8,513
edits
Lifashian: Difference between revisions
m
→Consonants
m (→Numerals) |
m (→Consonants) |
||
| (6 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown) | |||
| Line 77: | Line 77: | ||
The {{IPA|[ɲ]}} phone is sometimes considered to be a phoneme, and is recognized as a distinct sound by speakers, but it is phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/nj/}}. While any underlying {{IPA|/sj/}} is also realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, the latter is not just a phone but a phoneme, as it occurs in environments where an underlying {{IPA|/sj/}} would be impossible: {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is a common coda, but {{IPA|/j/}} cannot occur in a coda after another consonant. | The {{IPA|[ɲ]}} phone is sometimes considered to be a phoneme, and is recognized as a distinct sound by speakers, but it is phonemically analyzed as {{IPA|/nj/}}. While any underlying {{IPA|/sj/}} is also realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, the latter is not just a phone but a phoneme, as it occurs in environments where an underlying {{IPA|/sj/}} would be impossible: {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is a common coda, but {{IPA|/j/}} cannot occur in a coda after another consonant. | ||
Old Lifashian used to have a {{IPA|/ð/}} phoneme which was inconsistently written as '''d''' or '''l''' in the early stages of Lifashian writing (around the 7th century), but already by the beginning of the 9th century all words that were written with alternating '''d''' or '''l''' are consistently written with '''l'''. Lifashian {{IPA|/ð/}} in fact merged with {{IPA|/l/}} unless before consonants (or after '''n'''), where it merged with {{IPA|/d/}}; this is easily noticed from the fact that {{IPA|[ð]}} from multiple loanword sources before the spread of Islam is reflected as {{IPA|/l/}}: see for example Greek given names such as ''Δηϊδάμεια'' > ''Lilamiyá'' or ''Θουκυδίδης'' > ''Fókílil'' (but ''Δρυάδα'' > ''Driálá''<ref>This form is attested in early Lifashian; later Lifashian borrowed an ''-adá'' suffix from Medieval Greek, so that the modern form of this name has been archaized as ''Driádá''.</ref> for a preconsonantal example) or general nouns such as ''δελφῖνος'' > ''lalfín'' and ''στάδιον'' > ''setálam''.<ref>Earlier, prehistoric borrowings likely entered Pre-Lifashian at a time when the contrast was still an aspiration one between two plosives, as shown most notably by Akkadian {{IPA|[d]}} being consistently reflected as Lifashian {{IPA|/l/}}, cf. Akkadian ''dišpu'' and Lifashian ''lesp'' "honey".</ref> Later in Lifashian history, foreign {{IPA|[ð]}} is borrowed as {{IPA|/d/}}, or indirectly as {{IPA|/z/}} from Arabic through Persian; however, up to the early 20th century Greek scientific loans often recognized the pattern and use {{IPA|/l/}} instead of {{IPA|/d/}}: see e.g. ''línosawr'' "dinosaur". | Old Lifashian used to have a {{IPA|/ð/}} phoneme which was inconsistently written as '''d''' or '''l''' in the early stages of Lifashian writing (around the 7th century), but already by the beginning of the 9th century all words that were written with alternating '''d''' or '''l''' are consistently written with '''l'''. Lifashian {{IPA|/ð/}} in fact merged with {{IPA|/l/}} unless before consonants<ref>Except before {{IPA|/j/}}, where the result is {{IPA|/lij-/}}: see for example Greek ''Διονύσιος'', borrowed as ''Liyonúsi''.</ref> (or after '''n'''), where it merged with {{IPA|/d/}}; this is easily noticed from the fact that {{IPA|[ð]}} from multiple loanword sources before the spread of Islam is reflected as {{IPA|/l/}}: see for example Greek given names such as ''Δηϊδάμεια'' > ''Lilamiyá'' or ''Θουκυδίδης'' > ''Fókílil'' (but ''Δρυάδα'' > ''Driálá''<ref>This form is attested in early Lifashian; later Lifashian borrowed an ''-adá'' suffix from Medieval Greek, so that the modern form of this name has been archaized as ''Driádá''.</ref> for a preconsonantal example) or general nouns such as ''δελφῖνος'' > ''lalfín'' and ''στάδιον'' > ''setálam''.<ref>Earlier, prehistoric borrowings likely entered Pre-Lifashian at a time when the contrast was still an aspiration one between two plosives, as shown most notably by Akkadian {{IPA|[d]}} being consistently reflected as Lifashian {{IPA|/l/}}, cf. Akkadian ''dišpu'' and Lifashian ''lesp'' "honey".</ref> Later in Lifashian history, foreign {{IPA|[ð]}} is borrowed as {{IPA|/d/}}, or indirectly as {{IPA|/z/}} from Arabic through Persian; however, up to the early 20th century Greek scientific loans often recognized the pattern and use {{IPA|/l/}} instead of {{IPA|/d/}}: see e.g. ''línosawr'' "dinosaur". | ||
{{IPA|/ŋ/}} generally cannot start a word, but it can be found in syllable-initial position inside a word, as e.g. in ''tengámi'' "I pull" {{IPA|/teˈŋɑːmi/}}, ''bungonf'' "imitation" {{IPA|/ˈbuŋoɱf/}}, or more generally in the declined forms of any masculine noun ending with that phoneme, as e.g. ''payengi'' "the Post" {{IPA|/ˈpæjeŋi/}}. Phonetically, for many speakers, it is realized as a geminate {{IPA|[ŋː]}}, but it may vary from speaker to speaker and the gemination is often not found at the start of the stressed syllable. | {{IPA|/ŋ/}} generally cannot start a word, but it can be found in syllable-initial position inside a word, as e.g. in ''tengámi'' "I pull" {{IPA|/teˈŋɑːmi/}}, ''bungonf'' "imitation" {{IPA|/ˈbuŋoɱf/}}, or more generally in the declined forms of any masculine noun ending with that phoneme, as e.g. ''payengi'' "the Post" {{IPA|/ˈpæjeŋi/}}. Phonetically, for many speakers, it is realized as a geminate {{IPA|[ŋː]}}, but it may vary from speaker to speaker and the gemination is often not found at the start of the stressed syllable. | ||
In preconsonantal position, there is no contrast between {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}}; written Lifashian, however, shows that for a long time there was a contrast between them at least before the four consonants {{IPA|/m n r l/}}, as shown by the written sequences '''sym, syn, syr, syl'' found in some words<ref>See for example words such as ''bésylam'' "flag" (a Late Latin loan, from ''vexillum''). Today this written distinction is still maintained in new coinings in the case of derivational suffixes (most notably ''-né'') attached to roots or stems ending in ''-sy''; see e.g. ''Esmérkowkasyné'' "Southern Caucasus" or ''somaldánesyné'' "university".</ref>. In the modern standard and in the majority of dialects the preconsonantal sound is realized as {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, while in a few dialects the realization is {{IPA|[s]}}. The same pattern is found with the voiced counterparts {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/ʒ/}}. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
| Line 89: | Line 91: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! High | ! High | ||
| i iː || u uː | | {{IPA|i iː}} || {{IPA|u uː}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Mid | ! Mid | ||
| e eː || o oː | | {{IPA|e eː}} || {{IPA|o oː}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Low | ! Low | ||
| æ || ɑː | | {{IPA|æ}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} | ||
|} | |} | ||
In the speech of young urban Lifashians there is a noticeable ongoing sound change in the high vowels, where the vowels are being restructured with long ones being front and short ones being back, and then distinguishing them for roundedness. Therefore, the high vowels of those speakers ae {{IPA|[iː yː ɯ u]}}, result of the {{IPA|[i]}} → {{IPA|[ɯ]}} and {{IPA|[uː]}} → {{IPA|[yː]}} shifts. | There are various regional variations in the vowels, particularly in the diphthongization of long vowels which is a marked trait of Western and Central-Western Lifashian dialects. However, most dialects tend to maintain the same phonemic distinctions, only with different realizations.<br/>As a striking example, Helenopolitan Lifashian - one of the most spoken varieties - is famous for its long vowel breaking processes, with various possible realizations depending on stress, position in the word, and whether the following syllable contains another long vowel. | ||
<!-- In the speech of young urban Lifashians there is a noticeable ongoing sound change in the high vowels, where the vowels are being restructured with long ones being front and short ones being back, and then distinguishing them for roundedness. Therefore, the high vowels of those speakers ae {{IPA|[iː yː ɯ u]}}, result of the {{IPA|[i]}} → {{IPA|[ɯ]}} and {{IPA|[uː]}} → {{IPA|[yː]}} shifts.--> | |||
====''Hamza''==== | ====''Hamza''==== | ||
| Line 969: | Line 972: | ||
Similarly, 1000 is the neuter noun '''hesyarom''', also declined as a regular third declension noun. In the standard language, stress is on the first syllable of the stem. Unlike with hundreds, thousands are never written conjoined, e.g. 2000 ''luyó hesyará'', 4896 ''pitór hesyará fastúsyutá núˤnesyát-u-gésy''. | Similarly, 1000 is the neuter noun '''hesyarom''', also declined as a regular third declension noun. In the standard language, stress is on the first syllable of the stem. Unlike with hundreds, thousands are never written conjoined, e.g. 2000 ''luyó hesyará'', 4896 ''pitór hesyará fastúsyutá núˤnesyát-u-gésy''. | ||
One million (10<sup>6</sup>) is a '''jesradá''', and one billion (10<sup>9</sup>) a '''lisajesradá'''; both are feminine second declension nouns (e.g. 2,000,000: ''luwá jesradehi''; 4,000,000,000 ''máyes lisajesradehi''). | |||
====Ordinal numerals==== | ====Ordinal numerals==== | ||
| Line 1,527: | Line 1,532: | ||
===Kinship terms=== | ===Kinship terms=== | ||
Lifashian has one of the most complex kinship terminology systems among Indo-European languages. It has an obligatory distinction of age among siblings and parallel cousins, and a distinction in the treatment of parallel and cross cousins. | Lifashian has one of the most complex kinship terminology systems among Indo-European languages; however, many of those terms have no clear IE origin. It has an obligatory distinction of age among siblings and parallel cousins, and a distinction in the treatment of parallel and cross cousins. | ||
: ''máté'' "mother", ''faté'' "father" | : ''máté'' "mother", ''faté'' "father" | ||
: ''bárté'' "older brother", ''hanité'' "younger brother" | : ''bárté'' "older brother", ''hanité'' "younger brother" | ||
| Line 1,536: | Line 1,541: | ||
: parallel cousins: ''tambárté'' "older male first cousin", ''tahani'' "younger male first cousin", ''taleláté'' "older female first cousin", ''tússyá'' "younger female first cousin" | : parallel cousins: ''tambárté'' "older male first cousin", ''tahani'' "younger male first cousin", ''taleláté'' "older female first cousin", ''tússyá'' "younger female first cousin" | ||
: cross cousins: ''húhsyís'' "mother's brother's son", ''húhsyená'' "mother's brother's daughter"; ''mámesyís'' "father's sister's son", ''mámesyená'' "father's sister's daughter" | : cross cousins: ''húhsyís'' "mother's brother's son", ''húhsyená'' "mother's brother's daughter"; ''mámesyís'' "father's sister's son", ''mámesyená'' "father's sister's daughter" | ||
About following generations, Lifashian has standalone terms for grandchildren (''núnal'' and ''núnilá'') and great-grandchildren (''ilew'' and ''ilewá''), with following generations being formed with the prefixes ''duws-'' (i.e. ''duwsilew'' "male great-great-grandchild"), ''gét-'' (''gétilew'' "male great-great-great-grandchild") and ''kata-'' (''katailewá'' "female great-great-great-great-grandchild"). The situation with nephews and nieces is more complex, because there is a different treatment for them depending on whether the ego's sibling is younger or older: | |||
: the children of one's older sister (''eláté'') are a ''tahíw'' (male) and ''téhwá'' (female); | |||
: the children of one's older brother (''bárté'') are a ''níf'' (male) and ''nífá'' (female); | |||
: the children of one's younger sibling (''hanité'' or ''súsyáté'') are a ''lawn'' (male) and ''lawná'' (female). | |||
Generations preceding one's parents are marked similarly to grandchildren. The term for grandfather is ''bweté'' and the one for grandmother is ''mwité''; their parents are ''duwsabweté'' and ''duwsamwité'' (great-grandparents), then ''gétabweté/gétamwité'' (great-great-grandparents) and ''filáybweté/filáymwité'' (great-great-great-grandparents). Even earlier generations use these terms but with the numerals for second, third, and so on; one's great-great-great-grandparent's mother is one's ''filáymwité sfetá'' (i.e. "second great-great-great-grandmother"), whose father is then the ''filáybweté tartás'' (i.e. "third great-great-great-grandfather"). | |||
==Texts== | ==Texts== | ||