these three series. However, this theory is not widely accepted today.
*A notable characteristic is that the [[sonorant|resonant]]s /r/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /y/ and /w/ could appear as vowels as well as consonants, specifically when not adjacent to another vowel.  The same is usually held to be true of the laryngeals, as well.  This has led to some dispute as to whether PIE should be reconstructed with phonemes /i/ and /u/, or whether these should be considered [[allophone]]s of /y/ and /w/; however, there is some evidence that /i/, at least, could occur in the same environments as /y/.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Zomborgs
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