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==Grammar==
==Grammar==
===Nominals===
===Roots and Stems===
Nouns were marked for '''gender''' (masculine, other), '''number''' (singular, plural) and state (absolute, construct) through a series of affixes. Adjectives were unmarked but formed compounds with the noun they modified. Personal pronouns were usually prefixes attached to verbs, nouns, adjectives etc.
The basic element of the Kelt word is a root, usually mono- or disyllabic, which has a basic meaning but does not belong to a particular part of speech. For example, the root ETS may be a noun meaning "salt", an adjective meaning "salty" or a verb meaning "to salt, to preserve" depending on the particular context and the affixes attached.  
 
====Gender====
The exact nature of the gender system is unclear, but it appears to be based on two largely semantic classes: a masculine class and an other class. The '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies). The '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.
 
As gender is semantically determined, stems usually have inherent gender but some nouns may belong to more than one gender with a difference of meaning, e.g. the root ''HATAL'' "child" may be masculine ''qehatal'' "the boy" or other ''qahatal'' "the girl, the child". Masculine nouns may be declined as 'other' to give a pejorative sense, e.g. ''putah'' "effeminate or weak man".
 
A feminine suffix ''-s'' (''-ts'' after nasals and approximants) may be added to any root to specify a female subject and is always declined as 'other', e.g. ''qahatalts'' "the girl", ''nuuksah'' "a bitch".
 
====Number====
Nouns are either singular or plural and number is required on all nouns.
 
A collective suffix ''-ul'' can be used to denote a class of objects and is declined as a singular noun, e.g. ''putulek'' "men (in general)". 
 
====State====
All nouns have an absolute and a construct form. The '''absolute''' is marked with suffixes and is the form used without any preceding determiner or pronominal prefix and, as such, may be called 'indefinite'. The '''construct''' occurs with a preceding determiner or pronominal prefix and is usually definite.
 
Construct nouns must be preceded by one of the following:
* a demonstrative prefix
* a possessive prefix
* a verbal prefix
 
====Declension====
All nouns consist of an immutable stem to which affixes are attached, e.g. ''PUT'' "man", ''QRAL'' "house", ''NUUK'' "dog". The stem may not stand alone and must be accompanied either by absolute suffixes or some kind of prefix. Nouns are declined according to their class. Masculine nouns have ''e'' in the singular and ''ii'' in the plural. Other nouns have ''a'' in the singular and ''aa'' in the plural. These vowel sequences form part of the affixes attached to the noun stem, as follows:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Masculine PUT !! style="width: 100px;" | Other QRAL
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Absolute
! Singular
| ''putek''
| ''qralah''
|-
! Plural
| ''putiik''
| ''qralaah''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Construct
! Singular
| ''-eput''
| ''-aqral''
|-
! Plural
| ''-iiput''
| ''-aaqral''
|}
 
Nouns are not marked for case (syntax is used to indicate the function of the noun), but the genitive construction is formed by adding the suffix ''-i'' to the possessed noun in the absolute state followed by the possessor in the relevant state, e.g. ''nuukaahi qeput'' "the man's dogs", ''qralahi qafaks'' "the woman's house", ''palatiiki selikittiik'' "hunters' spears".
 
====Demonstrative Prefixes====
The demonstrative prefixes are added to the beginning of the construct noun and are as follows:
* ''q-'' "that", denoting things close to the listener, but used in a general sense almost like a definite article, e.g. ''qaqral'' "the/that house".
* ''p-'' "this", denoting things close to the speaker or recently mentioned, e.g. ''piiput'' "these men"
* ''qr-'' "that" denoting things far away or abstract, e.g. ''qrahatal'' "that girl/child".
 
====Possessive Prefixes====
Possessive prefixes form part of a series of personal prefixes which occur for each person and number, as well as masculine and other in the 3rd person singular only (3rd pl. ''wey-'' is used for both genders). There is also an impersonal prefix ''tśey-'' "someone's" used when the possessor is not known or when speaking generally (e.g. ''tśeyenuuk'' "someone's dog").  
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 25px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''key-''
| ''ney-''
|-
! 2
| ''ley-''
| ''tey-''
|-
! 3m
| ''sey-''
| rowspan="2;" | ''wey-''
|-
! 3o
| ''hey-''
|-
! Imp.
| colspan="2; | ''tśey-''
|}


Examples: ''keyaqral'' "my house", ''seyefak'' "his wife", ''weyaahatal'' "their children". 
Roots may be extended with derivational affixes to create longer stems, such as the diminutive ''-ap'' (e.g. ''putap'' "little man" < PUT) or the noun ending ''-t'' (e.g. ''kelt'' "language" < KEL "speak").
 
====Verbal Prefixes====
Verbal prefixes transform the noun into a predicate, e.g. ''keput'' "I am a man", ''hanuuk'' "it is a dog". See below for forms.
 
====Derivation====
Nouns from verbs:
* ''-sen'' basic verb noun or gerund, denoting the action of the verb, ''kalsenah'' "(an) eating, a meal",
* ''-t''
 
====Adjectives====
Adjective stems are not fully distinguishable from nouns and in many cases a single stem may behave as either, e.g. ''ETS'' "salt; salty". Adjectives may be either simple (e.g. ''SUUP'' "large") or derived from another part of speech (e.g. ''PUTIŚ-'' "manly, man-like"). In either case they may be used predicatively or attributively.
 
An attributive adjective is placed after the noun in either its absolute or construct state and is unmarked for gender, number or state, e.g. ''qaqral suup'' "the big house", ''putek neh'' "an old man". In many cases an attributive adjective may be compounded with the noun stem, where the relationship between the noun and adjective is stronger. Here, the adjective intervenes between the construct noun stem and prefixes, e.g. ''qasuupqral'' "the big house, the mansion", ''nehputek'' "an old man".
 
A predicative adjective may be formed by adding the verbal prefixes to the stem where the subject is a pronoun, e.g. ''kiputiś'' "I am manly", ''hisuup'' "it is large". When the subject is a noun, the attributive structure is used and verbal prefixes are added to the noun, e.g. ''haqral suup'' "it is a large house" or "the house is large", ''siput neh'' "he is an old man" or "the man is old".


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Like nouns and adjectives, verbs consist of an immutable stem to which affixes are added. Some stems may have both verbal and nominal functions, the distinction being made by affixes used, e.g. ''LAAN'' "breath, to breathe", ''laanah'' "a breath", ''kilaanamen'' "I breathed".
Verbal morphology is agglutinative, based on an immutable stem to which affixes are added. The verb is composed of the following elements:
Verbal morphology is largely agglutinative and the verb is composed of the following elements:


:: [SUBJECT PREFIX] + ([OBJECT PREFIX]) + [STEM] + ([DERIVATIVE]) + [ASPECT SUFFIX] + ([TENSE SUFFIX])
:: [SUBJECT PREFIX] + ([OBJECT PREFIX]) + [STEM] + ([DERIVATIVE]) + [ASPECT SUFFIX] + ([TENSE SUFFIX])
Line 358: Line 262:
====Causative====
====Causative====
A suffix ''-tsa'' may be added to the end of the verb to create a causative. Here, the subject prefix marks the agent of causation and the object prefix marks the agent of the verb itself, e.g. ''kisuneenitsa'' "I make him see". Causatives usually take an indirect object (see below).
A suffix ''-tsa'' may be added to the end of the verb to create a causative. Here, the subject prefix marks the agent of causation and the object prefix marks the agent of the verb itself, e.g. ''kisuneenitsa'' "I make him see". Causatives usually take an indirect object (see below).
===Nominals===
Nouns were marked for '''gender''' (masculine, other), '''number''' (singular, plural) and state (absolute, construct) through a series of affixes. Adjectives were unmarked but formed compounds with the noun they modified. Personal pronouns were usually prefixes attached to verbs, nouns, adjectives etc.
====Gender====
The exact nature of the gender system is unclear, but it appears to be based on two largely semantic classes: a masculine class and an other class. The '''masculine''' class (also called the E-class) included male humans, animals and deities along with other 'masculine' objects denoted by shape (i.e. long/tall and narrow), material (all metal and some stone objects belong here), purpose (e.g. weapons) or importance (including many celestial bodies). The '''other''' class (or A-class) contains all other nouns that don't belong to the masculine category, including all female living beings and deities, and many abstracts.
As gender is semantically determined, stems usually have inherent gender but some nouns may belong to more than one gender with a difference of meaning, e.g. the root ''HATAL'' "child" may be masculine ''qehatal'' "the boy" or other ''qahatal'' "the girl, the child". Masculine nouns may be declined as 'other' to give a pejorative sense, e.g. ''putah'' "effeminate or weak man".
A feminine suffix ''-s'' (''-ts'' after nasals and approximants) may be added to any root to specify a female subject and is always declined as 'other', e.g. ''qahatalts'' "the girl", ''nuuksah'' "a bitch".
====Number====
Nouns are either singular or plural and number is required on all nouns.
A collective suffix ''-ul'' can be used to denote a class of objects and is declined as a singular noun, e.g. ''putulek'' "men (in general)". 
====State====
All nouns have an absolute and a construct form. The '''absolute''' is marked with suffixes and is the form used without any preceding determiner or pronominal prefix and, as such, may be called 'indefinite'. The '''construct''' occurs with a preceding determiner or pronominal prefix and is usually definite.
Construct nouns must be preceded by one of the following:
* a demonstrative prefix
* a possessive prefix
* a verbal prefix
====Declension====
All nouns consist of an immutable stem to which affixes are attached, e.g. ''PUT'' "man", ''QRAL'' "house", ''NUUK'' "dog". The stem may not stand alone and must be accompanied either by absolute suffixes or some kind of prefix. Nouns are declined according to their class. Masculine nouns have ''e'' in the singular and ''ii'' in the plural. Other nouns have ''a'' in the singular and ''aa'' in the plural. These vowel sequences form part of the affixes attached to the noun stem, as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Masculine PUT !! style="width: 100px;" | Other QRAL
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Absolute
! Singular
| ''putek''
| ''qralah''
|-
! Plural
| ''putiik''
| ''qralaah''
|-
! rowspan="2;" | Construct
! Singular
| ''-eput''
| ''-aqral''
|-
! Plural
| ''-iiput''
| ''-aaqral''
|}
Nouns are not marked for case (syntax is used to indicate the function of the noun), but the genitive construction is formed by adding the suffix ''-i'' to the possessed noun in the absolute state followed by the possessor in the relevant state, e.g. ''nuukaahi qeput'' "the man's dogs", ''qralahi qafaks'' "the woman's house", ''palatiiki selikittiik'' "hunters' spears".
====Demonstrative Prefixes====
The demonstrative prefixes are added to the beginning of the construct noun and are as follows:
* ''q-'' "that", denoting things close to the listener, but used in a general sense almost like a definite article, e.g. ''qaqral'' "the/that house".
* ''p-'' "this", denoting things close to the speaker or recently mentioned, e.g. ''piiput'' "these men"
* ''qr-'' "that" denoting things far away or abstract, e.g. ''qrahatal'' "that girl/child".
====Possessive Prefixes====
Possessive prefixes form part of a series of personal prefixes which occur for each person and number, as well as masculine and other in the 3rd person singular only (3rd pl. ''wey-'' is used for both genders). There is also an impersonal prefix ''tśey-'' "someone's" used when the possessor is not known or when speaking generally (e.g. ''tśeyenuuk'' "someone's dog").
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width: 25px;" | !! style="width: 100px;" | Singular !! style="width: 100px;" | Plural
|-
! 1
| ''key-''
| ''ney-''
|-
! 2
| ''ley-''
| ''tey-''
|-
! 3m
| ''sey-''
| rowspan="2;" | ''wey-''
|-
! 3o
| ''hey-''
|-
! Imp.
| colspan="2; | ''tśey-''
|}
Examples: ''keyaqral'' "my house", ''seyefak'' "his wife", ''weyaahatal'' "their children". 
====Verbal Prefixes====
Verbal prefixes transform the noun into a predicate, e.g. ''keput'' "I am a man", ''hanuuk'' "it is a dog". See below for forms.
====Derivation====
Nouns from verbs:
* ''-sen'' basic verb noun or gerund, denoting the action of the verb, ''kalsenah'' "(an) eating, a meal",
* ''-t''
====Adjectives====
Adjective stems are not fully distinguishable from nouns and in many cases a single stem may behave as either, e.g. ''ETS'' "salt; salty". Adjectives may be either simple (e.g. ''SUUP'' "large") or derived from another part of speech (e.g. ''PUTIŚ-'' "manly, man-like"). In either case they may be used predicatively or attributively.
An attributive adjective is placed after the noun in either its absolute or construct state and is unmarked for gender, number or state, e.g. ''qaqral suup'' "the big house", ''putek neh'' "an old man". In many cases an attributive adjective may be compounded with the noun stem, where the relationship between the noun and adjective is stronger. Here, the adjective intervenes between the construct noun stem and prefixes, e.g. ''qasuupqral'' "the big house, the mansion", ''nehputek'' "an old man".
A predicative adjective may be formed by adding the verbal prefixes to the stem where the subject is a pronoun, e.g. ''kiputiś'' "I am manly", ''hisuup'' "it is large". When the subject is a noun, the attributive structure is used and verbal prefixes are added to the noun, e.g. ''haqral suup'' "it is a large house" or "the house is large", ''siput neh'' "he is an old man" or "the man is old".


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Psammead
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