@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 |name = Niemish
 |nativename = Nimsk
-|pronunciation = /nʲimsk/
+|pronunciation = nʲimsk
-|creator = [[User:Tardigrade]]
+|creator = User:Tardigrade
-</small>
 |created = 2015
 |setting =
 |familycolor = Indo-European
-|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
 |fam2 = [[w:Germanic_languages|Germanic]]
 |fam3 = [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]]
@@ Line 84: / Line 81: @@
 | ([[w:Voiced postalveolar affricate|d͡ʒ]]) ⟨dsz⟩
 |-
-! rowspan="2" | [[w:Fricative consonant|Spirant]]
+! rowspan="3" | [[w:Fricative consonant|Spirant]]
-! {{small|voiceless}}
+! rowspan=2 | {{small|voiceless}}
-| [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|f]] ⟨f⟩ || fʲ ⟨fj⟩
+| rowspan=2 | [[w:Voiceless_labiodental_fricative|f]] ⟨f⟩ || rowspan=2 | fʲ ⟨fj⟩
+| [[w:Voiceless_dental_sibilant|θ]] ⟨th⟩ || [[w:Voiceless dental sibilant|θʲ]] ⟨thj⟩
+| rowspan=2 | [[w:Voiced_postalveolar_fricative|ʃ]] ⟨sz⟩
+| rowspan=2 | xʲ ⟨chj⟩ || rowspan=2 | [[w:/x/|x]] ⟨ch⟩
+| rowspan=2 | [[w:/h/|h]] ⟨h⟩
+|-
 | [[w:Voiceless_dental_sibilant|s̪]] ⟨s⟩ || [[w:Voiceless dental sibilant|sʲ]] ⟨sj⟩
-| [[w:Voiced_postalveolar_fricative|ʃ]] ⟨sz⟩
-| xʲ ⟨chj⟩ || [[w:/x/|x]] ⟨ch⟩
-| [[w:/h/|h]] ⟨h⟩
 |-
 ! {{small|voiced}}
@@ Line 192: / Line 191: @@
 | /ɛ, eː/
 !
-| ⟨be⟩ || ⟨je⟩ || ⟨hä⟩ || ⟨e⟩
+| ⟨be⟩ || ⟨je⟩ || ⟨he⟩ || ⟨e⟩
 |-
 | /ə, ɨː/ || ⟨by⟩
@@ Line 418: / Line 417: @@
 | [[w:Yat|Ѣ ѣ]] || || ä || /ɛ/ || ||
 |-
-| [[w:Yat|Ꙓ ꙓ]] || || Jä jä, iä || /jɛ, , ʲɛ/ || ||
+| [[w:Yat|Ꙓ ꙓ]] || || Jä jä, iä || /jɛ, ʲɛ/ || ||
 |-
 | [[w:Yu (Cyrillic)|Ю ю]] || || Jo jo, io || /jo, ʲo/ || ||
@@ Line 428: / Line 427: @@
 | [[w:Iotated_E|Ѥ ѥ]] || || Je je, ie || /je, ʲe/ || ||
 |-
-| [[w:Yus|Ꙙ ꙙ]] || || Ą ą || /ã, ʲã/ || ||
+| [[w:Yus|Ꙙ ꙙ]] || || Ą ą || /ã/ || ||
 |-
 | [[w:Yus|Ꙝ ꙝ]] || || Ją ją, ią || /jã, ʲã/ || ||
+|-
+| [[w:Yus|Ꙛ ꙛ]] || || Ą̈, ą̈ || /ɛ̃/ || ||
+|-
+| [[w:Yus|IꙚ ıꙛ]] || || Ją̈ ją̈, ią̈ || /jɛ̃, ʲɛ̃/ || ||
 |-
 | [[w:Yus|Ѧ ѧ]] || || Ę ę || /ẽ, ʲẽ/ || ||
 |-
-| [[w:Yus|Ѩ ѩ]] || || Ję, ję || /jẽ/ || ||
+| [[w:Yus|Ѩ ѩ]] || || Ję ję || /jẽ/ || ||
 |-
 | [[w:Ꙟ|Ꙟ ꙟ]] || || Į į || /ĩ, ʲĩ/ || ||
@@ Line 496: / Line 499: @@
 Niemish nouns are inflected for three cases (nominative-accusative, genitive and dative) and two numbers (singular and plural). In addition, definite nouns are marked with a suffix that evolved out of postposed Gothic definite articles, functionally giving every noun two declensions for singular and plural.
-All nouns belong to one of two genders: masculine and feminine. The neuter gender of medieval Niemish has fallen together with masculine except in the Westlandic dialect, although the neuter plural still survives as an irregular plural for some formerly neuter nouns and has even become generalised to mark the plural of masculine nouns that commonly occur as a group, especially in pairs, often in parallel with a regular plural with a less specialised sense.
+All nouns belong to one of three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. The neuter gender has fallen together with masculine in the Westlandic dialect, although the neuter plural still survives as an irregular plural for some formerly neuter nouns and has even become generalised to mark the plural of masculine nouns that commonly occur as a group, especially in pairs, often in parallel with a regular plural with a less specialised sense.
-There are three classes of masculine noun:
+There are three classes of masculine or neuter noun:
 *hard stem (may be subject to umlaut) ''[[Contionary:wich|wich]]'' ("road, way")
 *soft stem ''[[Contionary:kunnj|kunnj]]'' ("tribe, race")
@@ Line 511: / Line 514: @@
 In addition, nouns with polysyllabic stems may be subject to syncopation, although this does not affect the class into which they are sorted.
-====Masculine nouns====
+====Masculine and neuter nouns====
 <small>'''Hard stem nouns'''</small>
@@ Line 1,128: / Line 1,131: @@
 |-
 ! colspan="4" | Past participle (strong)
-| colspan="5" | -(a)n
+| colspan="5" | -(o)n
 |-
 ! colspan="4" | Past participle (weak)
@@ Line 1,138: / Line 1,141: @@
 |-
 ! 1S
-| -Ø || -a || -Ø || -ja || -(a)d || -(i)za || rowspan=3| -Ø
+| -Ø || -a || -Ø || -ja || -(a)d || -⟦i⟧za || rowspan=3| -Ø
 |-
 ! 2S
-| -[e]s || -es || -t || -jes || -(a)ds || -(i)zes
+| -[e]s || -es || -t || -jes || -(a)ds || -⟦i⟧zes
 |-
 ! 3S
@@ Line 1,147: / Line 1,150: @@
 |-
 ! 1P
-| -ą || -em || -ą || -jem || -(y)dą || -(i)zem || rowspan=3 | -t
+| -ą || -em || -ą || -jem || -(y)dą || -⟦i⟧zem || rowspan=3 | -t
 |-
 ! 2P
-| -t || -et || -t || -jet || -(a)dt || -(i)zet
+| -t || -et || -t || -jet || -(a)dt || -⟦i⟧zet
 |-
 ! 3P
-| -ą || -en || -ą || -jen || -(y)dą || -(i)zen
+| -ą || -en || -ą || -jen || -(y)dą || -⟦i⟧zen
 |}
 '''Notes:'''
@@ Line 1,163: / Line 1,166: @@
 ====Strong verbs====
-Strong verbs form their past tense and past participle by vowel change (ablaut). There are seven classes of strong verbs, depending on how the stem changes.
+Germanic language strong verbs are verbs that change the vowel in the stem to form the past and past participle, rather than add a suffix. For an English example, contrast ''fall-fell-fallen'' (strong) from ''fell-felled'' (weak).
-{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
-|+ Stem vowels of strong verbs by class
+The following is a table of all the different types and subtypes of strong verbs.
-|-
+{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
-! rowspan="2" | Class !! rowspan="2" | Subclass !! rowspan="2" | Present || colspan="3"| Past || rowspan="2" | Past participle
+! colspan="2" |Strong verb classes !! colspan=4|Stem vowel
 |-
-! Singular !! Plural !! Subj.
+!Class!!Subclass!!General!!Past indicative!!Past subjunctive!!Past Participle
 |-
-! rowspan="2" | 1 !! regular
+!rowspan=2|1!!1a
-| -e- || -a- || -e- || -i- || -e-
+|'''-í-'''<br>gríp, gríps||'''-iá-'''<br>griáp||rowspan=2|'''-ì'''<br>grìppia<br>wìppia||rowspan=2|'''-é-''', '''-í-'''<br>grépon, grípuns<br>wépon, wípuns
 |-
-! u-stem
+!1b
-| -ey- || -eu- || -y- || -y-
+|'''-ý-''', '''-í-'''<br>wýp, wíps||'''-á-'''<br>wáp
 |-
-! 2 !! regular
+! colspan="2" |2a
-| -y-<!--/-ou-/-u[å]--> || -å- || -u[å]- || -u[å]-
+|'''-iú-'''<br>fliúg, fliúgs||'''-ió-'''<br>flióg||'''-iù-'''<br>fliùggia||'''-ió-''', '''-iú-'''<br>fliógon, fliúguns
 |-
-! 3 !! regular
+! colspan="2" |2b
-| -i[ä]- || -a- || -u[å]- || -u[å]-
+|'''-ú-'''<br>búch, búchs||'''-ó-'''<br>bóch||'''-ù-'''<br>búchia||'''-ó-''', '''-ú-'''<br>bóchon, búchuns
 |-
-! 4 !! regular
+! colspan="2" |3/4
-| -i[ä]- || -a- || -e- || -u[å]-
+|'''-é-''', '''-í-'''<br>brék, bríks||'''-á-'''<br>brák||'''-ì-'''<br>brìkkia||'''-ó-''', '''-ú-'''<br>brókon, brúkuns
 |-
-! rowspan="2" | 5 !! regular
+! colspan="2" |5
-| -i[ä]- || -a- || -e- || -i[ä]-
+|'''-é-''', '''-í-'''<br>wrék, wríks||'''-á-'''<br>wrák||'''-ì-'''<br>wrìkkia||'''-é-''', '''-í-'''<br>wrékon, wríkuns
 |-
-! u-stem
+! colspan=2 |6
-| -y- || -å- || -eu- || -y-
+|'''-á-''', '''-ä́-'''<br>mál, mä́ls||'''-ú-'''<br>múl||'''-ù-'''<br>mùllia||'''-á-''', '''-ä́-'''<br>málon, mä́luns
 |-
-! 6 !! regular
+!rowspan=2|7b!!7ba
-| -a- || colspan="2" | -o- || -a-
+|'''-í-'''<br>tík, tíks||rowspan=2|'''-ú-'''<br>túk<br>wú||rowspan=2|'''-ù-'''<br>tùkkia<br>wúja||'''-í-'''<br>tíkun, tíkuns
 |-
-! 7 !! regular
+!7bb
-| (varies) || colspan="2" | -ä(Ce)- || (same as present)
+|'''-ý-''', '''-í-'''<br>wý, wís||'''-ý-''', '''-í-'''<br>wýn, wíns
 |}
+The "general" stem is used for the present tense, present participle and imperative. The "past indicative", "past subjunctive" and "past participle" stems are used for their named forms. Where two possible stem vowels are shown, they form a low-high pair that alternate according to umlaut.
+All past indicative stems assimilated to the Gothic first past stem, while class 3 verbs assimilated to class 4 in the past subjunctive. As a result class 3 and class 4a verbs merged. As there were only a very small number of class 4b verbs (which had identical past and past participle stems to classes 3 and 4a), these too merged with class 3.
+The reduplicated consonant prefix in class 7 verbs was lost. As a result, class 7a verbs were lost, becoming weak verbs or, if they had past stem vowel ''u'', becoming class 7b instead.
+Class 1 and class 7b verbs with stems affected by [[Niemish#Depalatalisation_of_labials_and_.2Fr.2F|depalatalisation]] (beginning with a labial, a rhotic or a labial+rhotic cluster) had the present stem vowel changed from ''i'' to ''y''. Class 1 verbs also had the past stem vowel changed from ''ia, iä'' to ''a, ä''. The new subclasses of class 1 are named 1a and 1b by analogy with the other subclasses; while they are named 7ba and 7bb for class 7b, as they arise only from Gothic 7b verbs (7a verbs having been lost).
+As palatalisation developed in Niemish, the palatalisation in the 2a general stem spread to all other stems, splitting subclasses 2a and 2b into full strong verb classes, sharing no forms. Some 2a verbs analogically extended the unpalatalised stems instead, causing them to join the 2b class.
+Dissimulation from the past stem caused the present stem of 2a class verbs to have an invariant ''u'' vowel like in the 2b class, which came from a long ''ū'' in Gothic.
+Class 2a verbs with stems affected by [[Niemish#Depalatalisation_of_labials_and_.2Fr.2F|depalatalisation]] became 2b verbs.
-====example====
+====Example====
 {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
@@ Line 1,373: / Line 1,389: @@
 ===Wulfilan Gothic to Post-Gothic===
 ====Vowels====
-Wulfilan Gothic had three (in some analyses five) short vowels and seven long vowels. The short vowels were maintained in Post-Gothic and ''ē'' merged with ''ei'':
+Wulfilan Gothic had five (in some analyses three) short vowels and seven long vowels. The short vowels were maintained in Post-Gothic and ''ē'' merged with ''ei'':
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌼𐌴𐍃#Gothic|mēs]]'' /eː/ → Post-Got. ''meis'' /iː/
-Wulfilan Gothic already showed signs of merging ''ē'' with ''ei'' attested in variant spellings such as ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍄#Gothic|akeit]]'' for ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍄#Gothic|akēt]]'' and ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍃#Gothic|leikeis]]'' for ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌴𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍃#Gothic|lēkeis]]''. In Post-Gothic this merger was complete.
+Wulfilan Gothic may have already started to merge ''ē'' with ''ei'', suggested by variant spellings such as ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍄#Gothic|akeit]]'' for ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍄#Gothic|akēt]]'' and ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍃#Gothic|leikeis]]'' for ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌴𐌺𐌴𐌹𐍃#Gothic|lēkeis]]''. In Post-Gothic this merger was complete.
 Syllable-final ''h'' /h/ was lost with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel:
@@ Line 1,419: / Line 1,435: @@
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍀𐌻𐌰𐍀𐌾𐌰#Gothic|*platja]]'' → ''*plattsa'' → ''[[Contionary:platz#Niemish|plàtz]]''
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌳𐌰𐌳𐌳𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|daddjan]]'' → ''*daddzan'' → ''dazond''
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍃𐌺𐌰𐌸𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|skaþjan]]'' → Post-Got. ''skadjan'' → ''*skaddzan'' → ''skazond''
-*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍃𐌺𐌰𐌸𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|skaþjan]]'' → ''*skæþþjan'' → ''*skættjan'' → ''skaczond''
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌱𐌰𐌹𐌳𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|báidjan]]'' → Post-Got. ''báiþjan'' → ''*bēþþjan'' → ''*bēttjan'' → ''beczond''
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌰𐌹𐍃𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|láisjan]]'' → ''*lēʃʃan'' → ''leszond''
 *Post-Got. ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌹𐌺𐌺𐌻𐌴𐍃𐌾𐍉#Gothic|aíkkleizjō]]'' → ''*klīʒʒō'' → ''[[Contionary:klizsza#Niemish|klízsza]]''
 The prepalatal gemination was a very early sound change, likely beginning in late Post-Gothic itself. The coronal palatalisation is also found in early Romance and what little is attested of the closely related [[w:Vandalic_language|Vandalic language]].
-It is thought that ''dj'' initially became */ddz/ before /z/, both because it patterns with ''tj'' → /tts/ and because Gothic ''[[wikt:𐌳𐌰𐌳𐌳𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|daddjan]]'' became ''dazond''; had degeminated /z/ arisen in the Post-Gothic period, extended Thurneysen's law would have devoiced the consonant to give ''*dasond''. There are no examples of ''z'' arising from the coronal palatalisation being affected by extended Thurneysen's law.
+It is thought that ''dj'' initially became */ddz/ before (after the Post-Gothic period had ceased) /z/, both because it patterns with ''tj'' → /tts/ and because Gothic ''[[wikt:𐌳𐌰𐌳𐌳𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|daddjan]]'' became ''dazond''. Had degeminated /z/ arisen in Post-Gothic, extended Thurneysen's law would have devoiced the consonant to give ''*dasond''. There are no examples of ''z'' arising from the coronal palatalisation being affected by extended Thurneysen's law.
 The voiceless fricative ''þj'' was stopped to /tj/ later, during the Middle Niemish period.
@@ Line 1,438: / Line 1,451: @@
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍃𐌹𐍄𐌻𐍃#Gothic|sitls]]'' → ''[[Contionary:sittil#Niemish|sìttil]]''
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐌹𐌺𐌽𐍃#Gothic|táikn]]'' → ''[[Contionary:tzakken#Niemish|tzàkken]]''
-*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐍂𐍃#Gothic|akrs]]'' → ''[[Contionary:akker#Niemish|àkker]]''
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌺𐍂𐍃#Gothic|akrs]]'' → ''[[Contionary:akkur#Niemish|àkkur]]''
 Other consonants did not:
 *Lat. ''[[wikt:tabla#Latin|tabla]]'' → ''tabol''<ref name="tabul">''tabol'' is no longer extant in Niemish, although the dual definite form ''{{term|Tabla#Niemish|Tabla}}'' is still used as a name for the game Backgammon.</ref>
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍆𐍉𐌳𐍂#Gothic|fōdr]]'' → ''[[Contionary:fudor#Niemish|fúdor]]''
-*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌱𐌰𐌲𐌼𐍃#Gothic|bagms]]'' → ''[[Contionary:bachom#Niemish|báchom]]''
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌱𐌰𐌲𐌼𐍃#Gothic|bagms]]'' → ''[[Contionary:bachum#Niemish|báchum]]''
-*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐌲𐍂#Gothic|tagr]]'' → ''[[Contionary:tagor#Niemish|tágor]]''
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐌲𐍂#Gothic|tagr]]'' → ''[[Contionary:tagur#Niemish|tágur]]''
-*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/*wazrą#Proto-Germanic|*wazrą]]'' → Post-Got. ''wasr'' → ''[[Contionary:waszor#Niemish|wàszor]]''
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/*wazrą#Proto-Germanic|*wazrą]]'' → Post-Got. ''wasr'' → ''[[Contionary:waszur#Niemish|wàszur]]''
 ====Epenthesis====
@@ Line 1,456: / Line 1,469: @@
 Otherwise:
 * ''u'' before syllabic ''l'', ''m'', or ''r'' in masculine words:
-**P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aplaz#Proto-Germanic|*aplaz]]'' → ''[[Contionary:appul#Niemish|àppul]]''
+**P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/aplaz#Proto-Germanic|*aplaz]]'' → ''[[Contionary:appol#Niemish|àppol]]''
 ** Got. ''[[wikt:𐌱𐌰𐌲𐌼𐍃#Gothic|bagms]]'' → ''[[Contionary:bachum#Niemish|báchum]]''
 **Got. ''[[wikt:𐍄𐌰𐌲𐍂#Gothic|tagr]]'' → ''[[Contionary:tagur#Niemish|tágur]]''
@@ Line 1,558: / Line 1,571: @@
 The second umlaut affected Post-Gothic long ''ái'' and ''ei'' slightly differently. When followed by a plain consonant (or when not followed by a front vowel in the following syllable in the ''second umlaut first hypothesis'') , ''ái'' [ɛː] was broken to first [jɛ] then lowered to [ja], and ''ei'' [[Niemish#Emergence_of_/ɨː/|was lowered to /ɨː/]]:
-Second umlaut was unable to occur in ja- or ju-stem nouns, and only occured in the singular of i- and u-stems. '''This gave rise to the three stems all Niemish masculine nouns belong to: ''hard'' (a-stems), ''soft'' (ja- and u-stems) and ''mixed'' (i- and u-stems).'''
+Second umlaut was unable to occur in ja- or ju-stem nouns, and only occured in the singular of i- and u-stems. '''This gave rise to the three stems all Niemish masculine nouns belong to: ''hard'' (a-stems), ''soft'' (ja- and ju-stems) and ''mixed'' (i- and u-stems).'''
 Feminine nouns either underwent the second umlaut in all inflected forms (jō-, jōn- and ein-stems) or not at all (all others). Thus as with first umlaut, vowel alternations due to second umlaut do not occur in feminine nouns. Note that ''ái'' [ɛː] is not considered a front vowel for the purposes of second umlaut; the umlaut was also predicated on vowel height and ''ái'' as a low vowel could trigger second umlaut:
@@ Line 1,575: / Line 1,588: @@
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌹𐌽#Gothic|in]]'' → ''{{term|į#Niemish|į́}}'' ("in")
 *P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/kunstiz#Proto-Germanic|*kunstiz]]'' → ''{{term|kųst#Niemish|kųst}}'' ("art")
-*Lat. ''[[wikt:amphora#Latin|amphora]]'' → Post-Got. ''amfaúra'' → ''ąfor'' → ''[[Contionary:ąchor#Niemish|ą̀chor]]'' ("bucket")
+*Lat. ''[[wikt:amphora#Latin|amphora]]'' → Post-Got. ''*amfaúra'' → ''ąfor'' → ''[[Contionary:ąchor#Niemish|ą́chor]]'' ("bucket")
 After syncope, /ml, nl, mr, nr/ were reintroduced into the language outside of prefixes.
 Subsequently, simple /n/ was lost before liquid consonants /l, m, r/ with compensatory gemination of the liquid consonant:
-*Post-Got. ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌽#Gothic|*láuna]][[wikt:-𐌻𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍃#Gothic|lig̃gs]]'' → ''lonling'' → ''lǫlling''
+*Post-Got. ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌰𐌿𐌽#Gothic|*láuna]][[wikt:-𐌻𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍃#Gothic|lig̃gs]]'' → ''lonling'' → ''lǫlling'' ("small change, petty cash")
 This did not happen to geminated /n/:
-*Post-Got. ''[[wikt:𐌺𐌿𐌽𐌹#Gothic|*kunja]][[wikt:-𐌻𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍃#Gothic|lig̃gs]]'' → ''kunnling'' ("relation, relative")
+*Post-Got. ''[[wikt:𐌺𐌿𐌽𐌹#Gothic|*kunnja]][[wikt:-𐌻𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍃#Gothic|lig̃gs]]'' → ''kunnling'' ("relation, relative")
 There was no compensatory gemination when the syllable with the nasal coda was unstressed, or in prefixes such as ''an-'', ''in-'', ''un-'':
@@ Line 1,597: / Line 1,610: @@
 Nasals that formed the end of a root, as in ''[[wikt:𐌷𐌰𐌹𐌼𐍃#Gothic|háims]]'' and ''[[wikt:𐌰𐌻𐌾𐌰𐌽#Gothic|aljan]]'' were either not lost or more likely restored by analogy with forms with inflectional endings; the Niemish descendants of these words are ''[[Contionary:ham|ham]]'' and ''[[Contionary:ällin|ällin]]''.
+====Loss of non-initial /f/====
+When it occurred after a vowel, /f/ became /x/:
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌻𐌿𐍆𐍄𐌿𐍃#Gothic|luftus]]'' → ''{{term|lucht#Niemish|lùcht}}'' ("air, atmosphere")
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌲𐌹𐌱𐌰#Gothic|giba]]'' → Post-Got. ''gifa'' → ''{{term|gech#Niemish|géch}}'' ("gift")
+Elison of initial vowels sometimes gave rise to initial /x/:
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌿𐍆𐌰𐍂#Gothic|ufar]]'' → Middle Niemish ''ochor'' → ''{{term|chor#Niemish|chór}}'' ("over")
+Initial and geminated /f/ were unaffected:
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍆𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃#Gothic|fisks]]'' → ''{{term|fisk#Niemish|fìsk}}'' ("fish")
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/ribją#Proto-Germanic|*ribją]]'' → Post-Got. ''rifi'' → ''{{term|riff#Niemish|rìff}}'' ("rib, spoke")
 ====Reduction of /rn/ to /r/====
@@ Line 1,603: / Line 1,626: @@
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌴𐌹𐍃𐌰𐍂𐌽#Gothic|eisarn]]'' → ''{{term|iszar#Niemish|íszar}}'' ("iron")
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌺𐌰𐌿𐍂𐌽#Gothic|kaúrn]]'' → ''{{term|kor#Niemish|kór}}'' ("corn")
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍃𐍄𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌽𐍉#Gothic|staírnō]]'' → ''{{term|stiara#Niemish|stiára}}'' ("star")
 The same sound shift also occurred in Luxembourgish ''[[wikt:Kar#Luxembourgish|Kar]]'' and [[w:Dalecarlian_language#Phonology|Dalecarlian Swedish dialects]]. A similar shift cannot be confirmed for Crimean Gothic ''[[wikt:kor#Crimean_Gothic|kor]]'' as the manuscript that records Crimean Gothic is likely riddled with typographic errors.
@@ Line 1,628: / Line 1,652: @@
 Much like Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages (and to an extent High German), Niemish changed Post-Gothic /s, z, t͡s/ to /ʃ, ʒ, t͡ʃ/ before /r, w/ and after /r, uː, iː/:
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍃𐍅𐌰𐍂𐍄𐍃#Gothic|swarts]]'' → ''[[Contionary:szwart#Niemish|szwárt]]'' ("black")
-*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/*wazrą#Proto-Germanic|*wazrą]]'' → Post-Got. ''wasr'' → ''{{term|waszor#Niemish|wàszor}}'' ("spring")
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/wazrą#Proto-Germanic|*wazrą]]'' → Post-Got. ''wasr'' → ''{{term|waszur#Niemish|wàszur}}'' ("spring")
 **P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/barsaz#Proto-Germanic|*barsaz]]'' → ''[[Contionary:barsz#Niemish|bársz]]'' ("perch, a type of fish")
 ***Got. ''[[wikt:𐌸𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍃𐌿𐍃|þaúrsus]]'' → Post-Got. ''þaurzus'' → ''{{term|tzorzsz#Niemish|tzórzsz}}'' ("thirsty")
 ****P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/skurtijǭ#Proto-Germanic|*skurtijǭ]]'' → Post-Got. ''skaúrtjō'' → ''skaúrʦō'' → ''[[Contionary:skorcza#Niemish|skórcza]]'' ("apron")
 *****Lat. ''[[wikt:Martius#Latin|Martius]]'' → Post-Got. ''marti'' → ''marʦ'' → ''[[Contionary:marcz#Niemish|márcz]]'' ("March")
+******Grk. ''[[wikt:χαρτί#Greek|χαρτία]]'' → Post-Got. ''hartjō'' → ''harʦō'' → ''[[Contionary:harcza#Niemish|hárcza]]'' ("paper")
 *P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/mūs#Proto-Germanic|*mūs]]'' → ''[[Contionary:musz#Niemish|músz]]'' ("mouse")
 **Got. ''[[wikt:𐌲𐌿𐌳𐌷𐌿𐍃#Gothic|*hūs]]''  → Post-Got. ''hūz'' → ''[[Contionary:huzsz#Niemish|húzsz]]'' ("house")
@@ Line 1,638: / Line 1,663: @@
 This introduced a simple /ʃ/ sound in addition to the geminated /ʃʃ/ that arose with the prepalatal gemination.
+In addition, /t, d/ became /t͡s, z/ before /w/:
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍄𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍆𐌻#Gothic|tweifls]]'' → Post-Got. ''tweibls'' → ''[[Contionary:tzwybol#Niemish|tzwýbol]]'' ("doubt")
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐌳𐍅𐌰𐌻𐍃#Gothic|dwals]]'' → ''[[Contionary:zwal#Niemish|zwál]]'' ("stupid")
+Much Slavic vocabulary such as ''{{term|twarag#Niemish|twárag}}'' ("quark") was loaned after the S-palatalisation was no longer in operation. The native word ''{{term|twa#Niemish|twá}}'' ("two") was unaffected by the shift, possibly because of analogical levelling with the feminine form, ''tú''.
 S-palatalisation was blocked before plosives:
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐍅𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍃𐍄𐍅#Gothic|waúrstw]]'' → Post-Got. ''waúrstu'' → ''{{term|worst#Niemish|wórst}}'' ("deed, act")
 *Got. ''[[wikt:𐌱𐌴𐌹𐍃𐍄#Gothic|beist]]'' → ''{{term|byst#Niemish|bỳst}}''
+Nonetheless, later /s, z/ were palatalised to /ʃ, ʒ/ in sibilant+palatalised consonant clusters:
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/spiltaz#Proto-Germanic|*spiltaz]]'' → ''{{term|spilt#Niemish|spílt}}'' /ʃpʲilt/ ("spelt, emmer")
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/strīdaz#Proto-Germanic|*strīdaz]]'' → ''{{term|strid#Niemish|stríd}}'' /ʃtrʲid/ ("battle")
+*Got. ''[[wikt:𐍅𐌰𐌿𐍂𐍃𐍄𐍅#Gothic|waúrstwis]] [[wikt:𐌸𐌹𐍃#Gothic|þis]]'' → Post-Got. ''waúrstáus þis'' → ''{{term|worst#Niemish|wúrstes}}'' /ˈwurʃtʲɪs/ ("of the deed")
+*P-Gmc. ''[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dwergaz#Proto-Germanic|*dwergaz]]'' → Post-Got. ''dwaírχs'' → ''{{term|zwiarch#Niemish|zwiárch}}'' /ʒvʲarx/ ("dwarf, gnome")
 ====Emergence of /ɨː/====
@@ Line 1,724: / Line 1,761: @@
 ===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
-'''Latin:''' Àll wárs sín gybórn frýs ja íbens į wártzą ja rátą. Ís sín ingàchts mis rázum ja gywìssę, ja tzórbą fuzántur į dúch brúturnys.
+'''Latin:''' Àll wárs sín gybórn frýs ja íbens į wártzą ja rátą. Ís sín ingàchts mis rázum ja gywìssę, ja tzórbą fuzántur į dúch brúturnus.
-'''Cyrillic:''' Аллъ варсъ синъ гъборнъ фрꙑсъ ꙗ ибенсъ ꙙ варцѫ ꙗ ратѫ. Ісъ синъ інгахтъ місъ разѹмъ ꙗ гъвіссѩ, ꙗ цорбѫ фозанторъ ꙙ духъ бруторнꙑс.
+'''Cyrillic:''' Аллъ варсъ синъ гъборнъ фрꙑсъ ꙗ ибенсъ ꙟ варцꙙ ꙗ ратꙙ. Ісъ синъ інгахтъ місъ разѹмъ ꙗ гъвіссѧ, ꙗ цорбꙙ фозанторъ ꙟ духъ бруторносъ.
-'''IPA:''' /all wars sʲiːn gəˈborn frɨːs jɐ ˈiːbʲɪns ɪ̃ ˈwart͡sɐ̃ jɐ ˈraːtɐ̃ || iːs sʲiːn ɪŋˈgaxts mʲɪs ˈraːzʊm jɐ gəˈvʲɪssʲə̃, jɐ ˈt͡sorbɐ̃ fʊˈzantʊr ɪ̃ duːx ˈbruːtʊrnəs/
+'''IPA:''' /all wars sʲiːn gəˈborn frɨːs jɐ ˈiːbʲɪns ɪ̃ ˈwart͡sɐ̃ jɐ ˈraːtɐ̃ || iːs sʲiːn ɪŋˈgaxts mʲɪs ˈraːzʊm jɐ gəˈvʲɪssʲə̃, jɐ ˈt͡sorbɐ̃ fʊˈzantʊr ɪ̃ duːx ˈbruːtʊrnʊs/
 '''Gloss:'''

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Revision as of 22:06, 10 November 2023