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{{Construction}}
{{Construction}}
{{Infobox language
|name          = Nahónda
|nativename    = Nahónda Klóma
|creator      = User:Anyar
|pronunciation = na'honda kə'lo:ma
|setting      = Earth
|states        = Great Plains First Nations Confederation
|speakers      = 60,450
|date          = 2013
|familycolor  = panlaffic
|fam1          = Nahenic
|fam2          = Oharic <!-- Nahenic branches in the Americas -->
|nation        = Nahónda Tsalóte <!-- c.f Minhast "Nāhun min Šarrat", Nankôre "Nahónta si Serac" -->
|scripts        = * [[w:Latin script|Latin]]
}}


== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
Nahónda, also known as Nónda and referred to by its own speakers as ''Nahónda keloma'' (lit. "Nahónda speak"), is a language centered in Northwestern Montana.  It is bordered by the Lakota Nation to the east, by the Cheyenne to the south, and the Blackfeet and Crow Nations to the north.  Along its western border lies the Nez Percé Nation.  Long considered a language isolate, new analyses has demonstrated it shares a common lineage with [[Minhast]] and [[Nankôre]].  It has now been classified as a member of the Nahenic language family, a small family that includes Minhast and Nankóre, as well as the recently discovered Neina or Na'ena language in northeast Siberia.  Nahónda is the second largest member of this family, around 60,450 members in the First Nations Confederation, with a few expatriate communities the largest of which exists in southern Manitoba at around nine hundred members.  Minhast remains the population juggernaut, at 26 million members in the Minhast homeland, and around 3 million more scattered in expatriate communities throughout the rest of the world.
Nahónda, also known as Nónda and referred to by its own speakers as ''Nahónda klóma'' (lit. "Nahónda speak"), is a language centered in Northwestern Montana.  It is bordered by the Lakota Nation to the east, by the Cheyenne to the south, and the Blackfeet and Crow Nations to the north.  Along its western border lies the Nez Percé Nation.  Long considered a language isolate, new analyses has demonstrated it shares a common lineage with [[Minhast]] and [[Nankôre]].  It has now been classified as a member of the Nahenic language family, a small family that includes Minhast and Nankóre, as well as the recently discovered Neina or Na'ena language in northeast Siberia.  Nahónda is the second largest member of this family, around 60,450 members in the Great Plains First Nations Confederation, with a few expatriate communities the largest of which exists in southern Manitoba at around nine hundred members.  Minhast remains the population juggernaut, at 26 million members in the Minhast homeland, and around 3 million more scattered in expatriate communities throughout the rest of the world.


Nahónda is an agglutinative and fusional language which is most apparent in its complex verb forms.  Its morphosyntactic alignment is split-intransitive of the Fluid-S subtype.  Agents are explicitly marked while patients receive null marking.  Nahónda canonical word order is SOV, as in both Minhast and Nankóre, but word order is quite flexible and may deviate from SOV word order for pragmatics or other discourse considerations.  Like Minhast, it is considered a polysynthetic language as it exhibits polypersonal agreement, noun incorporation, head marking, holophrasis, and adverbial, modal, and evidential markers inside the verb complex.  The evolution of Nahónda polysynthesis is complex, reflecting both developments from its Nahenic ancestry, and influences from outside sources, especially the Siouan languages.
Nahónda is an agglutinative and fusional language which is most apparent in its complex verb forms.  Its morphosyntactic alignment is split-intransitive of the Fluid-S subtype.  Agents are explicitly marked while patients receive null marking.  Nahónda canonical word order is SOV, as in both Minhast and Nankóre, but word order is quite flexible and may deviate from SOV word order for pragmatics or other discourse considerations.  Like Minhast, it is considered a polysynthetic language as it exhibits polypersonal agreement, noun incorporation, head marking, holophrasis, and the occurrence of adverbial, modal, and evidential markers inside the verb complex.  The evolution of Nahónda polysynthesis is complex, reflecting both developments from its Nahenic ancestry, and influences from outside sources, especially the Siouan languages.


The influence of other Native North American languages cannot be overstated, as many had a major impact on the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of the Nahónda language, especially the Lakota language.  These influences caused it to diverge from it sister languages to the point that earlier linguists considered it to be a member of the Siouan languages, although the Iroquoian language family was also a main contender.
The influence of other Native North American languages cannot be overstated, as many had a major impact on the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of the Nahónda language, especially the Lakota language.  These influences caused it to diverge from it sister languages to the point that earlier linguists considered it to be a member of the Siouan languages, although the Iroquoian language family was also a main contender.


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
Nahónda phonology is relatively straightforward.  Except for ejectives acquired from Siouan and other surrounding languages, its phonemic inventory otherwise consists of an average set of consonants, and a five-vowel system.  Its phonemic inventory is considerably larger than Nankóre, which lost most of its voiced consonants, and is slightly larger than Minhast, which lacks affricates.  In syllabic structure, a CV syllabic structure predominates and almost all words end in a vowel, although intermedial biconsonantal clusters do occur, e.g. ''wanko'' /waŋku/ "that one over there".   
Nahónda phonology is relatively straightforward.  Except for ejectives, its phonemic inventory otherwise consists of an average set of consonants, and a five-vowel system.  Its phonemic inventory is considerably larger than Nankóre, which lost most of its voiced consonants, and is slightly larger than Minhast, which lacks affricates.  In syllabic structure, a CV syllabic structure predominates and almost all words end in a vowel, although intermedial biconsonantal clusters do occur, e.g. ''wanko'' /waŋku/ "that one over there".   


===Nahónda Consonantal Inventory===
===Consonants===
Under the influence of Siouan Sprachbund, Nahónda is the only Nahenic language that has preserved the original ejectives reconstructed from the protolanguage.  The velar fricative and pharyngeal fricative were also largely lost.  The rhotic /r/ merged with /l/, likely due to Lakota influence.
Nahónda is the only Nahenic language that has preserved the original ejectives reconstructed from the protolanguage.  The velar fricative and pharyngeal fricative were also lost, merging with /h/.  The rhotic /r/ merged with /l/, likely due to Lakota influence.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Line 108: Line 124:
|}
|}


=== Nahónda Vowel Inventory ===
=== Vowels ===
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
Line 172: Line 188:
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
|}
=== Phonotactics ===
* Initial voiceless consonants in affixes, or initial voiceless consonants arising from reduplication become voiced when they occur in word-initial position, e.g.:
<div style="margin:10px">
- Reduplication: ''tonka'' "one buffalo" → ''<u>da</u>tonka'' "two or more buffalo".<br/>
- Affixation:
<div style="margin:20px">
1. No affix:
{{Gloss
|phrase = atsané
| IPA =
| morphemes = atsa-né
| gloss = lie.down-CONJ.CL
| translation = He lies down.
}}
2. With affix:
{{Gloss
|phrase = <u>bz</u>atsané
| IPA =
| morphemes = ps-atsa-né
| gloss = CAUS-lie.down-CONJ.CL
| translation = He lays him down.
}}
</div>
</div>


== Grammar ==
== Grammar ==
Line 247: Line 291:
! 3rd Masc.
! 3rd Masc.
| kane
| kane
| -ka-
| -∅-
| ka
| ka
| -na-
| -∅-
|-
|-
! 3rd Fem.
! 3rd Fem.
Line 455: Line 499:


==== Demonstratives ====
==== Demonstratives ====
Like its relatives Minhast and Nankôre, Nahónda makes a four-way distinction in its demonstratives.  Some forms, such as the Proximal and Medio-proximal demonstratives, show in the Agent forms an etymological relationship with Minhast. The Medio-proximal patient and Distal agent forms appear to be derived from the same source as in the corresponding Nankôre form.  A common etymology for the Invisible form among all the sister languages has yet to be found.  The Nahónda demonstratives are listed in the following table:
Like its relatives Minhast and Nankôre, Nahónda makes a four-way distinction in its demonstratives.  With the exception of the Invisible Demonstrative, all of the demonstratives have demonstrable cognates with another Nahenic language, namely Nankôre, and in one of the Minhast dialects<ref>Specifically, the Gull Speaker dialect's verbal local affixes.  This dialect is also remarkable in sharing features with other Nahenic languages not found in any other Minhast dialect</ref>.  The Nahónda demonstratives are listed in the following table:


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-  
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:100px"| &nbsp;
! Type !! Independent !! Translation !! Example || Nahenic Cognates
! colspan="2" | Independent
|-
! colspan="2" | Clitic
! '''Proximal '''
! rowspan="2" style="width:200px"| Meaning
| nótsalo
! rowspan="2"| Nahenic Cognates
| This one, near the speaker
|-  
| ''nahón nótsalo'' <br/> "this man here"
! style="width:70px" |Agent
|
! style="width:70px" |Patient
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-nussar-''
! style="width:70px" |Agent
* Nankôre: ''hosiayri'' <br/> /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/
! style="width:70px" |Patient
|-
|-
! Proximal
! '''Medio-Proximal'''
| saka
| iyáyalo
| ko 
| This/that one near the listener "that"
|  =sa
| ''nahón iyáyalo'' <br/>"that man next to you"
|  =ko
|  This one, near the speaker
|  
|  
* Proto-Nahenic:
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-''
* Neina:
* Nankôre: ''yaiyayri''
* Common Minhast: ''sap'' (ABS)
* Nankôre:
|-  
!  Medio-proximal
|  na
|  ho
|  =na
|  =ho
|  This/that one near the listener "that"
|
* Proto-Nahenic:
* Neina:
* Common Minhast: ''nax'' (ABS)
* Nankôre: ''=hori''
|-
|-
! Distal
! '''Distal'''
| wanko<br/>wanku
| pʼáyalo
|  wo
| Yonder, far from both speaker and listener
| =wa
|''nahón pʼáyalo'' <br/> "yonder man""
|  =wo
|
|  Far from both speaker and listener
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ppeyyar-''
|
* Nankôre: ''paypayri''
* Proto-Nahenic:
* Neina: ''=vaš''
* Common Minhast: ''waššī'' (ABS)
* Nankôre: ''=nko''
|-
|-
! Invisible
! '''Invisible'''
| yanko<br/>yanku
| nando
|  yo
| Used for objects beyond sight or obstructed <br/>by another object. <br/>
|  =ya 
It may also be used for a person or thing being <br/> referred to within a narrative or other discourse, <br/>and sometimes as a decessive.
|  =yo
| ''nahón nando'' <br/> "that man (e.g. on the <br/>other side <br/> of the mountain)"
| Used for objects beyond sight or obstructed by another object. It may also be used for a person or thing being referred to within a narrative or other discourse, and sometimes as a decessive.
|
|
* Minhast Stone Speaker dialect: <br/>''-onda-'' "to conceal"(?)<ref>This remains a highly contested hypothesis.</ref>
* Proto-Nahenic:
* Neina:
* Common Minhast: ''waššī'' (?) (Distal)  
* Nankôre: ''=nko'' (Distal)
|}
|}


When used as attributives, they appear directly before the noun phrase.  Unlike Minhast, which requires a connective particle to join the demonstrative to its head, in Nahónda the demonstrative is simply juxtaposed before its head, e.g.:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Wanko šúnkawakaninéhi owožutkopi kasukakatsané.
|phrase = Šúnkawakaninéhi pʼáyalo owožutkopi kasukakatsané.
| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = wanko šúnkawakáne-ne-hi owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsa-né
| morphemes = šúnkawakáne-ne-hi pʼáyalo owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsa-né
| gloss = DIST horse-DET.cylindrical.object-AGT grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3MS.AGT-run~INT-EVID.VIS-INTR.ACT
| gloss = horse-DET.cylindrical.object-AGT DIST grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3MS.AGT-run~INT-EVID.VIS-CONJ.CL
| translation = That horse is always racing across the plains.
| translation = That horse is always racing across the plains.
}}
}}


The demonstratives may also be used as substantives, acquiring full noun status.  Additional suffixes, such as determiners and case markers, may then attach to them, e.g.:
The demonstratives may also be used as substantives, acquiring full noun status.  Additional suffixes, such as determiners and case markers, may then attach to them, e.g.:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Wankonéhi owožutkopi kasukakatsané.
|phrase = Pʼáyalonehi owožutkopi kasukakatsané.
| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = wanko-ne-hi owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsa-né
| morphemes = Pʼáyalo-ne-hi owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsa-né
| gloss = DIST-DET.cylindrical.object-AGT grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3MS.AGT-run~INT-EVID.VIS-INTR.ACT
| gloss = DIST-DET.cylindrical.object-AGT grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3MS.AGT-run~INT-EVID.VIS-CONJ.CL
| translation = That (cylindrical-shaped) one is always racing across the plains.
| translation = That (cylindrical-shaped) one is always racing across the plains.
}}
}}
The demonstratives also have verbal clitic forms.  For more information on the verbal clitic forms, refer to the [[Nahónda#Verbs | verb section]].


=== Determiners ===
=== Determiners ===
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{|  class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
{|  class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
! Type
! Shape
! Motion
! Affix
! Affix
! Source and Cognates
! Source and Cognates
! Examples
! Examples
|-
|-
! Squat/Bulky <br/>object, moving
! Squat/Bulky
| Moving
| -ksa-
| -ksa-
|  
|  
Line 559: Line 583:
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Wanku tatonkaksahi owožutkopi sesukakatsané.
|phrase = Tatonkaksahi pʼáyalo owožutkopi sesukakatsané.
| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = wanku tatonka-ksa-hi owožu-tko-pi se-suka~ka-tsan-é.
| morphemes = tatonka-ksa-hi pʼáyalo owožu-tko-pi se-suka~ka-tsan-é.
| gloss = DIST buffalo-DET.squat.object-AGT grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3NS.ANIM.AGT-run-INT-EVID.VIS-CONJ.CL
| gloss = buffalo-DET.squat.object-AGT DIST grass-DET.flat.prone.object-PL 3NS.ANIM.AGT-run-INT-EVID.VIS-CONJ.CL
| translation = That buffalo is running across the plain.
| translation = That buffalo is running across the plain.
}}  
}}  
|-  
|-  
! Flat object, stationary
! Flat
| Stationary
| -tko-
| -tko-
|  
|  
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* Proto-Nahónda ''*ikote'' "to sleep"
* Proto-Nahónda ''*ikote'' "to sleep"
|-  
|-  
! Cylindrical object, moving
! Cylindrical
| Moving
| -ne-
| -ne-
|
|
Line 584: Line 610:
|
|
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Wanko šúnkawakaninéhi owožutkopi kasukakatsané
|phrase = Šúnkawakaninéhi pʼáyalo owožutkopi kasukakatsané
| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = wanko šúnkawakáne-ne-hi owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsan-é
| morphemes = wanko šúnkawakáne-ne-hi owožu-tko-pi ka-suka~ka-tsan-é
Line 591: Line 617:
}}  
}}  
|-
|-
! Thin upright object, stationary
! Thin + Upright
| Stationary
| -lo-
| -lo-
|
|
Line 601: Line 628:
|
|
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Wanku tayénalo tsožutkopi tsan-é
|phrase = Tayénalo pʼáyalo tsožutkopi tsan-é
| IPA =  
| IPA =  
| morphemes = Wanku tayena-lo tsa-wožu-tko-pi tsan-é  
| morphemes = tayena-lo pʼáyalo tsa-wožu-tko-pi tsan-é  
| gloss = DIST tree-DET.thin.upright.object COLL-grass-DET.flat.object-PL stand-CONJ.CL
| gloss = tree-DET.thin.upright.object DIST COLL-grass-DET.flat.object-PL stand-CONJ.CL
| translation = That lone tree stands by itself on the prairie.
| translation = That lone tree stands by itself on the prairie.
}}  
}}  
|-
|-
! Sharp or tapering object, stationary
! Sharp or tapering
| Stationary
| -tso-
| -tso-
|
|
Line 625: Line 653:
|-
|-
|}
|}


Determiners may be added to verb complexes to create nominalizations:
Determiners may be added to verb complexes to create nominalizations:
Line 633: Line 660:
| IPA = /'waŋko jaki't͡sit͡sala kɛklo'manalo ka'jant͡ʃi/
| IPA = /'waŋko jaki't͡sit͡sala kɛklo'manalo ka'jant͡ʃi/
| morphemes = Wanku ya-kitsitsa-lá ke~kloma-ná-lo kay-nan-či  
| morphemes = Wanku ya-kitsitsa-lá ke~kloma-ná-lo kay-nan-či  
| gloss = DIST 1S.AGT-talk.about-PST REDUP~talk-INTR.STAT-DET.thin.upright.object good-be-NEG
| gloss = DIST 1S.AGT-talk.about-PST REDUP~talk-CONJ.CL-DET.thin.upright.object good-be-NEG
| translation = That one I mentioned earlier, the one chatting there, is not a good person. Lit. "Over there I mentioned, talk-talks the thin one good is not".
| translation = That one I mentioned earlier, the one chatting there, is not a good person. Lit. "Over there I mentioned, talk-talks the thin one good is not".
}}  
}}  
<!-- In above sentence, intransitive stative "-ná-" is etymologically related to copula "-nan-" (to be).  Both are cognates to Minhast "-an" intransitive marker and Nankôre "iná" intransitive auxiliary.  I don't know why the regressive stress shift occurs -->
<!-- In above sentence, intransitive stative "-ná-" is etymologically related to copula "-nan-" (to be).  Both are cognates to Minhast "-an" intransitive marker and Nankôre "iná" intransitive auxiliary.  I don't know why the regressive stress shift occurs -->
<!-- "-tsa-" = collective marker? -->
<!-- "-tsa-" = collective marker? -->
=== Demonstratives ===
The demonstratives are determiners that point towards a specific entity.  They follow their heads.  Clitic versions append to the verb complexes.
{|  class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
! Type !! Independent !! Translation !! Example || Nahenic Cognates
|-
! '''Proximal '''
| nótsalo
| this one near me
| ''nahón nótsalo'' "this man here"
| 
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-nussar-''
* Nankôre: ''hosiayri'' <br/> /ho'ʃjaɪɾi/
|-
! '''Medio-Proximal'''
| iyáyalo
| that one by you
| ''nahón iyáyalo'' "that man next to you"
|
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-''
* Nankôre: ''yaiyayri''
|-
! '''Distal'''
| pʼáyalo
| yonder, that one near him/her/them
|''nahón pʼáyalo'' "yonder man""
|
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-ppeyyar-''
* Nankôre: ''paypayri''
|-
! '''Invisible'''
| nando
| that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object
| ''nahón nando'' "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side <br/> of the mountain)"
|
* Minhast Stone Speaker dialect: <br/>''-onda-'' "to conceal"(?)<ref>This remains a highly contested hypothesis.</ref>
|}


=== Numbers ===
=== Numbers ===
Line 867: Line 855:
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;background-color:#E0E0E0" | Pronominals
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;background-color:#E0E0E0" | Pronominals
|-
|-
| style="text-align:center" | Active
| style="text-align:center" | Agent
| style="text-align:center" | Patient
| style="text-align:center" | Patient
| style="text-align:center" | Extensions
| style="text-align:center" | Extensions
Line 884: Line 872:
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Adverbials  
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Adverbials  
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Deictics
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Locationals
| style="text-align:center"  | Precatives
| style="text-align:center"  | Precatives
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center"  | Clitics
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align:center"  | Finals
|-
|-
| style="text-align:center"  | Evidentials
| style="text-align:center"  | Evidentials
Line 894: Line 882:
<br/>
<br/>
The most noticeable difference between Nahónda and Minhast is the order and number of slots in their respective verb templates.  The position of the pronominal elements particularly stand out; the Nahónda pronominal affixes appear before the verb root, while in Minhast the pronominals appear after the verb root.  Adverbial affixes in Nahónda appear after the verb root, while in Minhast they appear in preverbal position, in the Mood-Tense-Manner slot.  Additionally, the adverbial affixes in Nahónda are circumscribed: only some adverbial affixes may co-occur with each other, and when they do, they appear in rigid order, otherwise only one affix may occur at a time; while in Minhast, any number of adverbial affixes may appear and their ordering is highly variable, based on discourse considerations.  Certain slot categories appear in one language and are absent in the other; Nahónda has a category for Conjunctives which are lacking in Minhast, while in Minhast the Applicatives slot does not appear in the Nahónda verb template.  There are more slot categories in Minhast, which give the appearance that Minhast is more polysynthetic than Nahónda.  For comparison, the Minhast verb template is presented below:
The most noticeable difference between Nahónda and Minhast is the order and number of slots in their respective verb templates.  The position of the pronominal elements particularly stand out; the Nahónda pronominal affixes appear before the verb root, while in Minhast the pronominals appear after the verb root.  Adverbial affixes in Nahónda appear after the verb root, while in Minhast they appear in preverbal position, in the Mood-Tense-Manner slot.  Additionally, the adverbial affixes in Nahónda are circumscribed: only some adverbial affixes may co-occur with each other, and when they do, they appear in rigid order, otherwise only one affix may occur at a time; while in Minhast, any number of adverbial affixes may appear and their ordering is highly variable, based on discourse considerations.  Certain slot categories appear in one language and are absent in the other; Nahónda has a category for Conjunctives which are lacking in Minhast, while in Minhast the Applicatives slot does not appear in the Nahónda verb template.  There are more slot categories in Minhast, which give the appearance that Minhast is more polysynthetic than Nahónda.  For comparison, the Minhast verb template is presented below:
 
<br/>
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{{Minhast_Verb_Template}}
|+ '''Minhast Verb Template''' 
! colspan="9" |Preverb
|-
!
| style="text-align:center" |Scalar Operators
| style="text-align:center" |Locationals
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center" | Mood-Aspect-Manner
| style="text-align:center" |Control
| style="text-align:center" |Applicatives
|-
! colspan="9" |Verb Core
|-
!
| style="font-weight:bold;text-align:center"|Root
| style="text-align:center" |Incorporated Noun
| style="text-align:center" |Prepronominals
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2" | Pronominals
| style="text-align:center" |Tense-Aspect
| style="text-align:center" |Gerundial
| style="text-align:center" |Transitivity
|-
! colspan="9" | Terminatives
|-
!
| style="text-align:center" |Evidentials
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center" | Miratives
| style="text-align:center" |Deictics
| style="text-align:center" |Emphatic Imperative
| style="text-align:center" |Subordinators
| style="text-align:center" |Irrealis
| style="text-align:center" |Nominalizer
|}
<br/>
<br/>
Nevertheless, there are certain patterns shared by both languages.  In both languages, the scalar operators appear before the verb root in both languages.  The position of the incorporated noun appears directly after the verb in both languages, an otherwise rare phenomenon in polysynthetic languages.  The causative appears before the verb root in both languages, occupying a single slot within the Nahónda verb template, and Slot 3 of the Preverbal affixes in the Minhast template.  Moreover, the tense/aspect and so-called "Conjugation Class", coinciding with the slot for the Minhast transitivity markers, appear after the verb root, in the same ordinal position in both languages. The placement of these slots relative to the verb root is not coincidental but is the result from a shared ancestry.
Nevertheless, there are certain patterns shared by both languages.  In both languages, the scalar operators appear before the verb root in both languages.  The position of the incorporated noun appears directly after the verb in both languages, an otherwise rare phenomenon in polysynthetic languages.  The causative appears before the verb root in both languages, occupying a single slot within the Nahónda verb template, and Slot 3 of the Preverbal affixes in the Minhast template.  Moreover, the tense/aspect and so-called "Conjugation Class", coinciding with the slot for the Minhast transitivity markers, appear after the verb root, in the same ordinal position in both languages. The placement of these slots relative to the verb root is not coincidental but is the result from a shared ancestry.


Interestingly, their non-polysynthetic relative, Nankôre, employs a similar process to noun incorporation called ''quasi-incorporation''.  And just as in Nahónda and Minhast, the quasi-incorporated noun appears after the main verb but before the auxiliary ''itá''':
Interestingly, their non-polysynthetic relative, Nankôre, employs a similar process to noun incorporation called [[Nankôre#Quasi-Noun_Incorporation | Quasi-Incorporation]].  And just as in Nahónda and Minhast, the quasi-incorporated noun appears immediately after the verb root, just before the verbal auxiliary.


* Nankôre Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order:
The postverbal position of the incorporated or quasi-incorporated noun is a shared feature among the three languages, apparently inherited from the Nahenic protolanguage.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|+ '''Comparison of Incorporated Noun Position in Nahenic Languages'''
|-
!  || Nahónda  ||  Minhast || Nankóre
|-
! Default
|  m
|
{{Gloss
|phrase = Bakran kemaran suharak iyyatixrisipsaptarmakabukilmaksaš?
|IPA =
| morphemes = Bakran kem=aran suharak yyat-xr-sipsap-tar-mak-ab-u-kilmakš=aš
| gloss = why 3P=DAT paper NEC-ITER-transport-DISTR-3P.NEUT.INAN.ACC+1S.NOM-IMPF-TRNS-MIR.FRUSTRATION=IRR
| translation = Why must I keep on bringing (these) letters back and forth between them?
}}
| 
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá
|phrase = Makse rihat tayôreno ta'itá
Line 942: Line 914:
| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.
| translation = The mouse bit the falcon.
}}
}}
 
|-
* Nankôre Quasi-Noun Incorporation,  SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub> Order:
! Incorporated
 
|
|
{{Gloss
|phrase = Bakran iyyatixridustipsapsuħraktarkenkabukilmaksaš?
|IPA =
| morphemes = Bakran yyat-xr-dut-sipsab-suharak-tar-kenk-ab-u-kilmaks=aš
| gloss = why NEC-ITER-DAT.APPL-transport-paper.item-DISTR-3P.ACC+1S.NOM-IMPF-TRNS-MIR.FRUSTRATION=IRR
| translation = Why must I keep on bringing (these) letters back and forth between them?
}}
|
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = Makse yôreno <u>rihat</u> 'itá'
|phrase = Makse yôreno <u>rihat</u> 'itá'
Line 952: Line 933:
| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.
| translation = The mouse falcon-bit.
}}
}}
 
|-
The postverbal position of the incorporated or quasi-incorporated noun is a shared feature among the three languages, apparently inherited from the Nahenic protolanguage.
|}
 


===== Conjunctives =====
===== Conjunctives =====
Line 965: Line 945:


===== Tense and Aspect =====
===== Tense and Aspect =====
Nahónda distinguishes two basic aspects, an imperfect and perfect, and six tenses, remote past, simple past, present, immediate future, simple future, and remote future.
===== Conjugation Class =====
The Conjugation Class slot is occupied by one of three suffixes or their allomorphs, ''-no'', ''-né'', and ''-na''.  These suffixes are descended from Proto-Nahenic auxiliaries, transitive ''*ne'nok'' "do", and  intransitive''*ya'na:ʔ'' "be".  <ref>In Classical Minhast and many of the modern northern dialects, these became the transitive ''-un'' and intransitive ''-an'' affixes, and ''-u'' and ''-an'' in all other dialects.  In Nankôre, the Proto-Nahenic auxiliaries survive as the verb ''unna'', "to make", and the stative auxiliary ''iná''.</ref>  While both Minhast and Nankôre preserve the  distinction of transitive-intransitive or active-stative meanings from the protolanguage's auxiliaries, a considerable amount of syncretism has occurred in Nahónda.  So while a slightly higher number of active verbs end with ''-no'' and stative verbs with ''-né'' or ''-na'' in their basic forms, many active verbs have ''-né'' or ''-na'' endings, and ''-no'' for stative verbs.  Interestingly, when a third person singular agent acts on a third person singular patient, the verb obligatorily takes the ''-no'' ending, as third person singular agents and third person singular patients both take null marking.<ref>Its Minhast relative shares this null-marking feature</ref> This so-called "''no''-flipping" of ''-né/-na'' endings is the primary way of cross-indexing the agent when it experiences pro-drop. <ref>The Siouan languages also null-mark third person singular agents and patients, but there is no reason to conclude that they contributed to ''no''-flipping.</ref>
<!--
<!--
===== Transitivity =====
===== Transitivity =====
Line 994: Line 979:


===== Adverbials =====
===== Adverbials =====
===== Deictics =====
===== Local Affixes =====
{|  class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{|  class="bluetable lightbluebg"
|-
|-
! Type !! Independent !! Clitic !! Translation !! Example || Nahenic Cognates
! Type !! Clitic !! Translation !! Example || Nahenic Cognates
|-
|-
! '''Proximal '''
! '''Proximal '''
| nótsalo
| -tsaló
| =tsaló
| here
| this one near me
| ''nahón=tsaló'' "this man here"
| ''nahón=tsaló'' "this man here"
|   
|   
Line 1,009: Line 993:
|-
|-
! '''Medio-Proximal'''
! '''Medio-Proximal'''
| iyáyalo
| -eló-, -yelo-
| =eló
| there, <br/> close to you
| that one by you
| ''Taya-sal-o-yeló'' <br/>"I see it next to you."  
| ''nahón=eló'' "that man next to you"  
|  
|  
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-''
* Minhast Gull Speaker dialect: <br/>''-eyyar-, -yyar-''
Line 1,018: Line 1,001:
|-
|-
! '''Distal'''
! '''Distal'''
| pʼáyalo
| -peló
| =peló
| yonder
| yonder, that one near him/her/them
|''nahón=peló'' "yonder man""
|''nahón=peló'' "yonder man""
|  
|  
Line 1,027: Line 1,009:
|-
|-
! '''Invisible'''
! '''Invisible'''
| nando
|  
|  
=ndo<br/>
-ndo<br/>
=do
-do
| that one beyond the horizon, <br/>or occluded by a distant object
| way over there <br/> beyond sight
| ''nahón=dó'' "that man <br/>(e.g. on the other side <br/> of the mountain)"
|  
|  
|  
* Minhast Stone Speaker dialect: <br/>''-onda-'' "to conceal"(?)<ref>This remains a highly contested hypothesis.</ref>
* Minhast Stone Speaker dialect: <br/>''-onda-'' "to conceal"(?)<ref>This remains a highly contested hypothesis.</ref>
Line 1,077: Line 1,058:


==== Verb Types ====
==== Verb Types ====
===== Postural and Locomotive Verbs =====
===== Verb Stacking =====
Nahónda lacks adpositions and verbal applicative markers to indicate the locational or directional relationship of a noun phrase.  Instead, postural and locomotive verbs are used to indicate oblique case relations:
Nahónda utilizes verb stacking for a variety of purposes.  A clause containing the head verb is followed by one or more modifier verbs for various morphosyntactic processes that would otherwise be handled by verbal inflection as in other polysynthetic languages, case systems, or independent particles.
 
As was mentioned earlier, Nahónda lacks both adpositions and applicatives to indicate grammatical relations<ref>Aka theta-roles</ref>, both of which its relative Minhast possesses.  Nahónda employs verb stacking in lieu of adpositional marking and applicativization to specify grammatical relations.  Verb stacking may also be employed to convey various adverbial meanings.
 
In Nahónda, the clause containing the verb head, i.e. the "main verb", precedes the modifiers<ref>Interestingly, the order of dependent verbs mirrors the placement of verb affixes in the Eskaleut languges.</ref>.  This is an unusual feature, as most(??) languages that employ verb stacking place the modifying verb before its head.  Placement of the dependents appears to be motivated by scopal considerations, with each element having leftward scope over all elements preceding it in the verb phrase.  The dependents are also are unmarked for TAM, and person marking is null, i.e. the dependents take third person singular marking. Instead, the dependents inherit their person and TAM marking from the main verb.
 
An example of verb stacking, with the verbs ''tatʼano'' ("to give") to convey an Allative relation, and ''bana'' ("to be quick") to convey immediacy, are illustrated in the  following gloss:
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = Gokódené yakalódona tatʼano bana.
| IPA = /go'ko:dɛnɛ: jaka'lo:dona 'tatʼano 'bana
| morphemes = gokóde-ne ya-∅-kaló-dona ∅-tatʼa-∅-∅-no ba-∅-∅-na
| gloss = enemy-DET.cylindrical_moving 1S.AGT-3S.PT-throw-spear-PST give.3S-PFCT-PST-CONJ be.swift-PFCT-PST-CONJ
| translation = I immediately threw the spear at the enemy warrior mounted on horseback.
}}
 
The following table contains the most commonly used verbs in serialization constructions. 


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
Anyar
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