Qino: Difference between revisions

==Introduction==

Qino is a Lowland East Cushitic language. It is largely based on Somali, Oromo, and Afar, with inspiration taken from various other languages.

==Phonology==

===Orthography===

====Consonants====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

! Western Arabic !! Eastern Arabic !! Latin !! Ge'ez !! IPA !! Notes

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====Vowels====

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===Prosody===

By default, primary accent falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is accented. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. Some exceptions are nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive and words nominalized with ''-n'', which behave as if they ended in a vowel (e.g. ''Maxammad'' is pronounced ''Maxámmad'', not ''Maxammád''). A word may contain multiple accented syllables, in which case primary accent falls on the final accented syllable.

-->

A final long vowel is accented by default. If the word ends in a consonant or semi-vowel, the final vowel is accented. If the word ends in a vowel, the penultimate syllable is accented. Words that differ from these rules can be indicated with an acute accent on the stressed vowel. In practice, accent is usually not indicated except word-finally in verbs, where it is represented by a final ''-h''.

In verbs, accent is fully determined by morphology. Nominals may have distinctive accent, but this is neutralized in some cases. Clitics, particles, and articles may be unaccented.

:e.g. ''bárafa'' "snow"

::''ka bárafa'' "the snow" (definite article is unaccented, so ''bárafa'' keeps its accent)

===Phonotactics===

*Word-initial vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop.

====Consonant clusters====

The general order for consonants in a cluster is as below (note that clusters can only occur word-internally and no more than two consonants can cluster at a time):

:'''Notes:'''

:*Nasals can occur before or after non-guttural fricatives.

:*When a labial and velar stop cluster, they may occur in either order. Coronal/palatal stops do not cluster with each other and always occur after labial/velar stops.

:*Semivowels do not occur before or after another consonant in native words.

:*Any non-guttural consonant (including semivowels) can be geminated between vowels.

===Morphophonology===

**'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of adpositions, and predicative nominals. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. Absolutives ending in a single consonant followed by a short, unaccented vowel (especially ''-a'' or ''-i'') often drop their final vowel, especially when closely linked to the following word.

**'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:

***Masculine non-plural with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''

***Absolutive ending in other short, unaccented vowel: accent on final syllable - e.g. ''Qino'' → ''Qinó''

***Absolutive ending in a long and/or accented vowel: ''-n''  - e.g. ''makiiná'' "car" → ''makiinan''

***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́k'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namak''

***Independent form: ''ak''

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxammadas''

***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namas''

The diminutive is formed with the suffixes ''-icha'' (m.)/ ''-itti'' (f.). The augmentative is formed with the suffix ''-oowa'' (''m./f.''), with the singulative ''-ooha'' (m.)/ ''-ooti'' (f.). Note that these suffixes can also be used for the singulative and plural respectively.

=====Derived nouns=====

Some derivation suffixes:

*''-iya (f.)'': verbal nouns (from class 1 & 2 verbs) - e.g. ''ardiya'' "running"

*''-inná (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''obbolinná'' "brotherhood"

*''-umma/-imma (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''qinumma'' "Qinoness"

*''-iyá (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''demokraatiyá'' "democracy"

<!--*''-á (f.)'': mostly concrete nouns derived from verbs - e.g. ''-->

*''-itaana (m.)'': verb-derived nouns - e.g. ''cabbitaana'' "drink; juice"

====Pronouns====

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! 1Exc  

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! 2P  

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! 3P  

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The proximal demonstrative is used to refer to something that is near to the speaker. It can be translated to "this/these (one(s))".

The distal demonstrative is used to refer to something at a distance from the speaker. It can be translated to "that/those (one(s))".

When used as an article, demonstratives always take singular forms. When used independently, however, dedicated plural forms exist.

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! Nominative

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! Genitive

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=====Indefinite pronouns=====

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! Nominative

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! Genitive

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=====Interrogative pronouns=====

All of these decline regularly unless otherwise indicated (or unless they contain an irregular component such as ''mitta''). Some particularly important case forms are specified.

**Nominative is ''maxí''

*''maka (m.); mata (f.)'': which, what, who (can be used for animate or inanimate) - e.g. ''<b>Máta</b> tuni?'' "'''What/who''' is this?" (or: "'''What/who''' are these?")

**Nominative: ''makú/matú''; Genitive: ''maki/mati''

====Numbers====

Cardinal numbers come before nouns in the unmarked form. If there is no unmarked form, the plural is used if it ends in ''-eeya'', ''-ooya'', or ''-oowa''. Otherwise, the singulative is used.

:e.g. ''lammá nama'' "two people" (NOT ''*lammá namoota''); ''shan cadeeya'' "five toothbrushes" (NOT ''*shan cadeeti''); ''afar afka'' "four mouths/languages" (NOT ''*afar afaani'')

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Qino cardinal numbers

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! 0

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! 1

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! 2

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! 3

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! 4

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! 5

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! 6

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! 7

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! 8

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! 9

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! 10

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! 11

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! 20

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! 30

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! 40

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! 50

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! 60

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! 70

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! 80

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! 90

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! 100

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! 1000

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=====Distributive numbers=====

=====Multiplicative numbers=====

Formed with the suffix ''-láaba'' "-fold" (from the noun ''laaba (f.)'' "fold") attached to the unaccented dependent form of the numeral - e.g. ''lammalaaba'' "two-fold"

====Nominalizers====

**Attributive verbs occur in the 3SM form when ''-m'' takes the place of the subject. Otherwise, it occurs in the subordinate form appropriate to the subject.

====Definite article====

The definite article is used to specify something and to indicate definiteness. It can be translated to "the".

There is no dedicated plural form. If plural must be specified, ''mara'' "ones" (with feminine articles) can be used - e.g. ''ta mara'' "the ones".

====Attributive verbs====

====Attributive nominal====

====General attributives====

*''láb'': male (derived from the noun ''labba'' "man/men")

*''dubár'': female (derived from the noun ''dubara'' "woman/women")

*''gíddi'': all of; the entire

*''má/ma-'': what (see [[Qino#Interrogative_particles|interrogative particles]])

Eventive verbs refer to an event, which may be an action (e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink") or the entering of a state (inchoative - e.g. ''raagi'' "to become late/old"). Most class 1 & 2 verbs fall into this category. Inchoative verbs in the past tense may be used for a present state - e.g. ''fahmé'' "I came to understand" = "I understand".

:stative: ''hurdé'' "he was asleep" - refers to an ongoing state in the past

====Class 1: Non-adjectival root verbs====

Non-adjectival root verbs may follow either suffix or prefix conjugations, depending on whether the stem begins in a vowel or a consonant.  

! colspan="5" | Stative Passive<small>¹</small> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-an-''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>an-</b>''</span>

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! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SM  

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! 3SF  

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! 1P  

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! 2P

<small>¹</small> Conjugates as an adjective.

<small>³</small> Separate imperative forms only exist in the second person.

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! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SM  

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! 3SF  

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! 1P  

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! 2P

====Class 2: Suffix-derived verbs====

=====Class 2a: ''-am-'' passive=====

The passive and pseuopassive uses of the ''-am-'' suffix can be interchanged with the impersonal.

::''Kitaaba an sheenamé.'' "I was given a book." = ''Kitaaba hu yi sheené.'' "(Someone) gave me a book."

=====Class 2b: ''-s-'' causative=====

=====Class 2c: ''-at-'' middle/autobenefactive=====

*The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the 2S imperative - e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love".

*The verbal noun is formed with the suffix ''-ashu'' (''f.'') (instead of expected ''-atiya'').

:e.g. ''daqi'' "to wash" + ''-at-'' → ''daqati'' "to wash oneself; to wash for one's benefit"

=====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' inchoative=====

====Class 3: Adjectival conjugation====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|-

|+ Adjectival conjugation

! colspan="2" | Citation form || colspan="1" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-e''</span> || colspan="2" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>e</b>''</span>

|-

! colspan="2" | Verbal noun || colspan="1" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ina''</span> || colspan="2" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>ina</b>''</span>

====Tense, aspect, mood====

'''Notes:'''  

<!--

*Verbs can be used descriptively before a noun. The verb is always in the singular. Adjectives can pluralize by reduplication - e.g. ''dheere nama'' "tall person" vs ''dheedheere nama'' "tall people"

*Main clause:

**Affirmative: "Imperfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees"

*Subordinate clause:

======Simple past======

*Main clause:

**Affirmative: "Perfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarké'' "he saw"

*Subordinate clause:

**Affirmative: "Perfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarkenas'' "because he saw"

======Imperative======

*Used for a command in the second person. The imperative forms without ''t'' are used.

*Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. ''arki'' "see!"

======Jussive======

*Used for a wish, command, etc, mostly in the first and third person. The second person uses the forms with ''t''.

=====Converbs=====

::''Ka mana <b>galtaa</b> kitaaba ka sheentá.'' "'''Entering''' the house, she gives him a book."

::''<b>Furanii</b> dhalatté.'' "She was born '''free'''."

The perfect converb is used for an actions that occur subsequently to each other. It is formed with the suffix ''-ee'' for classes 1 & 2 and ''-iishii'' for class 3.

====Derivation====

=====Verb derivation affixes=====

*Passive: ''-am-'' (e.g. ''sheenami'' "to be given")

** The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the imperative (e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love").

*Inchoative: ''-oow-'' (e.g. ''casoowi'' "to become red").

Verbs may also be derived by prefixes, but these are only marginally productive. If the prefix begins in a vowel, the verb follows the prefix conjugation. Otherwise, it follows the suffix conjugation. Prefixes include inchoative ''a-'', middle ''t-'', mediopassive ''m-'', and causative ''s-''.

:::'''Reflexive causative''': ''jhiifsaté'' = "he laid himself down (similar in meaning to the above, but slightly different shade of meaning)"

-->

=====Verbal nouns=====

The main verbal noun (which is always feminine) is formed with the suffix ''-iya'', ''-ashu'', or ''-ina'' depending on verb class (see [[Qino#Verbs|verbs]] for more information). Accusative objects of a verb occur in the genitive when used with a verbal noun.

Additional verbal nouns can be formed with a variety of suffixes depending on the verb in question. A few common patterns include:

*''-itaana (m.)'' - e.g. ''cabbitaana'' "drink; juice" (< ''cabbi'' "to drink")

=====Agent and patient nouns=====

*''-eeya'' (''m., unmarked/collective''), ''-eesha'' (''m., sg.''), ''-eeti'' (''f., sg.'') - e.g. ''sheeneesha'' "giver (''m.'')", ''arkeeti'' "seer (''f.'')", ''caseeya'' "red people/things"

===Particles===

====Conjunctions====

*''shi'': and - used to join items within a clause; occurs between items.

*''-se'': but - occurs in same position as ''-ne''.

====Postpositions====

====Adverbial particles====

Occur immediately before verb.

-->

====Negation particles====

====Mood particles====

Used to form specific verb moods.

====Focus particles====

*''-aa'': attaches to and places emphasis on subject. The subject is placed in the absolutive and keeps its accent. Any final short and/or open vowels are absorbed by the ''-aa''; long, non-open vowels add a semivowel. The verb is placed in the subordinate form.

*''dha'':

*''mee'': interrogative focus particle (used similarly to ''dha''; see [[Qino#Interrogative_particles|interrogative particles]] for more information on usage)

====Interrogative particles====

Also see [[Qino#Interrogative_pronouns|interrogative pronouns]].

<!--

*''-me'' = interrogative focus particle

-->

*''mee'' (<''ma + e'') = interrogative focus particle

**To place focus on a noun, the verb is placed in the attributive and suffixed with ''-m'' - e.g. ''càamtem kallúuma mee?'' "did you eat ''fish''?" (or "was is ''fish'' that you ate?")

===Dependent clauses===

<!-- etc. etc. -->

==Example texts==

===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===

<tr>

<th>'''No.'''</th>

<th>[[wikipedia:English language|English]]</th>

</tr>

<tr><th>1</th><th>[[wiktionary:I|I]]</th><td>ana</td></tr>

<tr><th>2</th><th>[[wiktionary:you|you (singular)]]</th><td>ata (''m.''); ati (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>3</th><th>[[wiktionary:he|he]]</th><td>usa</td></tr>

<tr><th>5</th><th>[[wiktionary:you|you (plural)]]</th><td>ataani</td></tr>

<tr><th>6</th><th>[[wiktionary:they|they]]</th><td>isaani</td></tr>

<tr><th>7</th><th>[[wiktionary:this|this]]</th><td>kana (''m.''); tana (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>8</th><th>[[wiktionary:that|that]]</th><td>koona (''m.''); toona (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>12</th><th>[[wiktionary:what|what]]</th><td>maxa</td></tr>

<tr><th>15</th><th>[[wiktionary:how|how]]</th><td>masi</td></tr>

<tr><th>16</th><th>[[wiktionary:not|not]]</th><td>ma</td></tr>

<tr><th>17</th><th>[[wiktionary:all|all]]</th><td>kulli</td></tr>

<tr><th>19</th><th>[[wiktionary:some|some]]</th><td>mara</td></tr>

<tr><th>22</th><th>[[wiktionary:one|one]]</th><td>mitta (''m.''); mitti (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>23</th><th>[[wiktionary:two|two]]</th><td>lamma</td></tr>

<tr><th>25</th><th>[[wiktionary:four|four]]</th><td>afara</td></tr>

<tr><th>26</th><th>[[wiktionary:five|five]]</th><td>shana</td></tr>

<tr><th>28</th><th>[[wiktionary:long|long]]</th><td>dheere (''3''; adheeri)</td></tr>

<tr><th>31</th><th>[[wiktionary:heavy|heavy]]</th><td>cusle (''3''; cusloowi)</td></tr>

<tr><th>33</th><th>[[wiktionary:short|short]]</th><td>gaabe (''3''; agaabi)</td></tr>

<tr><th>39</th><th>[[wiktionary:child|child]]</th><td>ilma (''m.''; pl: ilmaani)</td></tr>

<tr><th>42</th><th>[[wiktionary:mother|mother]]</th><td>ayya (''f.''; pl: ayyaani ''f.''); ina (''f.''; pl: inaani ''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>43</th><th>[[wiktionary:father|father]]</th><td>awwa (''m.''; pl: awwaani ''f.''); abba (''m.''; pl: abbaani ''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>51</th><th>[[wiktionary:tree|tree]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>52</th><th>[[wiktionary:forest|forest]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>53</th><th>[[wiktionary:stick|stick]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>58</th><th>[[wiktionary:bark|bark]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>59</th><th>[[wiktionary:flower|flower]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>61</th><th>[[wiktionary:rope|rope]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>64</th><th>[[wiktionary:blood|blood]]</th><td>dhiiga (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>66</th><th>[[wiktionary:fat|fat]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>67</th><th>[[wiktionary:egg|egg]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>68</th><th>[[wiktionary:horn|horn]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>69</th><th>[[wiktionary:tail|tail]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>72</th><th>[[wiktionary:head|head]]</th><td>mataxa (''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>73</th><th>[[wiktionary:ear|ear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>74</th><th>[[wiktionary:eye|eye]]</th><td>ila (''f.''; coll: indha ''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>75</th><th>[[wiktionary:nose|nose]]</th><td>sana (''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>77</th><th>[[wiktionary:tooth|tooth]]</th><td>ilka (''m.''; pl: ilkaani)</td></tr>

<tr><th>79</th><th>[[wiktionary:fingernail|fingernail]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>80</th><th>[[wiktionary:foot|foot]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>81</th><th>[[wiktionary:leg|leg]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>83</th><th>[[wiktionary:hand|hand]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>84</th><th>[[wiktionary:wing|wing]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>88</th><th>[[wiktionary:back|back]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>89</th><th>[[wiktionary:breast|breast]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>94</th><th>[[wiktionary:bite|bite]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>95</th><th>[[wiktionary:suck|suck]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>97</th><th>[[wiktionary:vomit|vomit]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>99</th><th>[[wiktionary:breathe|breathe]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>102</th><th>[[wiktionary:hear|hear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>103</th><th>[[wiktionary:know|know]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>105</th><th>[[wiktionary:smell|smell]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>106</th><th>[[wiktionary:fear|fear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>109</th><th>[[wiktionary:die|die]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>110</th><th>[[wiktionary:kill|kill]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>111</th><th>[[wiktionary:fight|fight]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>114</th><th>[[wiktionary:cut|cut]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>115</th><th>[[wiktionary:split|split]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>116</th><th>[[wiktionary:stab|stab]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>117</th><th>[[wiktionary:scratch|scratch]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>119</th><th>[[wiktionary:swim|swim]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>120</th><th>[[wiktionary:fly|fly]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>121</th><th>[[wiktionary:walk|walk]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>123</th><th>[[wiktionary:lie|lie]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>124</th><th>[[wiktionary:sit|sit]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>126</th><th>[[wiktionary:turn|turn]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>130</th><th>[[wiktionary:squeeze|squeeze]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>131</th><th>[[wiktionary:rub|rub]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>134</th><th>[[wiktionary:pull|pull]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>135</th><th>[[wiktionary:push|push]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>136</th><th>[[wiktionary:throw|throw]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>137</th><th>[[wiktionary:tie|tie]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>139</th><th>[[wiktionary:count|count]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>141</th><th>[[wiktionary:sing|sing]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>144</th><th>[[wiktionary:flow|flow]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>145</th><th>[[wiktionary:freeze|freeze]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>153</th><th>[[wiktionary:lake|lake]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>161</th><th>[[wiktionary:fog|fog]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>187</th><th>[[wiktionary:rotten|rotten]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>190</th><th>[[wiktionary:round|round]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>191</th><th>[[wiktionary:sharp|sharp]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>192</th><th>[[wiktionary:dull|dull]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>193</th><th>[[wiktionary:smooth|smooth]]</th><td></td></tr>

</table>