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:''This article describes Modern Windermere. See [[Windermere/Classical]] for Classical Windermere.''
:''This article describes Modern Naeng. See [[Naeng/Classical]] for Classical Naeng.''


[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Texts]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Translations]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Fi tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
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|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|creator = [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|name = Windermere
|name = Naeng
|nativename = fi cduay Dămea
|nativename = fi brits Dămea
|pronunciation=   
|pronunciation=   
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|setting = [[Verse:Hmøøh]]
|region = Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl, ...
|region = Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl, ...
|speakers=550 million
|speakers=220 million
|date=13b0dd
|date=13b0dd
|familycolor=tergetic
|familycolor=tergetic
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam2=[[Ashanic]]
|fam2=[[Naengic]]
|fam3=[[Windermere/Classical|Classical Windermere]]
|fam3=[[Naeng/Classical|Classical Naeng]]
|script=Windermere script
|script=Naeng script
|iso3=
|iso3=
|official=USB, Tumhan, Pategia, Quintlopetl, Yocneam
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


'''Windermere''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /fi kduəj dəmeə/; [[Eevo]]: ''a birits Dymée'') is a [[Lakovic]] language belonging to the Ashanic branch. Modern Windermere arose from the vernacular spoken by settlers from [[Verse:Tricin/Imperial Wen Dămea|Imperial Wen Dămea]] in Pategia and Bjeheond. It is also known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''Ntzog Xäd'' in [[Hlou]], ''Ásharn'' /ˈæʃɑːn/ in [[Shalian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døludx Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in various Trician languages. Today Windermere is widespread, being spoken in the [[Verse:Tricin/USB|USB]], [[Verse:Tricin/Tumhan|Tumhan]], [[Verse:Tricin/Pategia|Pategia]], [[Verse:Wen Dămea|Wen Dămea]], and in former Windermere colonies in [[Verse:Tricin/Txapoalli|Txapoalli]]. With 550 million native and L2 speakers, it is the fourth most widely spoken language and the most widely spoken [[Lakovic]] language. It forms the Bjeheondian sprachbund with [[Hlou]], [[Ciêng]], [[Gwnax]], and most other Bjeheondian languages.  
'''Naeng''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /vɪi gduəj dəmeə/ or ''fi cduay Neng'' /... naeŋ/; [[Eevo]]: ''a łynǿñ Dymee'' or ''a łynǿñ Neng'') is a [[Lakovic]] language belonging to the Naengic branch. It is also known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''ne Qaśenin'' in [[Netagin]], specifically for Classical Naeng, ''zinAxān'' /sinaʃaːn/ in [[Naquian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døluder Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in various Hmøøhian languages. It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]], [[Ksieh]] and other Lakovic languages.


It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]], [[Tsrovesh]], and [[Häskä]].
Modern Naeng is a revived koine/lingua franca/creole arising from various Classical Naeng reading and interpretive traditions, and some scholars believe that Modern Naeng grammar doesn't directly continue that of Classical Naeng. An even more unorthodox view proposed by modern linguist Lămanoa Wadangpaş is that Modern Naeng should be thought of as a Lakovic-Netagin-Nurian hybrid language, unlike [[Tergetian vernaculars]] (descendants of Classical Tseer) which are true Lakovic languages; he thinks Modern Naeng is in part a relexification of Netagin and Nurian with Classical Naeng words, and he proposes that it be renamed to ''fi brits Biechănd'' or the Bjeheondian language. This hypothesis is challenged by Prăfin of Bălang and other scholars of creoles and sprachbunds in Hmøøh, who cited various historical intermediate stages of Naeng which appeared in writing (e.g. works by Etsoj Jopah) and in folk songs. For example, the polite pronoun ''Pra'' (from ''pida'' 'sage'), which is post-Classical, is found in ___'s letters.
{{Windermere sidebar}}
 
Today, Naeng is the majority language of Pategia and Quintlopetl, and a prominent minority language of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/USB|USB]] and [[Verse:Hmøøh/Tumhan|Tumhan]]. In [[Talma]] Classical Naeng was replaced with vernacular Tseer varieties (called the [[Tergetian vernaculars|Tergetian languages]]) and other languages. It forms the [[Bjeheond]]ian sprachbund with [[Netagin]] vernaculars, [[Trây]], [[Gwnax]], and most other Bjeheondian languages.  
 
{{Naeng sidebar}}


==External history==
==External history==
Windermere is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by English, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of my old Talmic sketches.
Naeng is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by German, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of [[User:IlL]]'s old Talmic sketches.
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].


==Todo==
==Todo==
Drel ya-rie srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live
Lakovic no longer has gneder; get rid of gendered pronouns?
 
Should th be dental d~t (and d, t alveolar~retro)?
 
Need Tigol words in Naeng


lăchir e Pra haș mül mif brits Angla, chăbec ngie fithnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän
Inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ya rie and șa rie are incorrect) -- but are only used in formal Naeng


db dg > dw, gb gd > gw gl, bd bg > bl pg
Ien ruay ched Lăbaldimoara - He lives in Baltimore (mi is optional)
 
Făngtsăfie = Philadelphia, via quasi-Arabic "fa3Dafiyya" <- hypothetical PSem *paʕtɬ'ap-
 
Wenmĭryam = Maryland
 
Merge c and g and introduce Ch clusters? or should those become breathy voiced vowels
 
''nean'' - a verb of motion/direction
 
When was glādos 'god' (> gláḋ > glọð > glawð) borrowed?
* If before the Naengic vowel shift, then make it ''Clot'' /klaot/
* If during Tigol stage: ''Clod'' /klaod/
* If post-revival Eevo loan: ''Grath'' /gʀɒð/ or ''Groth'' /gʀaoð/
 
yăhuaș should be a Naeng adjective
 
Măluac yări srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live (lit. follow with me)
 
casual: Măluac drel ngăse srüe ... lit. Follow hither if ...
 
Lăchier e Pra haș mül mĭf brits Anggla, chăbec ngĭ fĭthnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän
 
Ădoath chea thosli drel sed. (Dream PST reveal hither this) / literary: Ădoath chea thosli şar sed. lit. A dream revealed this to me
 
More realistic vowel split:
*a e i o u ü → RTR ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → a e ie o ua üe
*à è ì ò ù ǜ → ATR æ e i o u y → ä ea i oa u ü
 
Directional verbs as in Southeast Asian languages, e.g. ngămlac seaf "to call someone" vs ngămlac drel "to call someone back" -- sometimes casual Naeng uses these rather than pronouns to disambiguate referents like ''Ien chea briets drel sed'' "He told me this"
 
Pronouns aren't used as often in colloquial Naeng e.g. ''Fi tsum rad?'' for ''What's your name''? Formal Naeng would have ''Fi tsum łe/łen/łes rad?''; ''Seaf ra?'' for "Where are you going?"
 
More directional markers which work like serial verbs besides seaf/drel?


==Diachronics==
==Diachronics==
===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*Classical Wdm. /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/ and gain voiced realizations
*PLak i e a ā o u in unstressed syllables → CNaeng ĭ ĭ Ø ă ǎ Ø
*In Talman Windermere, Classical Windermere stops /p t k/ become /p pʰ tʰ kʰ/ in many positions
*Classical Naeng /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/; /f θ/ gain voiced realizations
*In Talman Windermere, ə > 0 after aspirated consonants and fricatives. This makes the voicing alternation in the Classical Wdm. spirants ''f'' and ''th'' phonemic.
*Classical Naeng reduced vowels ''ă'' /ɔ/ and ''ĭ'' /ɨ/ merge into ''ă'' /ə/
*l > ʟ in Talman Windermere
*Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes:
*Classical Wdm. reduced vowels ''ă'' /ɔ/ and ''ĭ'' /ɨ/ merged into ''ă'' /ə/ already in Middle Windermere.
**CNaeng a e i o u ü → MidNaeng ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → ModNaeng /ɒ ae ɪ ao u ø/
*Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes, usually diphthongs.
**CNaeng à è ì ò ù ǜ → MidNaeng æ e i o u y → ModNaeng /æ e i o ʉ y/
*Classical Windermere ''ts'' and ''tł'' merged into /ts/, while ''ł'' (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/
*Classical Naeng ''ts'' and ''tł'' merged into /ts/, while ''ł'' (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/ (occasional tł -> ł in a few words)


===Grammatical history===
===Grammatical history===
*Tense particles instead of older tense inflections, from [[Hlou]] influence
*Tense particles instead of older tense inflections
*Loss of the Classical Windermere accusative particle ''ü''
*Loss of the Classical Naeng accusative particle ''ü''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants (''mosălis'ir'')===
===Consonants (''mosălis'ir'')===
All dialects have the following consonant phonemes, but their realizations and conditions for allophony differ by accent. Below, the "conventional" transcriptions will be given:
All dialects have the following consonant phonemes, but their realizations and conditions for allophony differ by accent. Below, the Standard Bjeheondian transcriptions will be given:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width:700px;text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width:700px;text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
!  |Labial<br/>''mofăsing''
!  |Labial<br/>''mofăsing''
!  |Dental<br/>''mogloł''
!  |Alveolar<br/>''mosăbies''
!  |Alveolar<br/>''mosăbies''
!  |Lateral<br/>''molăgoan''
!  |Lateral<br/>''molăngoan''
!  |Palatal<br/>''moyăclech''
!  |Palatal<br/>''moyălech''
!  |Velar<br/>''moscong''
!  |Velar<br/>''moscong''
!  |Glottal<br/>''motășac''
!  |Glottal<br/>''motășac''
Line 70: Line 114:
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''m''' /m/
|
| '''n''' /n/  
| '''n''' /n/  
|  
|  
Line 77: Line 122:
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătger''</small>
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătcer''</small>
| '''b''' /b/
| '''b''' /b/
| '''th''' /d{{den}}/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''d''' /d/
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g/
|  
|  
|  
|-
|-
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatger''</small>
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatcer''</small>
| '''p''' /p/
| '''p''' /p/
|
| '''t''' /t/
| '''t''' /t/
|  
|  
Line 95: Line 142:
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
|  
|  
| '''ts''' /ts~tɕ~tʃ/
|
|
| '''ts, tł''' /ts/
|  
|  
| '''tș''' /tʃ/
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 103: Line 151:
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br/>''binchlas''
! rowspan="2" style="" |Fricative<br/>''binchlas''
! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
| '''f''' /f/
| '''f''' /v/
| '''th''' /θ/
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''ch''' /x/
| '''ch''' /χ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
|  
|  
| '''s''' /s/
|
| '''s''' /z/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ș''' /ʃ/
| '''ș''' /ʃ/
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| '''h''' /h/
| '''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Resonant<br/>''binnădüech''
! colspan="2" |Resonant<br/>''binnădüeng''
| '''w''' /w/
| '''w''' /w/
|  
|  
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
| '''y''' /j/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''r''' /ʁ/
|  
|  
|}
|}


Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Windermere '''tł''' as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.
''tș'' /tʃ/ is mainly found in loans from Bjeheondian languages such as [[Netagin]].
 
Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Naeng '''tł''' as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.
 
/h/ is [ɦ] between voiced sounds. Many speakers drop /ʔ/ and /h/ in casual speech.
 
Voiceless stops /p t k/ are usually unaspirated [p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]. Voiced stops /b d{{den}} d g/ are fully voiced. Front fricatives /v z/ are by default voiced [v z]; they only devoice to [f s] when followed by an "inherently voiceless" consonant, i.e. one of /p t k ts x h ʔ/. (Thus obstruent voicing assimilation can be said to work like in Slavic languages or Israeli Hebrew.)
 
/əm ən əl ər/ become [m̩ n̩ l̩ ɐ] in closed unstressed syllables.
 
In some rural accents in eastern Bjeheond, around Plüeng Sănach, and in some styles of singing, ''r'' is pronounced as an alveolar trill /r/ in all positions. In the Wieb accent ''r'' triggers a low tone onset on the following vowel, and in contemporary Wieb Naeng this is the only sign of phonemic ''r'', with initial /r/ entirely replaced with [h].


/ʔ/ and /h/ are often dropped in casual speech.
''ff thth ss'' may be used to transcribe /f θ s/ in other languages.


===Vowels (''motrăway'')===
===Vowels (''motger'')===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
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| '''i''' /i/
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ü''' /y/
| '''ü''' /y/
| [ɨ]
| '''u''' /ʉ/
| '''u''' /u/
| '''ua''' /u/
|-
|-
! style="" |Close diphthong
! style="" |Near-close
| '''ie''' /iə/
| '''ie''' /ɪ/
| '''üe''' /yə/
| '''üe, ö''' /ø/
|
|  
|  
| '''ua''' /uə/
|-
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
! style="" |Diphthong
| '''e''' /e/
| '''e''' /ae/
|  
|  
| '''ă, ö''' /ə/
|  
| '''o''' /o/
| '''o''' /ao/
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid diphthong
! style="" |Mid
| '''ea''' /eə/
| '''ea''' /e/
|  
|  
|  
| '''ă''' /ə/
| '''oa''' /oə/
| '''oa''' /o/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
| '''ä''' /ɛ/
| '''ä''' /æ~eə/
|
| '''a''' /a/
|  
|  
| '''ăr''' /ɐ/
| '''a''' /ɒ/
|}
|}
*/y ø/ are compressed and /ʉ/ is protruded.
*/ɒ æ e o/ are [ɒ̝ æ̝ ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
*In most accents, '''ir''' = '''ier''', '''ür''' = '''üer''', '''ur''' = '''uar'''.
*Stressed '''ă''' is used mainly in loans from [[Scellan]] (in Crackfic Hmøøh, English).
====R-vocalization====
/ʁ/ vocalizes to [ɐ] when not before a vowel, as follows:
*''ir'' = ''ier'' → [iɐ]
*''ür'' = ''üer'' → [yɐ]
*''ur'' = ''uar'' → [uɐ]
*''ear'' → [eɐ]
*''er'' → [ɛɐ]
*''oar'' → [oɐ]
*''or'' → [ɔɐ]
*''ar'' = ''är'' → [aː]
*Vocalization of R has caused a chain vowel shift in stressed vowels Std. Naeng (these shifts don't occur for e o before w/y):
**''ie üe ua ea oa'' > [ɪ ø u ɛ̝ ɔ̝]
**''u e o'' > [ʉ ae ao]
**''a ä'' > [ɒ̝ æ̝~eə]


*In most accents, '''ir''' = '''ier''', '''ür''' = '''üer''', '''ur''' = '''uar'''.
==== Vowel reduction ====
*In Bjeheondian accents, '''ä''' merges with '''e'''.
Vowels reduce in unstressed syllables: a/ä reduces to ă, e/ie reduces to /I/, o/oa reduces to /o/
*'''ö''' is used mainly in loans from [[Tseer]]. It is pronounced identically to ''ă'' in all dialects.
 
===Intonation ===
Standard Naeng intonation is like Standard Khmer. In certain accents of Naeng, especially in the Wieb region, stressed syllables with a final voiceless consonant are pronounced with a rising tone and other stressed syllables with a falling tone. In contemporary Wieb Naeng final voicing is no longer contrastive, having entirely been replaced with tone -- Wieb Naeng can be analyzed as having four tones.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Line 181: Line 262:


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are prohibited in coda.
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are phonemically prohibited in coda; in most accents of Naeng final ''c'' surfaces as [ʔ].


Allowed initial clusters in Classical Windermere are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
Allowed initial clusters in Classical Naeng are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
Line 195: Line 276:


===Accents===
===Accents===
:''Main article: [[Windermere/Accents]]''
:''Main article: [[Naeng/Accents]]''


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
Windermere uses two different scripts based on the region. Wen Dămea uses the Talman script (''lăchier Talma''), and Bjeheond, Tumhan, and Pategia use the Bjeheondian script (''lăchier Bichănd'').
=== Classical script ===
===Talman Windermere===
This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts (the Imθumăytil and other pidaic writings) and other Classical Naeng texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for [[Talmic languages]]. Nowadays it is mainly used for religious (Mărotłite announcements/edicts/rulings/etc.), ceremonial, and decorative purposes.
This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts and other Classical Windermere texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for [[Talmic]] languages.
====Consonants====
====Consonants====
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ = s ł ts tł ș
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ (Պ'ɱ') = s ł ts tł ș (tș)
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ


The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:
The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:


R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șănat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir)
R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W TS TŁ (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șnat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir, tsaf, tłaf)


rădäf = alphabet
rădäf = alphabet
Line 216: Line 296:
====Vowels====
====Vowels====
The vowel signs are placed to the right of the consonant letter.
The vowel signs are placed to the right of the consonant letter.
*· : ; ı › ˫ ⸗ƍ ⸗ = ă u ü i o e ä a; :ƍ ;ƍ ıƍ ›ƍ ˫ƍ = ua üe ie oa ea
*· : ; ı › ˫ ⸗ƍ ⸗ = ă ua üe ie o e ä a; :ƍ ;ƍ ıƍ ›ƍ ˫ƍ = u ü i oa ea


====Punctuation====
====Punctuation====


===Bjeheondian Windermere===
=== Modern script ===
[[File:Bjeheondian Naeng script.png|thumbnail|The modern Naeng script]]
 
The modern Naeng script is an abugida related to Idavic scripts. It derives from an old Bjeheondian runic alphabet, which was in turn an adaptation of an even older logographic writing system used by the Dábhiaŋal (Naeng ''Dobingal'') civilization (from ancient Erkwisngwal).
 
Should look square-ish like both Hebrew and Khmer


==Parts of speech==
==Parts of speech==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'', from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''se'' (m), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded nouns such as ''society'', ''man'' (humanity), and ''life'', correspond closely to the Windermere definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Windermere indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'', from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''se'' (m), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded English nouns such as ''society'', ''man'' (humanity), and ''life'', correspond closely to the Naeng definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Naeng indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
*nonspecific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
*specific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar se imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies se imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
*definite: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar fi imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies fi imyar!''  = "I want her to give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"


*indefinite: ''Rüe șa rie imyar!'' = "Give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
Nouns can be pluralized with ''im-'', which is usually used for specific or definite plural nouns. Pluralization is optional, however, and the nonspecific-specific distinction can make pluralization unnecessary where English would require it:
*specific: ''Rüe șa rie se imyar!'' = "Give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
:'''''Rie die poar fa binfăndaw.'''''
**This command would probably be met with ''Imyar ra?'' "What flowers?".
:1SG NEG derive_enjoyment from NOM-test
*definite: ''Rüe șa rie fi imyar!'' = "Give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"
:''I don't like exams.''


The articles contract with a preceding preposition such as ''mi'' 'in, at' and ''șa'' 'to, for': for example, ''mis, mif'' and ''șas, șaf''. Before a sibilant (resp. labial), forms such as ''mise'' (resp. ''mifi'') are used.
The articles contract with a preceding preposition such as ''mi'' 'in, at' and ''șa'' 'to, for': for example, ''mis, mif'' and ''șas, șaf''. Before a sibilant (resp. labial), forms such as ''mise'' (resp. ''mifi'') are used.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Modern Windermere have pronouns similar to Classical Windermere, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.
Modern Naeng have pronouns similar to Classical Naeng, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|-
!|
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (neopronoun)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!! they (neopronoun) !!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)!!impersonal
!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)!!impersonal
|-
|-
!|Nominative
|''rie''||''łen''||''łes''||''łe''||''Pra''||''ien''||''ies''||''ie''||''tsa''||''bang''||''łănam''||''(ă)nam''||''tung''
|''rie''||''łen''||''łes''||''Pra''||''in''||''is''||''tsa''||''bang''||''łănam''||''ănam''||''tung''
|}
|}


The impersonal pronoun ''tung'' (from ''tăchung'' 'some') can be used instead of a passive voice. In fact it's more general purpose than the passive voice which can only be used to turn direct objects into subjects. As in English, the impersonal may be used to state general commands, especially prohibitions:  
The impersonal pronoun ''tung'' (from ''tăchung'' 'some') can be used instead of a passive voice. In fact it's more general purpose than the passive voice which can only be used to turn direct objects into subjects. As in English, the impersonal may be used to state general commands, especially prohibitions:  
:'''''Tung die lieb sä șa ngud mi ădoac tsrăboł.'''''
:'''''Tung die lieb sä șa ngud mĭ ădoac tsrăboł.'''''
:IMPERS NEG put fire DAT burn LOC room closed
:IMPERS NEG put fire DAT burn LOC room closed
:''You don't let fire burn in a closed room.''
:''You don't let fire burn in a closed room.''


''Impra'' is an obsolete plural form of ''Pra''; nowadays ''Pra'' is used regardless of number.
In Middle Naeng, ''Pra'' was sometimes a third person pronoun but this is archaic. ''Ĭmpra'' is an obsolete plural form of ''Pra''; nowadays ''Pra'' is used regardless of number.


''Łănam'' (capitalized in the native script) is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.
''Łănam'' is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.


''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.
''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.


Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''imfid'').
Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''ĭmfid'').


The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.
The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.
Gender-neutral neopronouns in the 2sg informal and 3sg are considered pretty much necessary because singular ''łănam'' already has a function as an archaic polite pronoun. ''łech/łeth/łel'' (2sg informal) and ''ich/ith/il'' (3sg) but there is no universally accepted standard yet. People may opt to use no pronoun, or be referred to as "fi croth fid" (that person).


===Demonstratives===
===Demonstratives===
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*there: rădun fi, dumfi
*there: rădun fi, dumfi
*who: ășac ra, șara
*who: ășac ra, șara
*what: ra
*what: ra (determiner), rad (pronoun)
*where: rădun ra, dura
*where: rădun ra, dura
*when: ngith ra, ngithra
*when: ngith ra, ngithra
Line 286: Line 370:


*Familiar (both sg and pl): ''Tsrin!'' 'Eat!'
*Familiar (both sg and pl): ''Tsrin!'' 'Eat!'
**A little softened: ''tsrin e łen/łes/łănam!'' 'Why not eat?'
**A little softened or insistent: ''tsrin e łen/łes/łănam!'' 'Please eat!/Can you please eat?!'
*Polite: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Polite: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!'' or ''Hay tsrin e Łănam!''
*Cohortative: ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!)
*Cohortative: (formal) ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!), (colloquial) ''Măluac tsrin!'' (lit. follow eat)
Archaic style may use the vocative particle: ''Hay tsrin...''.
Archaic style may use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'': ''Hay tsrin...''.


Negative imperatives are formed with ''taș'':
Negative imperatives are formed with ''taș'':
*''Taș hămoch fi thcür mi ăcnas hălut!'' = Don't climb too high on the ladder!
*''Taș hămoch fĭ thcür mĭ ăcnas hălut!'' = Don't climb too high on the ladder!
*''Taș ămpaw e łen fi ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
*''Taș ămpaw e łen fĭ ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
==== Verbs of motion ====
Modern Naeng does not have exact equivalents for the English verbs "go", "carry", or "bring". Naeng motion verbs vary along two dimensions: one dimension is the method or direction of transport and one dimension is the telicity of the verb. Unidirectional, or telic, motion verbs express one-time motion towards a destination. Multidirectional, or atelic, verbs express undirected motion, repeated directed motion, or back-and-forth motion. The directionality is usually expressed by an infix or prefix, but is sometimes expressed through suppletion.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Meaning !! Unidirectional verb !! Multidirectional verb
|-
| to go by foot, to walk
| ''tmuay'' (< ''tăm'uay'' 'to travel') || ''nămchül''
|-
| to go with a land vehicle<small>
| ''tseng'' || ''tsăntseng''
|-
| to ride, to mount <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''csüm'' || ''sămcsüm''
|-
| to go in
| ''hădean'' || ''hămtean''
|-
| to go out; to originate; to rise (of heavenly bodies and other inanimate beings)
| ''hăgep'' || ''hifcep''
|-
| to set (of heavenly bodies)<br/>to fall (of precipitation)
| ''chănuy'' || ''cichnuy''
|-
| to run
| ''chi'' || ''cămhi''
|-
| to swim
| ''łămay'' || ''măłmay''
|-
| to fly
| ''thlut'' || ''tăthlut''
|-
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row
| ''tchos'' || ''chădchos''
|-
| to flow (of a fluid or current)
| ''smin'' || ''măsmin''
|-
| to roll
| ''ftär'' || ''tăftär''
|-
| to climb
| ''hămoch'' || ''hithmoch''
|-
| to jump
| ''ștüp'' || ''thuștüp''
|-
| to crawl
| ''tgär'' || ''trăgär''
|-
| to fall (of animates)<br/>to go down (of inanimates)
| ''łăpaw'' || ''tăłpaw''
|-
| to dive, go into water
| ''tscur'' || ''tscărcur''
|-
| to carry, bring (on foot)
| ''fngün'' || ''fămngün''
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''saf'' || ''sămhaf''
|-
| to pull, drag <small>(trans.)</small>
| ''năfor'' || ''nărfor''
|-
| to drive (an animal or a vehicle), lead
| ''hoth'' || ''hithoth''
|}


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
The copula ''mot'' is not used with adjectives. For example, 'The man is strong' = ''Fi noaf ngăwes''.
The copula ''mot'' is not used with adjectives. For example, 'The man is strong' = ''Fĭ noaf ngăwes''.


The comparative is formed with ''rech'' + adjective and the superlative is formed with ''hă'et'' + adjective.
The comparative is formed with ''rech'' + adjective and the superlative is formed with ''hă'et'' + adjective.
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*''hă'et to'' = best
*''hă'et to'' = best


The word for 'than' is ''ăngi'' 'surpass', and ''rech'' is not necessary when ''ăngi'' is used. Colloquially the similar-sounding ''ngie'' 'like' may be used instead.
The word for 'than' is ''ăngi'' 'surpass', and ''rech'' is not necessary when ''ăngi'' is used. Colloquially the similar-sounding ''ngĭ'' 'like' may be used instead.


For comparing two verbs or clauses, you need to use
For comparing two verbs or clauses, you need to use
''ăngi fid moang'' or ''ăngi foang'', lit. 'than that which':
''ăngi fid moang'' or ''ăngi foang'', lit. 'than that which':


:'''''Bloy Etingof chea chmi hoth rech thăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărișür ya in.'''''
:'''''Bloy Etingof chea chmi ben rech tăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărĭșür măluac.'''''
:'''''(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür ya in)'''''
:'''''(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür măluac)'''''
:Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up with 3SG
:Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up follow
:''Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.''
:''Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.''


Line 330: Line 483:
*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''hos'' = conditional
*''hos'' = conditional
*fnga = can
* tsămfe = 'situationally can'
*fnga = can, to know how to
*poar = like to
*poar = like to
*thăgem = want to
*thăgem = want to
*pdar = must
*pdar = must
*fteal = should


===Determiners===
===Determiners===
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*te = and
*te = and
*uy = xor
*uy = xor
*soas = or (either one of two)
*soał = or (either one of two)
*seam = but (however)
*seam = but (however)
*chăbec = (higher register) however
*chăbec = (higher register) however
Line 347: Line 502:
*łüch șa = in order to
*łüch șa = in order to
*hăbra = therefore
*hăbra = therefore
*pilang = because
*pĭlang = because
**ło(ng) = (high register) because
**łong = (high register) because; ław = (high register) because of
*ătuach nga = although
*ătuach nga = although
**ya(ng) = (high register) although
**ya(ng) = (high register) although
Line 358: Line 513:
*swe/sweng = when, while
*swe/sweng = when, while
*șăfongtas nga = as long as
*șăfongtas nga = as long as
*mi tstoal nga = as soon as
*mĭ tstoal nga = as soon as
*nüng = until
*roan = until
*tă'iep = on the other hand
*tă'iep = on the other hand
*sach = also
*sach = also


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Classical Naeng inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ''*ya rie'' for 'with me' is incorrect as in CNaeng) but are only used in formal or written Naeng. Spoken Naeng uses directionals and verbs of motion instead of inflected prepositions.
The regular pronominal affixes:
*1sg: ''-ir''
*2sg: ''-eł'' (m), ''-łes'' (f)
*3sg: ''-n'' (m), ''-s'' (f)
*1pl.ex: ''-tsa''
*1pl.in: ''-ang''
*2pl: ''-łam''
*3pl: ''-nam''
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
! !!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (neopronoun)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!! they (neopronoun) !!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)
|-
!|''mi'' 'in, at'
||''mir''||''mił''||''miłes''||''miłe''||''mi Pra''||''min''||''mis''||''mie''||''mitsa''||''ming''||''miłam''||''minam''
|-
!|''șa'' 'to, for'
|| ''șar''||''șał''||''șăłes''||''șăłe''||''șa Pra''||''șan''||''șas''||''șăngie''||''șătsa''||''șbang''||''șăłam''||''șănam''
|-
!|''fa'' 'from'
|| ''ăchir''||''ăcheł''||''ăchłes''||''ăchłe''||''fa Pra''||''ăchin''||''ăchis''||''ăchie''||''ăchtsa''||''ăchbang''||''ăchłam''||''ăchnam''
|-
!| ''ya'' 'with'
|| ''yăngir''||''yăngeł''||''yăngłes''||''yăngłe''||''ya Pra''||''yăngin''||''yăngis''||''yăngie''||''yăngtsa''||''yăbang''||''yăłam''||''yănam''
|-
!| ''ław'' 'on'
|| ''łăwir'' || ''łăweł'' || ''łăwłes''|| ''łăwłe''||''ław Pra'' ||''łăwin''||''łăwis'' ||''łăwie''||''łăwtsa''||''łăbang''||''łăwłam''||''łăwnam''
|-
!| ''cde'' 'around, about'
|| ''cder'' || ''cdeł'' || ''ctiłes''|| ''ctiłe''||''cde Pra'' ||''cdin''||''cdis'' ||''cdie''||''ctitsa''||''ctibang''||''ctiłam''||''ctinam''
|}
Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. ''șăngłam'' or ''șăngir''
*moang: of (optional)
*moang: of (optional)
*mi: locative; in, at
*mĭ: locative; in, at
*ya: with
*ya: with
*șa: to, for
*șa: to, for
*ngie: like, as
*ngĭ: like, as
*fa: ablative
*fa: ablative
*tsăbi: without
*tsăbi: without
*fe: by (passive)
*fe: by (passive)
*ło: on, about
*ław: on
*cde (higher register): about, concerning
*cde: around, about, concerning
*tăngap: before
*tăngap: before
*woach: behind
*woach: behind
*łăgie: after
*łăgie: after
*bar: through
*bath: through
*ștal: along
*ștal: along
*ngie prăwim: according to
*ngĭ prăwim: according to
*nüng = until, up to
* roan ('to wait'): (temporary) until
**häb = (high register synonym of ''nüng'')
* nüng = (literary) until, up to  
** häb = (high register synonym of ''nüng'')
**fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
**fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
*măceaf = towards (a person)
*măceaf = towards (a person)
*mi hoath = by means of
*mĭ hoath = by means of
*mi rădun = instead of
*mĭ rădun = instead of
*liștew = over, instead of
*lĭștew = over, instead of
*năguł = above
*năguł = above
*fă'üet = under
*fă'üet = under
Line 399: Line 590:
*thușnoa = be sure to
*thușnoa = be sure to
*ruay hălșab = be permitted to
*ruay hălșab = be permitted to
*seaf te VERB = continues to VERB


===Adverbs of location===
===Adverbs of location===
Line 408: Line 600:
*psuy = down
*psuy = down
*mif ey = on the side
*mif ey = on the side
*lăgoan = besides
*săfea te wăgie (from *s{{angbr|oX}}pe de w{{angbr|oX}}gi) = back and forth, to and fro
*săfea te wăgie (from *s{{angbr|oX}}pe de w{{angbr|oX}}gi) = back and forth, to and fro


Line 428: Line 621:
**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
*tămo = very, very much, greatly
*tămo = very, very much, greatly
**''Is chea dur thușrăber fa in tămo.'' = She came to be very resentful of him.
**''Ies chea dur thușrăber fa ien tămo.'' = She came to be very resentful of him.
*tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
*tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
*eth = it does, doesn't it?
*eth = it does, doesn't it?
Line 436: Line 629:
**''In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs.'' = He writes about sociology a lot.
**''In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs.'' = He writes about sociology a lot.
*łüp = a little
*łüp = a little
**tăfad = little, only a little
**yic łüp = little, only a little
*ngie tlieb = about, approximately
*ngĭ tlieb = about, approximately
*rech șămea = more
*rech șămea = more
**rech tăfad = less
**rech tăfad = less
Line 450: Line 643:
NAdj, NGen, NRel, prepositions
NAdj, NGen, NRel, prepositions


:'''''Rie chmi brits cdes că'üs tes tsăctsoc.'''''
:'''''Rie chmi briets cdes că'üs tes tsăctsoc.'''''
:1SG PROG speak about-SPEC love and-SPEC hate
:1SG PROG speak about-SPEC love and-SPEC hate
:''I speak of love and hate.''
:''I speak of love and hate.''
Line 458: Line 651:
:''The bird is eating a seed.''
:''The bird is eating a seed.''
===Existence===
===Existence===
Existence is indicated using ''ruay'' 'to have':
Existence is indicated using ''ruay'' 'to have'; indeed, this is the more archaic meaning of ''ruay''.


:'''''Chea ruay rath hăngüs fa yeap.'''''
:'''''Chea ruay rath hăngüs fa yeap.'''''
Line 464: Line 657:


===Questions===
===Questions===
Modern Windermere is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Windermere.
Modern Naeng is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Naeng.


===Time clauses===
===Time clauses===
Line 474: Line 667:
TENSE MARKER + NEGATION + AUXILIARY + '''VERB''' + pronominal oblique object + direct objects + nominal oblique object
TENSE MARKER + NEGATION + AUXILIARY + '''VERB''' + pronominal oblique object + direct objects + nominal oblique object


:'''''Hăyad chea rüe tsăstsus șa Inthar, seam in chea die făntsüc chămpüe fid.'''''
:'''''Hăyad chea rüe tsăstsus șa Inthar, seam ien chea die făntsüc chămpüe fid.'''''
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
=== Serial verbs ===
Serial verbs are common as in Southeast Asian langs. Negated as follows:
: ''Rie sișpeal die tsäl''
: 'I don't understand [what was said]' (lit. I hear not understand)
: ''fi inthar ngi'üt chwäp hămtean fi tar imhareach''
: DEF raven bring.ATEL light enter.ATEL DEF house PL-story
: 'Raven brings light into the house of stories'


===Inversion===
===Inversion===
Line 483: Line 684:
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  


:'''''Plachtom e chwep!'''''
:'''''Plachtom e chwäp!'''''
:appear NOM light
:appear NOM light
:''Let there be light!''
:''Let there be light!''
===The more... the more...===
===The more... the more...===
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Hoth-hoth rie, căfol-căfol rie blaw.'''''
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Ămben-ămben e rie, căfol-căfol e rie blaw.'''''
:1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run 1SG, become-become 1SG fat.
:1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run SBJ 1SG, become-become SBJ 1SG fat.
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''


===Relative clauses===
===Relative clauses===
''moang'' is the relativizer. It is oftne dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).
''moang'' is the relativizer. It is often dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).


When the head becomes an oblique object, no resumptive pronoun is used.
When the head becomes an oblique object, using a resumptive pronoun is a formal Naeng strategy. Resumptive pronouns are not common in the colloquial language:


English what-clauses are translated with ''fid moang...'' ''foang...''.  
:Colloquial: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay'' ('the market I went to', lit. "the market that I walked_telic")
:Formal: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay şa dunfi'' (lit. "the market that I walked_telic to there")


This is also used to translate ''the [adjective] one'' in English:  
English what-clauses are translated with ''fid moang...'' or ''foang...''. ''foang'' is also used to translate ''the [adjective] one'' in English:  
:'''''Łes tsădwer ăyied ra, foang sim uy foang pday?'''''
:'''''Łes tsădwer ăyied ra, foang sim uy foang pday?'''''
:2SG.F choose box INTERR, that_which red xor that_which blue
:2SG.F choose box INTERR, that_which red xor that_which blue
Line 505: Line 708:
===Exclamations===
===Exclamations===
As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'', in the construction ''ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness"'' (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ''ha(y) foang [clause]'' (= 'how [clause]/how much...').
As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'', in the construction ''ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness"'' (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ''ha(y) foang [clause]'' (= 'how [clause]/how much...').
:'''''Ha fi hălfnărnach fi moșiew! Ha foang is fnga sătsiet bang!'''''
:'''''Ha fĭ hălfngărnach fĭ moșiew! Ha foang ies fnga sătsiet bang!'''''
:VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
:VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
:''How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us!'' (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)
:''How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us!'' (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)


:'''''Hay fi hălwier moang in lăleș mi yăgom!'''''
:'''''Hay fĭ hălwier moang ien lăleș mĭ yăgom!'''''
:VOC DEF beauty REL he play_an_instrument LOC zither
:VOC DEF beauty REL he play_an_instrument LOC zither
:''How beautifully he plays the zither!''
:''How beautifully he plays the zither!''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Modern Windermere contains more Talmic and Hlou-Shum loanwords than Classical Windermere; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many [[Eevo]] loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.
Modern Naeng contains more Netagin and Talmic loanwords than Classical Naeng; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many [[Eevo]] loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.


===Layers===
===Layers===
* inherited Windermere (including Talmic loans)
* inherited Naeng (including older Talmic loans)
* Tseer loans
* Tseer and Talmic loans, esp. during the Middle Naeng period. These words often sound high register, like Aramaic loans do in Modern Hebrew
* Hlou-Shum loans
* Netagin loans
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* Ancient and Classical Windermere reborrowings
* Recent native coinages; reborrowings from older Naeng stages
*recent Eevo loans
*recent Eevo loans
====Tseero-Windermere====
Note: The spellings do not approximate Classical Tseer with Modern Windermere but with Classical Windermere.
Vowels: i u e ø o a ii uu ee øø oo aa -> i u e ö o a iN uN eN öN oN aN (N assimilates to the appropriate nasal before stops/spirants, is -ng otherwise)
Consonants: m n ng -b t/-d tx ts th k/-g b d g f x s kh h -v -ð w l r y -> m n ng p t t ts ts t c b d g f s ș ch h b d w l r y
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Part-of-speech changing affixes====
====Part-of-speech changing affixes====
*TODO: another nominalizer?
*TODO: another nominalizer?
*{{angbr|''i''}} = nominalizer for verbs
*{{angbr|''ĭ''}} = nominalizer for verbs
*''bin-'' = nominalizer for verbs
*''bĭn-'' = nominalizer for verbs
*''hăl-'' = nominalizer for adjectives
*''hăl-'' = nominalizer for adjectives
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*sngeaf 'world, Tricin' < seaf 'walk, go'
*sngeaf 'world, Hmøøh, age (used in the idiom ''sloc imsngeaf'' "forever" (lit. until the judgement of the world) ' < seaf 'walk, go'
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*''di-'' = negation
*''dĭ-'' = negation
*''cha-'' = -less
*''cha-'' = -less
*''ing-'' = verbalizer
*''ĭng-'' = verbalizer
*''mo-'' (+ voicing of plosives) = adjectivizer
*''mo-'' (+ voicing of plosives) = adjectivizer
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Windermere; and productive to an extent in Modern Windermere)
*''neach-'' = agentive
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Windermere *p + *ha)
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Naeng; and productive to an extent in Modern Naeng)
*{{angbr|''năr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Naeng *p + *ha)
*{{angbr|''ngăr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
**''yar'' = flower > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
**''yar'' 'flower' > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
**''inthar'' 'raven' > ''inthărthar'' 'crow'
*''‹ră›'' = patient noun
*''‹ră›'' = patient noun
*''pră-'' = patient noun, -ee
*''pră-'' = patient noun, -ee
*''ha-'' = -able, able to [intransitive verb]
*''ha-'' = -able, able to [intransitive verb]
*''-om'' = augmentative
*''-ith'' = diminutive
===="Trigger" verb affixes====
===="Trigger" verb affixes====
The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Windermere times.  
The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Naeng times.  


*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
*''‹ith›'' = Locative trigger
*''‹ĭth›'' = Locative trigger
*''‹ăw›'' = Instrumental trigger
*''‹ăw›'' = Instrumental trigger
*''‹ăfong›'' = Destination trigger
*''‹ăfong›'' = Destination trigger
**''răfongüe'' 'to endow' < ''rüe'' 'to give'
**''răfongüe'' 'to endow' < ''rüe'' 'to give'
*''‹ălis›'' = Comitative trigger
*''‹ălĭs›'' = Comitative trigger
*''‹ăm›'' = Source/cause trigger
*''‹ăm›'' = Source/cause trigger
*''‹ăchem›'' = Benefactive/purpose trigger
*''‹ăchem›'' = Benefactive/purpose trigger
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger


====Lexical aspect affixes====
==== Aspect? ====
Proto-Lakovic aspects became derivational already in Classical Windermere, analogous to how PIE aspects became lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Windermere has been the most heavily affected.
Many Proto-Lakovic aspects had become derivational by Classical Naeng, analogous to how PIE aspects became inflectional or lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Naeng has been the most heavily affected.


Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
Line 575: Line 776:
*intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
*intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
*distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = ''eNFă-''
*distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = ''eNFă-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''osăL-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''os-, osăL-''
*graduative = ''tăFa-''
*graduative = ''tă-, tăFa-''


Should inflectional tam be more complex?
====Concatenation====
====Concatenation====
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English. Concatenated expressions are hyphenated, e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English: e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').


The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:  
The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:  
*''tar-siet'' (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
*''tar-siet'' (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
*''șän-fănaw'' (lit. 'word of truth') means 'wake-up call' (but it's more formal).
*''șän-finaw'' (lit. 'word of truth') means 'major warning sign, wake-up call' in formal language.


Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Windermere.
Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Naeng.


Common concatenated morphemes are:
Common concatenated morphemes are:
Line 619: Line 821:
===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
<!--
<!--
Pgäw hănărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  
Pgäw hăngărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  


PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
Line 630: Line 832:
-->
-->


:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cithloch se thibur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pircey Abot 2’21”)'''''
:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cĭthloch se thĭbur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pirceay Afoat 2’21”)'''''
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)


===Inge===
===Inge===
Bang fa bin'ătsoal fi lăhoal fi sngeaf imtriem, te fa păfonglis fi imșășur bang ya tsăngua te gow mi thusăyüer chngăfi, häb nga tsip crirath, päd fnga frel e nam săwim, ănam hos ristey fi chlăpsür mi wă'ua croth.
''Bang fa bin'ătsoal fĭ lăhoal fĭ sngeaf ĭmtriem, te fa păfonglis fĭ ĭmșășur bang ya tsăngua te gow mĭ thusăyüer chngăfi, häb nga tsip crĭrath, päd fnga frel e nam săwim, ănam hos rĭstey fĭ chlăpsür mĭ wă'ua croth.''


1PL.IN PERF enslave DEF rest DEF world PL-animal, and PERF treat DEF PL-cousins  1PL.IN with fur and feather ADV evil so_much, until COMP without doubt, if_counterfactual POT transmit NOM 3PL.AN story, 3PL.AN COND imagine DEF villain in form human_being.
1PL.IN PERF enslave DEF rest DEF world PL-animal, and PERF treat DEF PL-cousins  1PL.IN with fur and feather ADV evil so_much, until COMP without doubt, if_counterfactual POT transmit NOM 3PL.AN story, 3PL.AN COND imagine DEF villain in form human_being.


==="Ne-Zim"===
==="Ne-Zim"===
Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te di ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămirüe łithad tsip neab te tămiseath e fid swoch, lea mot bintănse yășithbech? Tieth, fid mot mitse paw yătithun moang binłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngie nuthbur papluas mi-thäș, șang fid plang łos imsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, fi mocănłin Pra lea chithud srüe ngil e rie "Seth" mi łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim
''Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te die ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămĭrüe łĭthad tsip neab te tămĭseath e fid swoch, lea mot bĭntănse hașĭthbech? Tieth, fid mot mĭtse paw yătĭthun moang bĭnłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngĭ nuthbur papluas mĭ-thäș, șang fid plang łos ĭmsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, fĭ mocănłin Pra lea chĭthud srüe ngil e rie "Grath" mĭ łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim''


===From Hamlet===
===From Hamlet===
:'''''Șa ftsüen uy șa răchta, sed mot eth fi binbiets.'''''
:'''''Șa ftsüen uy șa răchta, sed fĭ bĭnbiets fănaw.'''''
:To live or to die, this.PRON COP exactly DEF question
:To live or to die, this.PRON DEF question real
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''


(This line is in the Windermere alexandrine)
(This line is in the Naeng alexandrine)


===From the Internationale===
===From the Internationale===
Line 655: Line 857:


===UDHR===
===UDHR===
'''''Binhithma lăchpaș moang fi imłin croth'''''
'''''Binhithma lăchpaș cdef imłin croth'''''


'''''Nicüf tăche'''''
'''''Nicüf tăche'''''


'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe ănam yas hălpăthin tes hălslith'a, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șăgor hălchăsräf.'''''
'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe nam yas hălpăthin tes bintochur, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șă'or hălchăsräf.'''''


all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow
all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow


(''Mategian; Bjeheondian'') [ts̠or̥ kʰr̥oð vä ʔɘˈʂeəl pʰluəm tʰe ðyr mis hlˈtsəbäs tʰes ʔimˈɬin ‖ ʔɘnäm häk rɘvoˈŋyə jäs̠ hlpɘˈðin tʰes̠ hls̠liθˈʔa, tʰe pʰɘdar ðuʃˈnoə ʔe näm tʰnze viˈdoən mɘˈkʰeəv nɘˈðä mis̠ ʂəˈɣor̥ hlxɘzˈræf]
(''Standard Bjeheondian'') [tsɔɐ kʁaoð və ʔəʃɛl plum te ðyɐ mɪs hltsəbɒs təs ʔɪmɬin. tʉŋ ʁəvoŋø nɒm jəs hlpəðin təz bɪntoxuɐ, tə pda: ðʉʃnɔ e nɒm tənzae vɪdɔn məkɛv nəðɒ mɪs ʃəgɔɐ hlxəzʁæv]
 
(''Wen Dămea'') [tso̞:r kʰr̥o̞:ð fä əˈʃeːɤˁ pʰχˁuəm tʰe̞ θy:r mis hɤˁˈtsɑ:s tʰe̞s imˈɬi:n ‖ ənä:m häk rəvo̞ˈŋyə jäs hɤˁpəˈðin tʰe̞s hɤˁsʁˁiθˈʔa, tʰe̞ pʰta:r θuʃˈnoə ʔe̞ nä:m tʰənse̞: fiˈdoən məˈkʰeəv nəˈðä: mis ʃko̞:r  hɤˁxəzˈre:v]


===The Round Table===
===The Round Table===
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the [[Verse:Tricin/Imθumăytil|Imθumăytil]] into Modern Windermere by Yăchef Clay.
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/Imθumitil|Imθumitil]] into Modern Naeng by Pida Yăchef Samarasang.


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Modern Wdm.
Modern Naeng


''Mi ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach imchäth mis mogor litheath. Fi Pida Brăwied chea sray bintăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"''
''Mĭ ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach ĭmchäth mĭs mogor litheath. Fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea sray bĭntăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"''


''Swe chea chmi chnung e müets imchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mi tsum immognas tach dunse, immălin thaf müets, imchustiw liew, imchusmäch thaf müets, imchumüets tach, te doan imchutach."''
''Swe chea chmi chnung e müets ĭmchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mĭ tsum ĭmmognas tach dunse, ĭmmălin thaf müets, ĭmchustiw liew, ĭmchusmech thaf müets, ĭmchumüets tach, te doan ĭmchutach."''


''Prăyon nga fi Pida Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hiboath șaf ti'uar?"''
''Prăyon nga fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hĭboath șaf tĭ'uar?"''


''Ăfifay chea că'aw e fid: "Lea sed die placănărnga, fi Pida? Bang ruay tsor ti'uar palüc, sach se făbeang imti'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"''
''Chea că'aw e fied: "Lea sed die placămărnga, fĭ Pĭda? Bang ruay tsor tĭ'uar palüc, sach se făbeang ĭmtĭ'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"''


''Fi Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mi ngil, "Fi chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng te thăpal fănaw."''
''Fĭ Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mĭ ngil, "Fĭ chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng mi finaw."''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Original (Classical Wdm.)
Original (Classical Naeng)


''Ngiθ dur se taχ χaaθ mogor. Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwiid: "Măra łĭnam?"''
''Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Mi-ăngnung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: Șrüχ te-stiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müüts θraaφ, liiw stăliw, θaφ te-müüts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''  
''Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''


''Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwiid: "Ǎna mee ra, srüü hĭdeen croθ năθa?"''
''"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Eφθooc χaaθ, "Op cănga, φin Pida: tsor pădiiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!"''
''"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.''


''Esngiim φin Pĭda Brăwiid șa φin χaaθ șa-ngil, "Ăruuy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw."''
''"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
English
English
Line 700: Line 900:
Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many people are you?"
Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwied asked them a question: "How many people are you?"


While five children were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."
While five children were still counting, one child called out: "Sixty-three! Specifically, 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."


Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person joins the group?"
Then Master Brăwied asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person joins the group?"


The child replied: "Isn't it obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"
The child replied: "Isn't that obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"


The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom and understanding indeed."
The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom indeed."
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


Line 732: Line 932:
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
===Meter===
===Meter===
A literary Windermere meter is determined by
A literary Naeng meter is determined by
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
*A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
*Zero or more caesurae in each line.
*Zero or more caesurae in each line.


The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the [[Verse:Tricin/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Windermere national anthem.
The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the [[Verse:Hmøøh/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Bjeheondian national anthem.
 
Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Windermere verse is the ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.
 
Fantasy author [[Verse:Tricin/Srăga Tsayfuan|Srăga Tsayfuan]] used a variety of meters for the poetry in his novels. For example, he uses the alexandrine and other "Classical" meters to render Elvish poetry:
<poem>
'''''Mi seaf imfnüd se doach te tsmüng ăbüch mosrel,'''''
'''''Tes tsor hălpduth șăm'it — lăta, chnet fa mi yem!'''''
'''''Rănoat ef loc Dămath, dicleap yaf imhăcwel;'''''
'''''Doar bang, yăsnar, tămnüth, mi sngom se chwep păhem.'''''
'''''— faf chnur Dsüslăf'''''
 
Gloss:
LOC walk PL-day SP summer and meet wind wintry,
and all hope vanish — look ray from afar
spin_intransitive NOM-DEF wheel fortune, indifferent with-DEF PL-sweat;
yet 1PL.IN, skillful, work_hard, in seek SP light early_morning
 
Paraphrase:
''As summer days trudge on, and meet the winter soil,''
''And all hope comes to naught — light shines from far away.''
''Let Fortune turn her wheel, oblivious to our toil;''
''We skilled ones persevere and seek the light of day.''
''— from Dzüsləf's Song''
</poem>


Some other meters are:
Some other meters are:
*Free verse
*Free verse
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
*Quantitative meters from Netagin poetry


Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Naeng verse is the ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.


[[Category:Windermere]]
[[Category:Naeng]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tricin]]
[[Category:Hmøøh]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
IlL
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