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→‎Phonological stages from Proto-Coelo-Caric to Modern Carichendan
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The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Carichendan in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Coelo-Caric up to the modern language. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.
The following changes are known or presumed to have occurred in the history of Carichendan in the wider sense from the end of Proto-Coelo-Caric up to the modern language. The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.


====Pre-Proto-Germanic (Pre-PGmc)====
====Pre-Carichendan (pC)====
This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.
This stage began with the separation of a distinct speech, perhaps while still forming part of the Proto-Indo-European dialect continuum. It contained many innovations that were shared with other Indo-European branches to various degrees, probably through areal contacts, and mutual intelligibility with other dialects would have remained for some time. It was nevertheless on its own path, whether dialect or language.


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* Word-finally, it merged with */m/
* Word-finally, it merged with */m/
*It is not certain whether this change or the precursors to such a change had already occurred in Proto-Coelo-Caric, as a similar change is observed in Pre-Silōs.
*It is not certain whether this change or the precursors to such a change had already occurred in Proto-Coelo-Caric, as a similar change is observed in Pre-Silōs.
|}
====Primitive Carichendan (PmC)====
This stage began its evolution as a form of [[Centum-satem isogloss|centum]] [[PIE]] that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels, as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed, but strained, and this period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of contrastive accent, and the beginnings of the reduction of unstressed syllables as a result.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|'''Word-final long vowels are lengthened''' to "overlong" vowels — {{PIE|*séh₁mō}} "seeds" > {{PIE|*séh₁mô}} > {{PIE|*sēmô}}
|'''Spiration of voiceless fricatives''': The non-sibilant voiceless fricatives, */ɸ/, */þ/, and */h/, widely merge onto */h/, with some exceptions:
* When */ɸ/ is adjacent to palatalization or the vowel */e/, it instead becomes */j/, probably at first [ç] — *teɸnɔe "speech, language" > *djeɸna > *djejna > ''dyela'' "to say"
* This sound change coincides with the next one.
|-
|-
|'''First palatalization''':
|'''First palatalization''':
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|-
|-
|'''*/ð/ > */d/''' — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðakix > *dakix > ''dakish''
|'''*/ð/ > */d/''' — *ʼnakis "strength" > *ðakix > *dakix > ''dakish''
|-
|'''*/md/ > */nd/''' — *teʼni "name" > *semdi > ''sandi''
|-
|'''*/kn/ > */ŋn/''' — *tsaknali "to know" > *tsaŋnali > ''tsangnali''
|-
|'''*/nk/ > */ŋg/''' — *sanka let "to buy" > *saŋgalet > ''sangarat''
|}
|}


====Early Proto-Germanic====
====Old Carichendan (OC)====
This stage began its evolution as a form of [[Centum-satem isogloss|centum]] [[PIE]] that had lost its laryngeals and had five long and six short vowels, as well as one or two overlong vowels. The consonant system was still that of PIE minus palatovelars and laryngeals, but the loss of syllabic resonants already made the language markedly different from PIE proper. Mutual intelligibility might have still existed, but strained, and this period marked the definitive break of Germanic from the other Indo-European languages and the beginning of Germanic proper, containing most of the sound changes that are now held to define this branch distinctively. This stage contained various consonant and vowel shifts, the loss of contrastive accent, and the beginnings of the reduction of unstressed syllables as a result.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Loss of word-final non-high short vowels''' {{PIE|/e/}}, {{PIE|/a/}}, {{PIE|/o/}} — {{PIE|*wóyde}} "(s)he knows" > {{PIE|*wóyd}} > {{PIE|*wait}}
*A {{PIE|/j/}} or {{PIE|/w/}} preceding the vowel is also lost — {{PIE|*tósyo}} "of that" > {{PIE|*tós}} > {{PIE|*þas}}
*Single-syllable words were not affected, but clitics were — {{PIE|*-kʷe}} "and" > {{PIE|*-kʷ}} > {{PIE|*-hw}}
*When the lost vowel was accented, the accent shifted to the preceding syllable — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*n̥smé}} "us" > {{PIE|*n̥swé}} > {{PIE|*unswé}} > {{PIE|*úns}} > {{PIE|*uns}}}} (not {{PIE|*unz}}, showing that loss occurred before Verner's law)
|-
|'''[[Grimm's law]]''': Chain shift of the three series of plosives. Note that voiced plosives had already been devoiced before a voiceless obstruent prior to this stage. Labiovelars were delabialised before {{PIE|/t/}}.
*Voiceless plosives become fricatives, unless preceded by another obstruent. In a sequence of two voiceless obstruents, the second obstruent remains a plosive.
**{{PIE|/p/}} > {{PIE|/ɸ/}} ({{PIE|f}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*ph₂tḗr}} "father" > {{PIE|*fəþḗr}} > {{PIE|*fadēr}}}}
**{{PIE|/t/}} > {{PIE|/θ/}} ({{PIE|þ}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*tód}} "that" > {{PIE|*þód}} > {{PIE|*þat}}}}
**{{PIE|/k/}} > {{PIE|/x/}} ({{PIE|h}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*kátus}} "fight" > {{PIE|*háþus}} > {{PIE|*haþuz}}; {{PIE|*h₂eǵs-}} "axle" > (devoicing) {{PIE|*aks-}} > {{PIE|*ahs-}} > {{PIE|*ahsō}}}}
**{{PIE|/kʷ/}} > {{PIE|/xʷ/}} ({{PIE|hw}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*kʷód}} "what" > {{PIE|*hʷód}} > {{PIE|*hwat}}}}
**Since the second of two obstruents is unaffected, the sequences {{PIE|/sp/}}, {{PIE|/st/}}, {{PIE|/sk/}}, {{PIE|/skʷ/}}, {{PIE|/tt/}} (only in {{PIE|*atta}} "dad") remain.
**The above also forms the [[Germanic spirant law]]:
***{{PIE|/bt/}}, {{PIE|/bʰt/}}, {{PIE|/pt/}} > {{PIE|/ɸt/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*kh₂ptós}} "grabbed" > {{PIE|*kəptós}} > {{PIE|*həftós}} > {{PIE|*haftaz}} "captive"}}
***{{PIE|/gt/}}, {{PIE|/gʰt/}}, {{PIE|/kt/}} > {{PIE|/xt/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*oḱtṓw}} "eight" > {{PIE|*oktṓw}} > {{PIE|*ohtṓw}} > {{PIE|*ahtōu}}}}
***{{PIE|/gʷt/}}, {{PIE|/gʷʰt/}}, {{PIE|/kʷt/}} > {{PIE|/xt/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*nokʷtm̥}} "night, acc." > {{PIE|*noktum}} > {{PIE|*nohtum}} > {{PIE|*nahtų}}}}
*Voiced plosives are devoiced:
**{{PIE|/b/}} > {{PIE|/p/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*dʰewbu-}} "deep" > {{PIE|*dʰewpu-}} > {{PIE|*dewpu-}} > {{PIE|*deupaz}}}} (reformed as a-stem)
**{{PIE|/d/}} > {{PIE|/t/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₁dóntm̥}} "tooth, acc." > {{PIE|*tónþum}} > {{PIE|*tanþų}}; {{PIE|*kʷód}} "what" > {{PIE|*hʷód}} > {{PIE|*hwat}}}}
**{{PIE|/g/}} > {{PIE|/k/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*wérǵom}} "work" > {{PIE|*wérgom}} > {{PIE|*wérkom}} > {{PIE|*werką}}}}
**{{PIE|/gʷ/}} > {{PIE|/kʷ/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*gʷémeti}} "(s)he will step, subj." > {{PIE|*kʷémeþi}} > {{PIE|*kwimidi}} "(s)he comes"}}
*Aspirated plosives become voiced plosives or fricatives (see below):
**{{PIE|/bʰ/}} > {{PIE|/b/}} ({{PIE|[b,β]}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*bʰéreti}} "(s)he is carrying" > {{PIE|*béreþi}} > {{PIE|*biridi}}}}
**{{PIE|/dʰ/}} > {{PIE|/d/}} ({{PIE|[d,ð]}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*dʰóh₁mos}} "thing put" > {{PIE|*dṓmos}} > {{PIE|*dōmaz}} "judgement"}}
**{{PIE|/gʰ/}} > {{PIE|/g/}} ({{PIE|[g,ɣ]}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*gʰáns}} "goose" > {{PIE|*gáns}} > {{PIE|*gans}}}}
**{{PIE|/gʷʰ/}} > {{PIE|/gʷ/}} ({{PIE|[gʷ,ɣʷ]}}) — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*sóngʷʰos}} "chant" > {{PIE|*sóngʷos}} > {{PIE|*sangwaz}} "song"}}
|-
|'''[[Verner's law]]''': voiceless fricatives are voiced, allophonically at first, when preceded by an unaccented syllable:
*{{PIE|/ɸ/}} > {{PIE|[β]}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*upéri}} "over" > {{PIE|*uféri}} > {{PIE|*ubéri}} > {{PIE|*ubiri}}}}
*{{PIE|/θ/}} > {{PIE|[ð]}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*tewtéh₂}} "tribe" > {{PIE|*þewþā́}} > {{PIE|*þewdā́}} > {{PIE|*þeudō}}}}
*{{PIE|/x/}} > {{PIE|[ɣ]}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₂yuHn̥ḱós}} "young" > {{PIE|*yunkós}} > {{PIE|*yunhós}} > {{PIE|*yungós}} > {{PIE|*jungaz}}}} (with -z by analogy)
*{{PIE|/xʷ/}} > {{PIE|[ɣʷ]}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*kʷekʷléh₂}} "wheels (collective)" > {{PIE|*hʷehʷlā́}} > {{PIE|*hʷegʷlā́}} > {{PIE|*hweulō}}}}
*{{PIE|/s/}} > {{PIE|[z]}} — {{PIE|*h₁régʷeses}} "of darkness" > {{PIE|*rékʷeses}} > {{PIE|*rékʷezez}} > {{PIE|*rikwiziz}}; {{PIE|*kʷékʷlos}} "wheel" > {{PIE|*hʷéhʷlos}} > {{PIE|*hʷéhʷloz}} > {{PIE|*hwehwlaz}}
*Some small words which were generally unaccented were also affected — {{PIE|*h₁ésmi}}, unstressed {{PIE|*h₁esmi}} "I am" > {{PIE|*esmi}} > {{PIE|*ezmi}} > {{PIE|*immi}}; {{PIE|*h₁sénti}}, unstressed {{PIE|*h₁senti}} "they are" > {{PIE|*senþi}} > {{PIE|*sendi}} > {{PIE|*sindi}} (the stressed variants, which would have become {{PIE|*ismi}} and {{PIE|*sinþi}}, were lost)
|-
|'''All words become stressed on their first syllable'''. The PIE contrastive accent is lost, phonemicising the voicing distinction created by Verner's law.
|-
|'''Word-initial {{PIE|/gʷ/}} > {{PIE|/b/}}''' — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*gʷʰédʰyeti}} "(s)he is asking for" > {{PIE|*gʷédyedi}} > {{PIE|*bédyedi}} > {{PIE|*bidiþi}} "(s)he asks, (s)he prays"}} (with -þ- by analogy)
|-
|'''Assimilation of sonorants''':
*{{PIE|/nw/}} > {{PIE|/nn/}} — {{PIE|*ténh₂us}} "thin" ~ fem. {{PIE|*tn̥h₂éwih₂}} > {{PIE|*tn̥h₂ús}} ~ {{PIE|*tn̥h₂wíh₂}} > {{PIE|*þunus}} ~ {{PIE|*þunwī}} > {{PIE|*þunus}} ~ {{PIE|*þunnī}} > {{PIE|*þunnuz}} ~ {{PIE|*þunnī}}
*{{PIE|/ln/}} > {{PIE|/ll/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*pl̥h₁nós}} "full" > {{PIE|*fulnos}} > {{PIE|*fullos}} > {{PIE|*fullaz}}}}
*{{PIE|/zm/}} > {{PIE|/mm/}} — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*h₁esmi}} "I am, unstr." > {{PIE|*ezmi}} > {{PIE|*emmi}} > {{PIE|*immi}}}}
|-
|'''Unstressed {{PIE|/owo/}} > {{PIE|/oː/}}''' — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*-owos}} "thematic 1st du." > {{PIE|*-ōz}}}}
|-
|'''Unstressed {{PIE|/ew/}} > {{PIE|/ow/}}''' before a consonant or word-finally — {{nowrap|{{PIE|*-ews}} "u-stem gen. sg." > {{PIE|*-owz}} > {{PIE|*-auz}}}}
|-
|'''Unstressed {{PIE|/e/}} > {{PIE|/i/}}''' except before {{PIE|/r/}} — {{PIE|*-éteh₂}} "abstract noun suffix" > {{PIE|*-eþā}} > {{PIE|*-iþā}} > {{PIE|*-iþō}}
*Unstressed {{PIE|/ej/}} contracts to {{PIE|/iː/}} — {{PIE|*-éys}} "i-stem gen. sg." > {{PIE|*-iys}} > {{PIE|*-īs}} > {{PIE|*-īz}} (with -z by analogy)
*{{PIE|/e/}} before {{PIE|/r/}} later becomes {{PIE|/ɑ/}}, but not until after the application of i-mutation.
*Some words which could be unstressed as a whole were also affected, often creating stressed/unstressed pairs — {{PIE|*éǵh₂}} "I" > {{PIE|*ek}} > unstressed {{PIE|*ik}} (remaining beside stressed {{PIE|*ek}})
|-
|'''Unstressed {{PIE|/ji/}} > {{PIE|/i/}}''' — {{PIE|*légʰyeti}} "(s)he is lying down" ~ {{PIE|*légʰyonti}} "they are lying down" > {{PIE|*legyidi}} ~ {{PIE|*legyondi}} > {{PIE|*legidi}} ~ {{PIE|*legyondi}} > {{PIE|*ligiþi}} ~ {{PIE|*ligjanþi}} (with -þ- by analogy)
*This process creates diphthongs from originally disyllabic sequences — {{PIE|*-oyend}} "thematic optative 3pl" > {{PIE|*-oyint}} > {{PIE|*-oint}} > {{PIE|*-ain}}; {{PIE|*áyeri}} "in the morning" > {{PIE|*ayiri}} > {{PIE|*airi}} "early"; {{PIE|*tréyes}} "three" > {{PIE|*þreyiz}} > {{PIE|*þreiz}} > {{PIE|*þrīz}}
*The sequence {{PIE|/iji/}} becomes {{PIE|/iː/}} — {{PIE|*gʰósteyes}} "strangers, nom. pl." > {{PIE|*gostiyiz}} > {{PIE|*gostīz}} > {{PIE|*gastīz}} "guests"
|-
|'''Merging of non-high back vowels''':
*{{PIE|/o/}}, {{PIE|/a/}} — {{PIE|/ɑ/}} - {{PIE|*gʰóstis}} "stranger" > {{PIE|*gostiz}} > {{PIE|*gastiz}} "guest"; {{PIE|*kátus}} "fight" > {{PIE|*haþuz}} "battle"
*{{PIE|/oː/}}, {{PIE|/aː/}} > {{PIE|/ɑː/}} — {{PIE|*dʰóh₁mos}} "thing put" > {{PIE|*dōmoz}} > {{PIE|*dāmaz}} > {{PIE|*dōmaz}} "judgement"; {{PIE|*swā́dus}} "sweet" > {{PIE|*swātuz}} > {{PIE|*swōtuz}}
*{{PIE|/oːː/}}, {{PIE|/aːː/}} > {{PIE|/ɑːː/}} (â) — {{PIE|*séh₁mō}} "seeds" > {{PIE|*sēmô}} > {{PIE|*sēmâ}} > {{PIE|*sēmô}}; {{PIE|*-eh₂es}} "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > {{PIE|*-âz}} > {{PIE|*-ôz}}
|}
 
====Late Proto-Germanic====
By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent in favour of a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had also begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables already, which would continue in its descendants up to the present day. This final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects, and most notably featured the appearance of nasal vowels and the first beginning of [[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]], another characteristic Germanic feature.
By this stage, Germanic had emerged as a distinctive branch and had undergone many of the sound changes that would make its later descendants recognisable as Germanic languages. It had shifted its consonant inventory from a system rich in plosives to one containing primarily fricatives, had lost the PIE mobile pitch accent in favour of a predictable stress accent, and had merged two of its vowels. The stress accent had also begun to cause the erosion of unstressed syllables already, which would continue in its descendants up to the present day. This final stage of the language included the remaining development until the breakup into dialects, and most notably featured the appearance of nasal vowels and the first beginning of [[Germanic umlaut|umlaut]], another characteristic Germanic feature.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|'''Word-final {{PIE|/m/}} > {{PIE|/n/}}''' — {{PIE|*tóm}} "that, acc. masc." > {{PIE|*þam}} > {{PIE|*þan}} "then"; {{PIE|*-om}} "a-stem acc. sg." > {{PIE|*-am}} > {{PIE|*-an}} > {{PIE|*-ą}}
|'''*/md/ > */nd/''' — *teʼni "name" > *semdi > ''sandi''
|-
|-
|'''{{PIE|/m/}} > {{PIE|/n/}} before dental consonants''' — {{PIE|*ḱm̥tóm}} "hundred" > {{PIE|*humdan}} > {{PIE|*hundan}} > {{PIE|*hundą}}; {{PIE|*déḱm̥d}} "ten" > {{PIE|*tehumt}} > {{PIE|*tehunt}} > {{PIE|*tehun}}
|'''*/kn/ > */ŋn/''' — *tsaknali "to know" > *tsaŋnali > ''tsangnali''
|-
|-
|'''Word-final {{PIE|/n/}} is lost''' after unstressed syllables, and the preceding vowel is nasalised — {{PIE|*-om}} "a-stem acc. sg." > {{PIE|*-am}} > {{PIE|*-an}} > {{PIE|*-ą}}; {{PIE|*-eh₂m}} > {{PIE|*-ān}} > {{PIE|*-ą̄}} > {{PIE|*-ǭ}}; {{PIE|*-oHom}} "genitive plural" > {{PIE|*-ân}} > {{PIE|*-ą̂}} > {{PIE|*-ǫ̂}}
|'''*/nk/ > */ŋg/''' — *sanka let "to buy" > *saŋgalet > ''sangarat''
|-
|'''Nasal {{PIE|/ẽː/}} is lowered''' to {{PIE|/ɑ̃ː/}} — {{PIE|*dʰédʰeh₁m}} "I was putting" > {{PIE|*dedēn}} > {{PIE|*dedę̄}} > {{PIE|*dedą̄}} > {{PIE|*dedǭ}}
|-
|'''Elimination of {{PIE|/ə/}}''':
* Unstressed {{PIE|/ə/}} is lost between consonants — {{PIE|*sámh₂dʰos}} "sand" > {{PIE|*samədaz}} > {{PIE|*samdaz}}; {{PIE|*takéh₁-}} "to be silent" > (with added suffix) {{PIE|*takəyónti}} "they are silent" > {{PIE|*þagəyanþi}} > {{PIE|*þagyanþi}} > {{PIE|*þagjanþi}}
* {{PIE|/ə/}} > {{PIE|/ɑ/}} elsewhere — {{PIE|*ph₂tḗr}} "father" > {{PIE|*fədēr}} > {{PIE|*fadēr}}; {{PIE|*takéh₁-}} "to be silent" > (with added suffix) {{PIE|*takəyéti}} "(s)he is silent" > {{PIE|*þagəyiþi}} > {{PIE|*þagəiþi}} > {{PIE|*þagaiþi}}
|-
|'''Loss of {{PIE|/t/}}''' after unstressed syllables — {{PIE|*déḱm̥d}} "ten" > {{PIE|*tehunt}} > {{PIE|*tehun}}; {{PIE|*bʰéroyd}} "(s)he would carry, subj." > {{PIE|*berayt}} > {{PIE|*berai}}; {{PIE|*mélid}} ~ {{PIE|*mélit-}} "honey" > {{PIE|*melit}} ~ {{PIE|*melid-}} > {{PIE|*meli}} ~ {{PIE|*melid-}} > {{PIE|*mili}} ~ {{PIE|*milid-}}
|-
|'''{{PIE|/ɣʷ/}} > {{PIE|/w/}}''', sometimes {{PIE|/ɣ/}} — {{PIE|*snóygʷʰos}} "snow" > {{PIE|*snaygʷaz}} > {{PIE|*snaiwaz}}; {{PIE|*kʷekʷléh₂}} "wheels (collective)" > {{PIE|*hʷegʷlā}} > {{PIE|*hʷewlā}} > {{PIE|*hweulō}}
|-
|'''[[i-mutation]]''': {{PIE|/e/}} > {{PIE|/i/}} when followed by {{PIE|/i/}} or {{PIE|/j/}} in the same or next syllable — {{PIE|*bʰéreti}} "(s)he is carrying" > {{PIE|*beridi}} > {{PIE|*biridi}}; {{PIE|*médʰyos}} "middle" > {{PIE|*medyaz}} > {{PIE|*midjaz}}; {{PIE|*néwios}} "new" > {{PIE|*newyaz}} > {{PIE|*niwjaz}}
*This eliminates the remaining {{PIE|/ei/}}, changing it to {{PIE|/iː/}} — {{PIE|*deywós}} "god" > {{PIE|*teywaz}} > {{PIE|*Tīwaz}} "[[Týr]]"; {{PIE|*tréyes}} "three" > {{PIE|*þreiz}} > {{PIE|*þrīz}}
|-
|'''{{PIE|/e/}} > {{PIE|/i/}}''' when followed by a syllable-final nasal — {{PIE|*en}} "in" > {{PIE|*in}}; {{PIE|*séngʷʰeti}} "(s)he chants" > {{PIE|*sengʷidi}} > {{PIE|*singwidi}} "(s)he sings"
* This followed the earliest contact with Finnic people, since Finnish preserves the older vowel in the loanword ''rengas'' "ring" (from early Proto-Germanic ''*hrengaz'', later ''*hringaz'').
|-
|'''Long a is raised''':
*{{PIE|/ɑː/}} > {{PIE|/ɔː/}} — {{PIE|*dʰóh₁mos}} "thing put" > {{PIE|*dāmaz}} > {{PIE|*dōmaz}} "judgement"; {{PIE|*swā́dus}} "sweet" > {{PIE|*swātuz}} > {{PIE|*swōtuz}}
*{{PIE|/ɑːː/}} > {{PIE|/ɔːː/}} — {{PIE|*séh₁mō}} "seeds" > {{PIE|*sēmâ}} > {{PIE|*sēmô}}; {{PIE|*-eh₂es}} "eh₂-stem nom. pl." > {{PIE|*-âz}} > {{PIE|*-ôz}}
*This followed the earliest contact with the Romans, since Latin Rōmānī was borrowed as *Rūmānīz and then shifted to *Rūmōnīz.
|-
|'''{{PIE|/j/}} is lost between vowels''' except after {{PIE|/i/}} and {{PIE|/w/}} (but it is lost after syllabic {{PIE|/u/}}). The two vowels that come to stand in hiatus then contract to long vowels or diphthongs — {{PIE|*-oyh₁m̥}} "thematic optative 1sg sg." > {{PIE|*-oyum}} > {{PIE|*-ayų}} > {{PIE|*-aų}}; {{PIE|*áyeri}} "in the morning" > {{PIE|*ayiri}} > {{PIE|*airi}} "early"
*This process creates a new {{PIE|/ɑː/}} from earlier {{PIE|/ɑjɑ/}} - {{PIE|*steh₂-}} "to stand" > (with suffix added) {{PIE|*sth₂yónti}} "they stand" > {{PIE|*stayanþi}} > {{PIE|*stānþi}}
|-
|'''{{PIE|/n/}} is lost before {{PIE|/x/}}''', causing [[compensatory lengthening]] and nasalisation of the preceding vowel — {{PIE|*ḱónketi}} "(s)he hangs" > {{PIE|*hanhidi}} (phonetically {{PIE|[ˈxɑ̃ːxiði]}})
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Luzset Zari
174

edits

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