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:''This article describes Modern Windermere. See [[Windermere/Classical]] for Classical Windermere.''
:''This article describes Modern Naeng. See [[Naeng/Classical]] for Classical Naeng.''


[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Texts]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Translations]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/{{PAGENAME}}|Fi tbeach fi mi-brits Dămea]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
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|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|creator = [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|name = Windermere
|name = Naeng
|nativename = fi cduay Dămea
|nativename = fi brits Dămea
|pronunciation=   
|pronunciation=   
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|setting = [[Verse:Hmøøh]]
|region = Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl, ...
|region = Pategia, Bjeheond, Quintlopetl, ...
|speakers=550 million
|speakers=220 million
|date=13b0dd
|date=13b0dd
|familycolor=tergetic
|familycolor=tergetic
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam1=[[Lakovic]]
|fam2=[[Ashanic]]
|fam2=[[Naengic]]
|fam3=[[Windermere/Classical|Classical Windermere]]
|fam3=[[Naeng/Classical|Classical Naeng]]
|script=Windermere script
|script=Naeng script
|iso3=
|iso3=
|official=USB, Tumhan, Pategia, Quintlopetl, Yocneam
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


'''Windermere''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /fi kduəj dəmeə/; [[Eevo]]: ''a łynøñ Dymee'') is a [[Lakovic]] language belonging to the Ashanic branch. It is also known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''ne Qašenin'' in [[Netagin]], ''Haxānimiz'' /ˈʔaʃaːnimis/ in [[Naquian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døludx Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in various Trician languages. It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]], [[Tsrovesh]], and [[Häskä]].
'''Naeng''' (''fi cduay Dămea'' /vɪi gduəj dəmeə/ or ''fi cduay Neng'' /... naeŋ/; [[Eevo]]: ''a łynǿñ Dymee'' or ''a łynǿñ Neng'') is a [[Lakovic]] language belonging to the Naengic branch. It is also known as '''Ashanian''' (e.g. ''ne Qaśenin'' in [[Netagin]], specifically for Classical Naeng, ''zinAxān'' /sinaʃaːn/ in [[Naquian]]) or '''Tergetian''' (e.g. ''døluder Terged'' in [[Tseer]], ''tergetosin'' in [[Clofabosin]]) in various Hmøøhian languages. It is more distantly related to [[Tseer]], [[Ksieh]] and other Lakovic languages.


Modern Windermere is a koine/lingua franca/creole arising from various Classical Windermere reading and interpretive traditions, and some scholars believe that Modern Windermere grammar doesn't directly continue that of Classical Windermere. An even more unorthodox view proposed by modern linguist Hăyad Săfărchal is that Modern Windermere shouldn't be thought of as a Lakovic language at all, unlike Tseer; he thinks it's a relexification of various non-Ashanic Lakovic languages and Netagin vernaculars with Classical Windermere words, and he proposes that it be renamed to ''fi cduay Biechănd'' or the Bjeheondian language. This hypothesis is challenged by Prăfin fa-Bălang and other scholars of creoles and sprachbunds in Tricin, who cited various historical intermediate stages of Windermere which appeared in writing and in folk songs.
Modern Naeng is a revived koine/lingua franca/creole arising from various Classical Naeng reading and interpretive traditions, and some scholars believe that Modern Naeng grammar doesn't directly continue that of Classical Naeng. An even more unorthodox view proposed by modern linguist Lămanoa Wadangpaş is that Modern Naeng should be thought of as a Lakovic-Netagin-Nurian hybrid language, unlike [[Tergetian vernaculars]] (descendants of Classical Tseer) which are true Lakovic languages; he thinks Modern Naeng is in part a relexification of Netagin and Nurian with Classical Naeng words, and he proposes that it be renamed to ''fi brits Biechănd'' or the Bjeheondian language. This hypothesis is challenged by Prăfin of Bălang and other scholars of creoles and sprachbunds in Hmøøh, who cited various historical intermediate stages of Naeng which appeared in writing (e.g. works by Etsoj Jopah) and in folk songs. For example, the polite pronoun ''Pra'' (from ''pida'' 'sage'), which is post-Classical, is found in ___'s letters.


Today, this relatively conservative descendant of [[Classical Windermere]] is spoken in the [[Verse:Tricin/USB|USB]], [[Verse:Tricin/Tumhan|Tumhan]], [[Verse:Tricin/Pategia|Pategia]], and in former Windermere colonies in [[Verse:Tricin/Txapoalli|Txapoalli]], whereas in [[Talma]] Classical Windermere was replaced with vernacular Windermere varieties and other languages. With 550 million native and L2 speakers, it is the fourth most widely spoken language and the most widely spoken [[Lakovic]] language. It forms the [[Bjeheond]]ian sprachbund with [[Netagin/Vernacular|Vernacular Netagin]], [[Trây]], [[Gwnax]], and most other Bjeheondian languages.  
Today, Naeng is the majority language of Pategia and Quintlopetl, and a prominent minority language of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/USB|USB]] and [[Verse:Hmøøh/Tumhan|Tumhan]]. In [[Talma]] Classical Naeng was replaced with vernacular Tseer varieties (called the [[Tergetian vernaculars|Tergetian languages]]) and other languages. It forms the [[Bjeheond]]ian sprachbund with [[Netagin]] vernaculars, [[Trây]], [[Gwnax]], and most other Bjeheondian languages.  


{{Windermere sidebar}}
{{Naeng sidebar}}


==External history==
==External history==
Windermere is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by English, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of my old Talmic sketches.
Naeng is based on similarities between Hebrew and Mon-Khmer languages, such as final stress, minor syllables and head-initial syntax. Aesthetically it's also inspired by German, Romanian and [[Tíogall]], one of [[User:IlL]]'s old Talmic sketches.
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].
It was originally created by [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]] for the [[Fifth Linguifex Relay]].


==Todo==
==Todo==
Drel ya-rie srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live
Lakovic no longer has gneder; get rid of gendered pronouns?


casual: Drel măluac srüe ... lit. come follow if ...
Should th be dental d~t (and d, t alveolar~retro)?
 
Need Tigol words in Naeng
 
Inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ya rie and șa rie are incorrect) -- but are only used in formal Naeng
 
Ien ruay ched Lăbaldimoara - He lives in Baltimore (mi is optional)
 
Făngtsăfie = Philadelphia, via quasi-Arabic "fa3Dafiyya" <- hypothetical PSem *paʕtɬ'ap-
 
Wenmĭryam = Maryland
 
Merge c and g and introduce Ch clusters? or should those become breathy voiced vowels
 
''nean'' - a verb of motion/direction
 
When was glādos 'god' (> gláḋ > glọð > glawð) borrowed?
* If before the Naengic vowel shift, then make it ''Clot'' /klaot/
* If during Tigol stage: ''Clod'' /klaod/
* If post-revival Eevo loan: ''Grath'' /gʀɒð/ or ''Groth'' /gʀaoð/
 
yăhuaș should be a Naeng adjective
 
Măluac yări srüe thăgem ftsüen e łen = Come with me if you want to live (lit. follow with me)
 
casual: Măluac drel ngăse srüe ... lit. Follow hither if ...


Lăchier e Pra haș mül mĭf brits Anggla, chăbec ngĭ fĭthnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän
Lăchier e Pra haș mül mĭf brits Anggla, chăbec ngĭ fĭthnar e tchung croth șaf brits hathbur Pra șän-șän


db dg > dw, gb gd > gw gl, bd bg > bl pg
Ădoath chea thosli drel sed. (Dream PST reveal hither this) / literary: Ădoath chea thosli şar sed. lit. A dream revealed this to me
 
Ădoath chea thosli drel sed. (Dream PST reveal come this) / literary: Ădoath chea thosli şa rie sed. lit. A dream revealed this to me


More realistic vowel split:
More realistic vowel split:
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*à è ì ò ù ǜ → ATR æ e i o u y → ä ea i oa u ü
*à è ì ò ù ǜ → ATR æ e i o u y → ä ea i oa u ü


Directional verbs as in Southeast Asian languages, e.g. ngămlac seaf "to call someone" vs ngămlac drel "to call someone back" -- sometimes casual Windermere uses these rather than pronouns to disambiguate referents like ''Ien chea briets drel sed'' "He told me this"
Directional verbs as in Southeast Asian languages, e.g. ngămlac seaf "to call someone" vs ngămlac drel "to call someone back" -- sometimes casual Naeng uses these rather than pronouns to disambiguate referents like ''Ien chea briets drel sed'' "He told me this"


Pronouns aren't used as often in colloquial Windermere e.g. ''Fi tsum rad?'' for ''What's your name''? Formal Windermere would have ''Fi tsum łe/łen/łes rad?''; ''Seaf ra?'' for "Where are you going?"
Pronouns aren't used as often in colloquial Naeng e.g. ''Fi tsum rad?'' for ''What's your name''? Formal Naeng would have ''Fi tsum łe/łen/łes rad?''; ''Seaf ra?'' for "Where are you going?"


More directional markers which work like serial verbs besides seaf/drel?
More directional markers which work like serial verbs besides seaf/drel?
in older usage (Early Modern Windermere) ''Pra'' was sometimes a third person pronoun but this is archaic
CWdm drel/seaf replaced with Slavic motion verbs? (Netagin influence)


==Diachronics==
==Diachronics==
===Phonological history===
===Phonological history===
*Classical Wdm. /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/; /f θ/ gain voiced realizations
*PLak i e a ā o u in unstressed syllables → CNaeng ĭ ĭ Ø ă ǎ Ø
*Classical Wdm. reduced vowels ''ă'' /ɔ/ and ''ĭ'' /ɨ/ merge into ''ă'' /ə/
*Classical Naeng /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ become /f θ x/; /f θ/ gain voiced realizations
*Classical Naeng reduced vowels ''ă'' /ɔ/ and ''ĭ'' /ɨ/ merge into ''ă'' /ə/
*Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes:
*Breathy vowels become separate vowel phonemes:
**CWdm a e i o u ü → MidWdm ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → ModWdm a e ie o ua üe
**CNaeng a e i o u ü → MidNaeng ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ → ModNaeng /ɒ ae ɪ ao u ø/
**CWdm à è ì ò ù ǜ → MidWdm æ e i o u y → ModWdm ä ea i oa u ü
**CNaeng à è ì ò ù ǜ → MidNaeng æ e i o u y → ModNaeng /æ e i o ʉ y/
*Classical Windermere ''ts'' and ''tł'' merged into /ts/, while ''ł'' (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/ (occasional tł -> ł in a few words)
*Classical Naeng ''ts'' and ''tł'' merged into /ts/, while ''ł'' (Basque s in Classical) shifted to /ɬ/ (occasional tł -> ł in a few words)


===Grammatical history===
===Grammatical history===
*Tense particles instead of older tense inflections
*Tense particles instead of older tense inflections
*Loss of the Classical Windermere accusative particle ''ü''
*Loss of the Classical Naeng accusative particle ''ü''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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! colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
!  |Labial<br/>''mofăsing''
!  |Labial<br/>''mofăsing''
!  |Dental<br/>''mogloł''
!  |Alveolar<br/>''mosăbies''
!  |Alveolar<br/>''mosăbies''
!  |Lateral<br/>''molăgoan''
!  |Lateral<br/>''molăngoan''
!  |Palatal<br/>''moyăclech''
!  |Palatal<br/>''moyălech''
!  |Velar<br/>''moscong''
!  |Velar<br/>''moscong''
!  |Glottal<br/>''motășac''
!  |Glottal<br/>''motășac''
Line 90: Line 114:
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal<br/>''mocră'i''
| '''m''' /m/
| '''m''' /m/
|
| '''n''' /n/  
| '''n''' /n/  
|  
|  
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|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! rowspan="2" |Plosive<br/>''bintăptep''
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătger''</small>
! |<small>voiced<br/>''yătcer''</small>
| '''b''' /b/
| '''b''' /b/
| '''th''' /d{{den}}/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''d''' /d/
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g/
|  
|  
|  
|-
|-
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatger''</small>
! |<small>voiceless<br/>''chatcer''</small>
| '''p''' /p/
| '''p''' /p/
|
| '''t''' /t/
| '''t''' /t/
|  
|  
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! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate<br/>''bintsăda''
|  
|  
| '''ts''' /ts/
|
| '''ts, tł''' /ts/
|  
|  
| '''tș''' /tʃ/
| '''tș''' /tʃ/
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! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
! |<small>spirant<br/>''binthăre''</small>
| '''f''' /v/
| '''f''' /v/
| '''th''' /ð/
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
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! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
! |<small>nonspirant <br/>''binsăreaf''</small>
|  
|  
|
| '''s''' /z/
| '''s''' /z/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
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| '''w''' /w/
| '''w''' /w/
|  
|  
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
| '''y''' /j/
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|}
|}


''tș'' /tʃ/ is mainly found in loans from [[Netagin]].
''tș'' /tʃ/ is mainly found in loans from Bjeheondian languages such as [[Netagin]].


Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Windermere '''tł''' as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.
Some dialects like the Rural Fincreaș dialect retain the Classical Naeng '''tł''' as a separate phoneme /tʃ~tʂ/.


/ʔ/ and /h/ are often dropped in casual speech.
/h/ is [ɦ] between voiced sounds. Many speakers drop /ʔ/ and /h/ in casual speech.


Voiceless stops /p t k/ are usually unaspirated [p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]. Voiced stops /b d g/ are fully voiced. Front fricatives /v ð z/ are by default voiced [v ð z]; they only devoice to [f θ s] when followed by an "inherently voiceless" consonant, i.e. one of /p t k ts x h ʔ/. (Thus obstruent voicing assimilation can be said to work like in Slavic languages or Israeli Hebrew.)
Voiceless stops /p t k/ are usually unaspirated [p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]. Voiced stops /b d{{den}} d g/ are fully voiced. Front fricatives /v z/ are by default voiced [v z]; they only devoice to [f s] when followed by an "inherently voiceless" consonant, i.e. one of /p t k ts x h ʔ/. (Thus obstruent voicing assimilation can be said to work like in Slavic languages or Israeli Hebrew.)


/əm ən əl ər/ become [m̩ n̩ l̩ ɐ] in closed unstressed syllables.
/əm ən əl ər/ become [m̩ n̩ l̩ ɐ] in closed unstressed syllables.


In some rural accents in eastern Bjeheond, around Plüeng Sănach, ''r'' is pronounced as an alveolar trill /r/. In the Wieb accent ''r'' triggers a low tone onset on the following vowel, and in contemporary Wieb Windermere this is the only sign of phonemic ''r'', with initial /r/ entirely replaced with /h/.
In some rural accents in eastern Bjeheond, around Plüeng Sănach, and in some styles of singing, ''r'' is pronounced as an alveolar trill /r/ in all positions. In the Wieb accent ''r'' triggers a low tone onset on the following vowel, and in contemporary Wieb Naeng this is the only sign of phonemic ''r'', with initial /r/ entirely replaced with [h].
 
''ff thth ss'' may be used to transcribe /f θ s/ in other languages.


===Vowels (''motrăway'')===
===Vowels (''motger'')===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
|-
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! style="" |Near-close
! style="" |Near-close
| '''ie''' /ɪ/
| '''ie''' /ɪ/
| '''üe''' /ø/
| '''üe, ö''' /ø/
|  
|  
|  
|  
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|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! style="" |Mid
| '''ea''' /ɛ/
| '''ea''' /e/
|  
|  
| '''ă''' /ə/
| '''ă''' /ə/
| '''oa''' /ɔ/
| '''oa''' /o/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
| '''ä''' /æ/
| '''ä''' /æ~eə/
|  
|  
| '''ăr''' /ɐ/
| '''ăr''' /ɐ/
| '''a''' /ɒ/
| '''a''' /ɒ/
|}
|}
*/ɒ æ ɛ ɔ/ are [ɒ̝ æ̝ ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
*/y ø/ are compressed and /ʉ/ is protruded.
*/ɒ æ e o/ are [ɒ̝ æ̝ ɛ̝ ɔ̝].
*In most accents, '''ir''' = '''ier''', '''ür''' = '''üer''', '''ur''' = '''uar'''.
*In most accents, '''ir''' = '''ier''', '''ür''' = '''üer''', '''ur''' = '''uar'''.
*Stressed '''ă''' is used mainly in loans from [[Tseer]].
*Stressed '''ă''' is used mainly in loans from [[Scellan]] (in Crackfic Hmøøh, English).
====R-vocalization====
====R-vocalization====
/ʁ/ vocalizes to [ɐ] when not before a vowel, as follows:
/ʁ/ vocalizes to [ɐ] when not before a vowel, as follows:
Line 213: Line 247:
*''or'' → [ɔɐ]
*''or'' → [ɔɐ]
*''ar'' = ''är'' → [aː]
*''ar'' = ''är'' → [aː]
*Vocalization of R has caused a chain vowel shift in Std. Wdm.:
*Vocalization of R has caused a chain vowel shift in stressed vowels Std. Naeng (these shifts don't occur for e o before w/y):
**''ie üe ua ea oa'' > [ɪ ø u ɛ̝ ɔ̝]
**''ie üe ua ea oa'' > [ɪ ø u ɛ̝ ɔ̝]
**''u e o'' > [ʉ ae ao]
**''u e o'' > [ʉ ae ao]
**''a ä'' > [ɒ̝ æ̝]
**''a ä'' > [ɒ̝ æ̝~eə]
 
==== Vowel reduction ====
Vowels reduce in unstressed syllables: a/ä reduces to ă, e/ie reduces to /I/, o/oa reduces to /o/


===Intonation ===
===Intonation ===
Standard Windermere intonation is like Israeli Hebrew except it's more stress-timed. In certain accents of Windermere, especially in the Wieb region, stressed syllables with a final voiceless consonant are pronounced with a rising tone and other stressed syllables with a falling tone. In contemporary Wieb Windermere final voicing is no longer contrastive, having entirely been replaced with tone -- Wieb Windermere can be analyzed as having four tones.
Standard Naeng intonation is like Standard Khmer. In certain accents of Naeng, especially in the Wieb region, stressed syllables with a final voiceless consonant are pronounced with a rising tone and other stressed syllables with a falling tone. In contemporary Wieb Naeng final voicing is no longer contrastive, having entirely been replaced with tone -- Wieb Naeng can be analyzed as having four tones.


===Stress===
===Stress===
Line 225: Line 262:


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are phonemically prohibited in coda; in most accents of Windermere final ''c'' surfaces as [ʔ].
Zero and C are the only permitted word-final codas. /g h ʔ/ are phonemically prohibited in coda; in most accents of Naeng final ''c'' surfaces as [ʔ].


Allowed initial clusters in Classical Windermere are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
Allowed initial clusters in Classical Naeng are similar to Khmer. Here is a list by type of cluster (some clusters may be listed more than once):
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
*Cl: pl, tl, cl, bl, dl, gl, fl, thl, chl, sl, tsl, șl
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
*Cr: pr, tr, tsr, cr, br, dr, gr, fr, thr, chr, sr, tsr, șr
Line 239: Line 276:


===Accents===
===Accents===
:''Main article: [[Windermere/Accents]]''
:''Main article: [[Naeng/Accents]]''


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
=== Classical script ===
=== Classical script ===
This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts (the Imθumăytil and other pidaic writings) and other Classical Windermere texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for [[Talmic]] languages. Nowadays it is mainly used for religious, ceremonial, and decorative purposes.
This script is the one used in the Mărotłite sacred texts (the Imθumăytil and other pidaic writings) and other Classical Naeng texts. It descends from Talmic runes and is thus a sister of the Talmic alphabet, which is used for [[Talmic languages]]. Nowadays it is mainly used for religious (Mărotłite announcements/edicts/rulings/etc.), ceremonial, and decorative purposes.
====Consonants====
====Consonants====
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
Consonants have capital and lowercase forms. Names and extremely respectful pronouns are written in all caps.
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ϫϫ Շչ Ɑᶑ Ѡϙ Ғғ Ѵѵ Ƌժ Ƨƨ ſʗ = p b f t d th c g ch
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ɨɟ ʢє Ϯ₼ = m n ng
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ (Պ'ɱ') = s ł ts tł ș tș
*Ϟɥ Ɔɔ Պɱ Պ̃ɱ̃ Ʌʎ (Պ'ɱ') = s ł ts tł ș (tș)
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ
*Էէ Ӿӿ Գƪ Քƍ Ֆⱷ Пп = r w y h l ʔ


The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:
The alphabetical order for the consonant letters is:


R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șănat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir)
R D F L M G C B S Ł Ș Y NG T N TH P CH H W TS TŁ (rieth, däl, fieth, lear, mear, goal, cam, boal, sam, ła, șnat, yam, ngoath, trop, nang, thop, pa, cha, hieth, wir, tsaf, tłaf)


rădäf = alphabet
rădäf = alphabet
Line 264: Line 301:


=== Modern script ===
=== Modern script ===
[[File:Bjeheondian Naeng script.png|thumbnail|The modern Naeng script]]


The modern Windermere script is an abugida related to Idavic scripts. It derives from an old Bjeheondian runic alphabet which was in turn, an adaptation of an even older logographic writing system used by the Dwābisȝōlam civilization (from ancient Erkwisngwal).
The modern Naeng script is an abugida related to Idavic scripts. It derives from an old Bjeheondian runic alphabet, which was in turn an adaptation of an even older logographic writing system used by the Dábhiaŋal (Naeng ''Dobingal'') civilization (from ancient Erkwisngwal).
 
Should look square-ish like both Hebrew and Khmer


==Parts of speech==
==Parts of speech==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'', from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''se'' (m), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded English nouns such as ''society'', ''man'' (humanity), and ''life'', correspond closely to the Windermere definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Windermere indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
There are two articles: the definite article ''fi'', from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''se'' (m), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article. The English definite article, and some unpreceded English nouns such as ''society'', ''man'' (humanity), and ''life'', correspond closely to the Naeng definite article, but the English indefinite article can be translated into either Naeng indefinite nouns or specific nouns depending on context.
*nonspecific: ''Thăgem șa rie nga ies rüe șa rie imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
*nonspecific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (any flowers, I don't care what flowers they are)"
*specific: ''Thăgem șa rie nga ies rüe șa rie se imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies se imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
*specific: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar se imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies se imyar!'' = "I want her to give me some flowers! (specific ones I have in mind)"
*definite: ''Thăgem șa rie nga ies rüe șa rie fi imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies fi imyar!''  = "I want her to give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"
*definite: ''Thăgem șar nga ies rüe șar fi imyar!'' / ''Thăgem dunse rüe drel e ies fi imyar!''  = "I want her to give me the flowers! (you and I both know what flowers)"
The nonspecific-specific distinction often makes pluralization unnecessary where English would require it:
 
Nouns can be pluralized with ''im-'', which is usually used for specific or definite plural nouns. Pluralization is optional, however, and the nonspecific-specific distinction can make pluralization unnecessary where English would require it:
:'''''Rie die poar fa binfăndaw.'''''
:'''''Rie die poar fa binfăndaw.'''''
:1SG NEG derive_enjoyment from NOM-test
:1SG NEG derive_enjoyment from NOM-test
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===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Modern Windermere have pronouns similar to Classical Windermere, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.
Modern Naeng have pronouns similar to Classical Naeng, but slightly restructured: it lost the feminine plural pronouns and added the impersonal and polite pronouns.
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|-
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:''You don't let fire burn in a closed room.''
:''You don't let fire burn in a closed room.''


''Ĭmpra'' is an obsolete plural form of ''Pra''; nowadays ''Pra'' is used regardless of number.
In Middle Naeng, ''Pra'' was sometimes a third person pronoun but this is archaic. ''Ĭmpra'' is an obsolete plural form of ''Pra''; nowadays ''Pra'' is used regardless of number.


''Łănam'' is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.
''Łănam'' is used as a very respectful 2nd person pronoun, restricted to addressing royalty and divine figures.


''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun. This doesn't correspond quite to English generic ''you''
''rie'' 'I' can informally be used as an impersonal pronoun.


Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''ĭmfid'').
Inanimates use the demonstrative ''fid'' (plural ''ĭmfid'').


The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.
The gendered demonstratives ''sen/ses'' 'this man/this woman' and ''fin/fis'' 'that man/that woman' are literary.
Gender-neutral neopronouns in the 2sg informal and 3sg are considered pretty much necessary by people who want them, because singular ''łănam'' already has a function as an archaic polite pronoun. The neopronouns ''łe'' for 2sg and ''ie'' for 3sg are now the default neopronouns.


===Demonstratives===
===Demonstratives===
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*Polite: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Polite: ''Tsrin e Pra!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!'' or ''Hay tsrin e Łănam!''
*Very polite: ''Tsrin e Łănam!'' or ''Hay tsrin e Łănam!''
*Cohortative: ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!)
*Cohortative: (formal) ''Tsrin e bang!'' (Let's eat!), (colloquial) ''Măluac tsrin!'' (lit. follow eat)
Archaic style may use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'': ''Hay tsrin...''.
Archaic style may use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'': ''Hay tsrin...''.


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*''Taș ămpaw e łen fĭ ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
*''Taș ămpaw e łen fĭ ădoac!'' = Don't you leave the room!
==== Verbs of motion ====
==== Verbs of motion ====
Modern Windermere does not have exact equivalents for the English verbs "go", "carry", or "bring". Windermere motion verbs vary along two dimensions: one dimension is the method or direction of transport and one dimension is the telicity of the verb. Unidirectional, or telic, motion verbs express one-time motion towards a destination. Multidirectional, or atelic, verbs express undirected motion, repeated directed motion, or back-and-forth motion. The directionality is usually expressed by an infix or prefix, but is sometimes expressed through suppletion.
Modern Naeng does not have exact equivalents for the English verbs "go", "carry", or "bring". Naeng motion verbs vary along two dimensions: one dimension is the method or direction of transport and one dimension is the telicity of the verb. Unidirectional, or telic, motion verbs express one-time motion towards a destination. Multidirectional, or atelic, verbs express undirected motion, repeated directed motion, or back-and-forth motion. The directionality is usually expressed by an infix or prefix, but is sometimes expressed through suppletion.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
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|-
|-
| to go by foot, to walk
| to go by foot, to walk
| ''tmuay'' (< ''tăm'uay'' 'to travel') ||
| ''tmuay'' (< ''tăm'uay'' 'to travel') || ''nămchül''
|-
|-
| to go with a land vehicle<small>
| to go with a land vehicle<small>
| ||  
| ''tseng'' || ''tsăntseng''
|-
|-
| to ride, to mount <small>(trans.)</small>
| to ride, to mount <small>(trans.)</small>
| ||  
| ''csüm'' || ''sămcsüm''
|-
|-
| to go in
| to go in
| ||  
| ''hădean'' || ''hămtean''
|-
|-
| to go out
| to go out; to originate; to rise (of heavenly bodies and other inanimate beings)
| ||
| ''hăgep'' || ''hifcep''
|-
| to rise (of heavenly bodies and other inanimate beings)<br/>to take off (of flying creatures or vehicles)
| ||  
|-
|-
| to set (of heavenly bodies)<br/>to fall (of precipitation)
| to set (of heavenly bodies)<br/>to fall (of precipitation)
| ||  
| ''chănuy'' || ''cichnuy''
|-
|-
| to run  
| to run  
| ''hoth'' ||  
| ''chi'' || ''cămhi''
|-
|-
| to swim  
| to swim  
| ||  
| ''łămay'' || ''măłmay''
|-
|-
| to fly
| to fly
| ||  
| ''thlut'' || ''tăthlut''
|-
|-
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row  
| to float on water<br/>to go with a small boat, to row  
| ||  
| ''tchos'' || ''chădchos''
|-
|-
| to flow (of a fluid or current)
| to flow (of a fluid or current)
| ||  
| ''smin'' || ''măsmin''
|-
|-
| to roll  
| to roll  
| ||  
| ''ftär'' || ''tăftär''
|-
|-
| to climb
| to climb
| ||  
| ''hămoch'' || ''hithmoch''
|-
|-
| to jump
| to jump
| ||  
| ''ștüp'' || ''thuștüp''
|-
|-
| to crawl  
| to crawl  
| ||  
| ''tgär'' || ''trăgär''
|-
|-
| to fall (of animates)<br/>to go down (of inanimates)
| to fall (of animates)<br/>to go down (of inanimates)
| ||  
| ''łăpaw'' || ''tăłpaw''
|-
|-
| to dive, go into water
| to dive, go into water
| ||  
| ''tscur'' || ''tscărcur''
|-
|-
| to carry, bring (on foot)
| to carry, bring (on foot)
| ||  
| ''fngün'' || ''fămngün''
|-
|-
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small>
| to carry, bring (using a vehicle) <small>(trans.)</small>
| ||  
| ''saf'' || ''sămhaf''
|-
|-
| to pull, drag <small>(trans.)</small>  
| to pull, drag <small>(trans.)</small>  
| ||  
| ''năfor'' || ''nărfor''
|-
|-
| to drive (an animal or a vehicle), lead
| to drive (an animal or a vehicle), lead
| ||  
| ''hoth'' || ''hithoth''
|}
|}


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''ăngi fid moang'' or ''ăngi foang'', lit. 'than that which':
''ăngi fid moang'' or ''ăngi foang'', lit. 'than that which':


:'''''Bloy Etingof chea chmi hoth rech thăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărĭșür ya ien.'''''
:'''''Bloy Etingof chea chmi ben rech tăfiet ăngi foang rie chea fnga thărĭșür măluac.'''''
:'''''(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür ya ien)'''''
:'''''(*ăngi rie chea fnga thișür măluac)'''''
:Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up with 3SG
:Soon E. PST run COMP PROG fast surpass that_which 1SG PST can keep_up follow
:''Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.''
:''Soon Etingof was running faster than I could keep up with.''


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*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''per chmi'' = future progressive  
*''hos'' = conditional
*''hos'' = conditional
*fnga = can
* tsămfe = 'situationally can'
*fnga = can, to know how to
*poar = like to
*poar = like to
*thăgem = want to
*thăgem = want to
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*te = and
*te = and
*uy = xor
*uy = xor
*soas = or (either one of two)
*soał = or (either one of two)
*seam = but (however)
*seam = but (however)
*chăbec = (higher register) however
*chăbec = (higher register) however
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*hăbra = therefore
*hăbra = therefore
*pĭlang = because
*pĭlang = because
**łong = (high register) because; ło = (high register) because of
**łong = (high register) because; ław = (high register) because of
*ătuach nga = although
*ătuach nga = although
**ya(ng) = (high register) although
**ya(ng) = (high register) although
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*șăfongtas nga = as long as
*șăfongtas nga = as long as
*mĭ tstoal nga = as soon as
*mĭ tstoal nga = as soon as
*nüng = until
*roan = until
*tă'iep = on the other hand
*tă'iep = on the other hand
*sach = also
*sach = also


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Classical Naeng inflected prepositions survive in Modern Naeng (in fact ''*ya rie'' for 'with me' is incorrect as in CNaeng) but are only used in formal or written Naeng. Spoken Naeng uses directionals and verbs of motion instead of inflected prepositions.
The regular pronominal affixes:
*1sg: ''-ir''
*2sg: ''-eł'' (m), ''-łes'' (f)
*3sg: ''-n'' (m), ''-s'' (f)
*1pl.ex: ''-tsa''
*1pl.in: ''-ang''
*2pl: ''-łam''
*3pl: ''-nam''
{| class="wikitable" style=" text-align: center;"
|-
! !!I!!thou (m.)!!thou (f.)!!thou (neopronoun)!!you (polite)!!he!!she!! they (neopronoun) !!we (exc.)!!we (inc.)!!you (pl.)!!they (an.)
|-
!|''mi'' 'in, at'
||''mir''||''mił''||''miłes''||''miłe''||''mi Pra''||''min''||''mis''||''mie''||''mitsa''||''ming''||''miłam''||''minam''
|-
!|''șa'' 'to, for'
|| ''șar''||''șał''||''șăłes''||''șăłe''||''șa Pra''||''șan''||''șas''||''șăngie''||''șătsa''||''șbang''||''șăłam''||''șănam''
|-
!|''fa'' 'from'
|| ''ăchir''||''ăcheł''||''ăchłes''||''ăchłe''||''fa Pra''||''ăchin''||''ăchis''||''ăchie''||''ăchtsa''||''ăchbang''||''ăchłam''||''ăchnam''
|-
!| ''ya'' 'with'
|| ''yăngir''||''yăngeł''||''yăngłes''||''yăngłe''||''ya Pra''||''yăngin''||''yăngis''||''yăngie''||''yăngtsa''||''yăbang''||''yăłam''||''yănam''
|-
!| ''ław'' 'on'
|| ''łăwir'' || ''łăweł'' || ''łăwłes''|| ''łăwłe''||''ław Pra'' ||''łăwin''||''łăwis'' ||''łăwie''||''łăwtsa''||''łăbang''||''łăwłam''||''łăwnam''
|-
!| ''cde'' 'around, about'
|| ''cder'' || ''cdeł'' || ''ctiłes''|| ''ctiłe''||''cde Pra'' ||''cdin''||''cdis'' ||''cdie''||''ctitsa''||''ctibang''||''ctiłam''||''ctinam''
|}
Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. ''șăngłam'' or ''șăngir''
*moang: of (optional)
*moang: of (optional)
*mĭ: locative; in, at
*mĭ: locative; in, at
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*tsăbi: without
*tsăbi: without
*fe: by (passive)
*fe: by (passive)
*ło: on, about
*ław: on
*cde (higher register): about, concerning
*cde: around, about, concerning
*tăngap: before
*tăngap: before
*woach: behind
*woach: behind
*łăgie: after
*łăgie: after
*bar: through
*bath: through
*ștal: along
*ștal: along
*ngĭ prăwim: according to
*ngĭ prăwim: according to
*nüng = until, up to
* roan ('to wait'): (temporary) until
**häb = (high register synonym of ''nüng'')
* nüng = (literary) until, up to  
** häb = (high register synonym of ''nüng'')
**fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
**fa... nüng... = from... to/through...
*măceaf = towards (a person)
*măceaf = towards (a person)
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**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
**comes before negative: ''Ătuach die thăgem mălitchow ef chäth fi.'' 'That child doesn't even want to communicate.'
*tămo = very, very much, greatly
*tămo = very, very much, greatly
**''Is chea dur thușrăber fa in tămo.'' = She came to be very resentful of him.
**''Ies chea dur thușrăber fa ien tămo.'' = She came to be very resentful of him.
*tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
*tsor łăngü = at all, anyway
*eth = it does, doesn't it?
*eth = it does, doesn't it?
Line 556: Line 629:
**''In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs.'' = He writes about sociology a lot.
**''In lăchir șămea ło hălwier-prăcăbäs.'' = He writes about sociology a lot.
*łüp = a little
*łüp = a little
**tăfad = little, only a little
**yic łüp = little, only a little
*ngĭ tlieb = about, approximately
*ngĭ tlieb = about, approximately
*rech șămea = more
*rech șămea = more
Line 584: Line 657:


===Questions===
===Questions===
Modern Windermere is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Windermere.
Modern Naeng is wh-in-situ, unlike Classical Naeng.


===Time clauses===
===Time clauses===
Line 597: Line 670:
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:H. PST give riddle to I. but he PST NEG succeed untangle that_noun''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
:''Hăyad gave Inthar a riddle, but he couldn't solve it.''
=== Serial verbs ===
Serial verbs are common as in Southeast Asian langs. Negated as follows:
: ''Rie sișpeal die tsäl''
: 'I don't understand [what was said]' (lit. I hear not understand)
: ''fi inthar ngi'üt chwäp hămtean fi tar imhareach''
: DEF raven bring.ATEL light enter.ATEL DEF house PL-story
: 'Raven brings light into the house of stories'


===Inversion===
===Inversion===
Line 603: Line 684:
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  
Independent VSO clauses have hortative or optative meanings:  


:'''''Plachtom e chwep!'''''
:'''''Plachtom e chwäp!'''''
:appear NOM light
:appear NOM light
:''Let there be light!''
:''Let there be light!''
===The more... the more...===
===The more... the more...===
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Hoth-hoth rie, căfol-căfol rie blaw.'''''
:'''''Rie die clăduang tsäl fa foang chmi nătsap. Ămben-ămben e rie, căfol-căfol e rie blaw.'''''
:1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run 1SG, become-become 1SG fat.
:1SG not receive hint from that_which PROG happen. run-run SBJ 1SG, become-become SBJ 1SG fat.
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''
:''I don't get what's going on. The more I run, the fatter I get.''


Line 614: Line 696:
''moang'' is the relativizer. It is often dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).
''moang'' is the relativizer. It is often dropped when the relative clause is short (most often with adjectives).


When the head becomes an oblique object, using a resumptive pronoun is a formal Windermere strategy. Resumptive pronouns are not common in the colloquial language:
When the head becomes an oblique object, using a resumptive pronoun is a formal Naeng strategy. Resumptive pronouns are not common in the colloquial language:


:Colloquial: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay'' ('the market I went to', lit. "the market that I walked_telic")
:Colloquial: ''fi łamhif moang rie chea tmuay'' ('the market I went to', lit. "the market that I walked_telic")
Line 626: Line 708:
===Exclamations===
===Exclamations===
As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'', in the construction ''ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness"'' (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ''ha(y) foang [clause]'' (= 'how [clause]/how much...').
As in most Talman languages, exclamations of the form 'how...!' usually use the vocative particle ''ha'' or ''hay'', in the construction ''ha(y) fi "ADJ-ness"'' (= 'how ADJ/ADV...') or ''ha(y) foang [clause]'' (= 'how [clause]/how much...').
:'''''Ha fĭ hălfnărnach fĭ moșiew! Ha foang ies fnga sătsiet bang!'''''
:'''''Ha fĭ hălfngărnach fĭ moșiew! Ha foang ies fnga sătsiet bang!'''''
:VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
:VOC DEF NMLZ-awful DEF nature! VOC that_which she can teach we.INC!
:''How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us!'' (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)
:''How terrible nature is! How much she can teach us!'' (lit. O the terribleness of nature! O that which she can teach us!)
Line 635: Line 717:


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Modern Windermere contains more Netagin and Talmic loanwords than Classical Windermere; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many [[Eevo]] loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.
Modern Naeng contains more Netagin and Talmic loanwords than Classical Naeng; even derivational affixes have been borrowed. In modern times, many [[Eevo]] loans are entering the language, to the dismay of purists.


===Layers===
===Layers===
* inherited Windermere (including Talmic loans)
* inherited Naeng (including older Talmic loans)
* Tseer loans
* Tseer and Talmic loans, esp. during the Middle Naeng period. These words often sound high register, like Aramaic loans do in Modern Hebrew
* Netagin loans
* Netagin loans
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* other miscellaneous loans (from Häskä, Eevo etc.)
* Ancient and Classical Windermere reborrowings
* Recent native coinages; reborrowings from older Naeng stages
*recent Eevo loans
*recent Eevo loans
====Tseero-Windermere====
Note: The spellings do not approximate Classical Tseer with Modern Windermere but with Classical Windermere.
Vowels: i u e ø o a ii uu ee øø oo aa -> i u e ö o a iN uN eN öN oN aN (N assimilates to the appropriate nasal before stops/spirants, is -ng otherwise)
Consonants: m n ng -b t/-d tx ts th k/-g b d g f x s kh h -v -ð w l r y -> m n ng p t t ts ts t c b d g f s ș ch h b d w l r y
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Part-of-speech changing affixes====
====Part-of-speech changing affixes====
Line 659: Line 734:
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*''să-'' = nominalizer
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*{{angbr|''ng''}} = infix forming place nouns
*sngeaf 'world, Tricin' < seaf 'walk, go'
*sngeaf 'world, Hmøøh, age (used in the idiom ''sloc imsngeaf'' "forever" (lit. until the judgement of the world) ' < seaf 'walk, go'
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*{{angbr|''c''}} = infix forming instruments from verbs
*''dĭ-'' = negation
*''dĭ-'' = negation
Line 667: Line 742:
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''lă'' = verbalizer (how productive?)
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''yă-'' = adjectivizer
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Windermere; and productive to an extent in Modern Windermere)
*''neach-'' = agentive
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Windermere *p + *ha)
*''nu-'' = agentive (Classical Naeng; and productive to an extent in Modern Naeng)
*{{angbr|''năr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*''pa-'' = patientive (from Old Naeng *p + *ha)
*{{angbr|''ngăr''}}, {{angbr|''măr''}} = a result/state (which becomes another adjectivizer?)
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
*Că(syllable S) -> Că(S reduced)(S) = diminutive
**''yar'' 'flower' > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
**''yar'' 'flower' > ''yăryar'' 'little flower'
Line 680: Line 756:


===="Trigger" verb affixes====
===="Trigger" verb affixes====
The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Windermere times.  
The "trigger" infixes usually derive verbs from other verbs. These were originally trigger affixes but had become derivational affixes to derive verbs by Classical Naeng times.  


*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
*''‹ăn/ăng›'' = Applicative trigger
Line 692: Line 768:
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger
*''‹ărea›'' = Malefactive trigger


====Lexical aspect affixes====
==== Aspect? ====
Proto-Lakovic aspects became derivational already in Classical Windermere, analogous to how PIE aspects became lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Windermere has been the most heavily affected.
Many Proto-Lakovic aspects had become derivational by Classical Naeng, analogous to how PIE aspects became inflectional or lexical in daughter IE languages. This mirrors the development in other Talman Lakovic languages but Naeng has been the most heavily affected.


Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
Reduplicant uses 1st consonant (''F'') or last consonant (''L'')
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*intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
*intensive/excessive = incopyfixation of L
*distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = ''eNFă-''
*distributive ("X widely, affecting many objects") = ''eNFă-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''osăL-''
*inchoative/inceptive = ''os-, osăL-''
*graduative = ''tăFa-''
*graduative = ''tă-, tăFa-''


Should inflectional tam be more complex?
====Concatenation====
====Concatenation====
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English. Concatenated expressions are hyphenated, e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').
Head-initial concatenation is often used to derive expressions that would correspond to words in English: e.g. ''hălwier-chne'' 'mathematics' (lit. 'beauty of ideal/order').


The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:  
The resulting meaning from concatenation is not always entirely predictable:  
*''tar-siet'' (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
*''tar-siet'' (lit. 'house of letter (character)') means 'school'.
*''șän-fănaw'' (lit. 'word of truth') means 'major warning sign, wake-up call' in formal language.
*''șän-finaw'' (lit. 'word of truth') means 'major warning sign, wake-up call' in formal language.


Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Windermere.
Archaic words also appear as cranberry morphemes in some concatenated expressions. For example, ''sămeath-păchnay'', meaning 'patriotism', literally means "honoring the king", where ''sămeath'' means 'to honor, to revere' in archaic Naeng.


Common concatenated morphemes are:
Common concatenated morphemes are:
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===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
===You are not obligated to complete the work, but...===
<!--
<!--
Pgäw hănărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  
Pgäw hăngărcos fa chahatsbot moang fi săşngoam mif sngeaf.  


PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
PROH be_paralyzed from NEG-PASS-stack of DEF NOMZ-suffer in-DEF world
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-->
-->


:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cĭthloch se thĭbur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pircey Afot 2’21”)'''''
:'''''Łen die nămărłof şa cĭthloch se thĭbur, tă'iep łen die pluam șa măreado fid. (Mișna, Pirceay Afoat 2’21”)'''''
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:2SG.M NEG obligated to complete SPEC work, but_also 2SG.M NEG free to abandon DEM_DIST
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)
:You are not obligated to complete the work, but neither are you free to abandon it. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 2:21)
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==="Ne-Zim"===
==="Ne-Zim"===
''Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te die ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămĭrüe łĭthad tsip neab te tămĭseath e fid swoch, lea mot bĭntănse hașĭthbech? Tieth, fid mot mĭtse paw yătĭthun moang bĭnłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngĭ nuthbur papluas mĭ-thäș, șang fid plang łos ĭmsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, fĭ mocănłin Pra lea chĭthud srüe ngil e rie "Seth" mĭ łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim''
''Srüe ruay e croth patsrin, te die ruay ef păcrit rus, te rüe e sed șa fid, yic ya sămĭrüe łĭthad tsip neab te tămĭseath e fid swoch, lea mot bĭntănse hașĭthbech? Tieth, fid mot mĭtse paw yătĭthun moang bĭnłăcthie! Thăbur ef croth ngĭ nuthbur papluas mĭ-thäș, șang fid plang łos ĭmsrup te thusămpey moang thăprea. To, fĭ mocănłin Pra lea chĭthud srüe ngil e rie "Grath" mĭ łäm "croth"? - Ne-Sim''


===From Hamlet===
===From Hamlet===
Line 772: Line 849:
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''
:''To be or not to be, that is the question.''


(This line is in the Windermere alexandrine)
(This line is in the Naeng alexandrine)


===From the Internationale===
===From the Internationale===
Line 784: Line 861:
'''''Nicüf tăche'''''
'''''Nicüf tăche'''''


'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe nam yas hălpăthin tes bintochur, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șăgor hălchăsräf.'''''
'''''Tsor croth fa ășeal pluam te thür mis hăltsăbas tes imłin. Tung răfongüe nam yas hălpăthin tes bintochur, te pdar thușnoa e nam tănse fidoan măceaf nătha mis șă'or hălchăsräf.'''''


all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow
all human PERF be_born free and equal in-SPEC dignity and-SPEC PL-right. IMPERS endow 3PL with-SPEC reason and-SPEC conscience, and must make_sure NOM 3PL act one towards other in-SPEC spirit ABST-fellow
Line 791: Line 868:


===The Round Table===
===The Round Table===
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the [[Verse:Tricin/Imθumăytil|Imθumăytil]] into Modern Windermere by Yăchef Clay.
This passage is from the ''Imthumitil Păchlac'', a retranslation of the [[Verse:Hmøøh/Imθumitil|Imθumitil]] into Modern Naeng by Pida Yăchef Samarasang.


{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
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Modern Wdm.
Modern Naeng


''Mĭ ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach ĭmchäth mĭs mogor lĭtheath. Fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea sray bĭntăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"''
''Mĭ ngith doan chea chmi dur es tach ĭmchäth mĭs mogor litheath. Fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea sray bĭntăbiets: "Łănam mot mea ra hăngüs?"''


''Swe chea chmi chnung e müets ĭmchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mĭ tsum ĭmmognas tach dunse, ĭmmălin thaf müets, ĭmchustiw liew, ĭmchusmäch thaf müets, ĭmchumüets tach, te doan ĭmchutach."''
''Swe chea chmi chnung e müets ĭmchäth hăsüs, se doan chäth chea plawăsma: "Șrüch stiw! Ruay mĭ tsum ĭmmognas tach dunse, ĭmmălin thaf müets, ĭmchustiw liew, ĭmchusmech thaf müets, ĭmchumüets tach, te doan ĭmchutach."''


''Prăyon nga fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hĭboath șaf tĭ'uar?"''
''Prăyon nga fĭ Pĭda Brăwied chea tăbiets: "Wăhang, hos ruay mea ra hăngüs, srüe placäp e do croth hĭboath șaf tĭ'uar?"''


''Ăfĭfay chea că'aw e fied: "Lea sed die placănărnga, fĭ Pĭda? Bang ruay tsor tĭ'uar palüc, sach se făbeang ĭmtĭ'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"''
''Chea că'aw e fied: "Lea sed die placămărnga, fĭ Pĭda? Bang ruay tsor tĭ'uar palüc, sach se făbeang ĭmtĭ'uar nătha yaf croth mălem!"''


''Fĭ Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mĭ ngil, "Fĭ chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng te thăpal fănaw."''
''Fĭ Pida chea sngiem șaf chäth mĭ ngil, "Fĭ chäth se eth ruay hăltsrüeng mi finaw."''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
Original (Classical Wdm.)
Original (Classical Naeng)


''Ngiiθ dur se taχ χaaθ mogor. Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Măra łĭnam?"''
''Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''  
''Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''


''Tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?"''
''"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.''


''Eφθooc φin χaaθ, "Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!"''
''"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.''


''Esngim φin Pĭda Brăwid șa φin χaaθ șa-ngiil, "Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw."''
''"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.''
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
English
English
Line 829: Line 906:
The child replied: "Isn't that obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"
The child replied: "Isn't that obvious, Master? We'll have all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"


The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom and understanding indeed."
The Master praised the child, saying, "This child has wisdom indeed."
{{col-end}}
{{col-end}}


Line 855: Line 932:
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
Rhyming works similarly to English (two words rhyme if rimes agree).
===Meter===
===Meter===
A literary Windermere meter is determined by
A literary Naeng meter is determined by
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*The number of syllables in a line (which might alternate);
*A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
*A sequence of accentual feet making up each line (usually anapaests and iambs, with the occasional trochee);
*Zero or more caesurae in each line.
*Zero or more caesurae in each line.


The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the [[Verse:Tricin/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Bjeheondian national anthem.
The most common meter in literary verse by far is the anapestic tetrameter: (u)uSuuSuuSuuS. It is also used in the [[Verse:Hmøøh/King Sămtsay Song|King Sămtsay Song]], the Bjeheondian national anthem.
 
Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Windermere verse is the ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.
 
Fantasy author [[Verse:Tricin/Srăga Tsayfuan|Srăga Tsayfuan]] used a variety of meters for the poetry in his novels to express the songs sung by the various races. For example, he uses the alexandrine and other "Classical" meters to render Elvish poetry:
<poem>
'''''Mi seaf imfnüd se doach, mi tsmüng ăbüch mosrel,'''''
'''''Tes tsor hălpduth șăm'it — lăha, chnet fa mi yem!'''''
'''''Rănoat ef loc Dămath, dicleap yaf imhăcwel;'''''
'''''Doar bang, yăsnar, tămnüth, mi sngom se chwep păhem.'''''
'''''— faf chnur Dsüłăf'''''
 
Gloss:
LOC walk PL-day SP summer LOC come darkness wintry,
and all hope vanish — look ray from afar
spin_intransitive NOM-DEF wheel fortune, indifferent with-DEF PL-sweat;
yet 1PL.IN, skillful, work_hard, in seek SP light early_morning
 
Paraphrase:
''As summer days trudge on, and meet the winter soil,''
''And all hope comes to naught — light shines from far away.''
''Let Fortune turn her wheel, oblivious to our toil;''
''We skilled ones persevere and seek the light of day.''
''— from Dzüłəf's Song''
</poem>


Some other meters are:
Some other meters are:
*Free verse
*Free verse
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
*Rhyming prose, like poetic sections of the Imθumăytil
*Quantitative meters from Netagin poetry


Iambic meters and meters that use a combination of iambs and anapests are also used. An iambic meter that goes back to Classical Naeng verse is the ''chinung tălach'' ('hexad meter', more literally 'hexad count'), a form of alexandrine where each line consists of two iambic trimeter hemistichs separated by a caesura. The first of each group of three feet may occasionally be a trochee.


[[Category:Windermere]]
[[Category:Naeng]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Lakovic languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Tricin]]
[[Category:Hmøøh]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
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