Qino: Difference between revisions

==Introduction==

Qino is a Lowland East Cushitic language. It is largely based on Somali, Oromo, and Afar, with inspiration taken from various other languages.

==Phonology==

===Orthography===

====Consonants====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

! Western Arabic !! Eastern Arabic !! Latin !! Ge'ez !! IPA !! Notes

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====Vowels====

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===Prosody===

By default, primary accent falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is accented. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. Some exceptions are nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive and words nominalized with ''-n'', which behave as if they ended in a vowel (e.g. ''Maxammad'' is pronounced ''Maxámmad'', not ''Maxammád''). A word may contain multiple accented syllables, in which case primary accent falls on the final accented syllable.

-->

A final long vowel is accented by default. If the word ends in a consonant or semi-vowel, the final vowel is accented. If the word ends in a vowel, the penultimate syllable is accented. Words that differ from these rules can be indicated with an acute accent on the stressed vowel. In practice, accent is usually not indicated except word-finally in verbs, where it is represented by a final ''-h''.

In verbs, accent is fully determined by morphology. Nominals may have distinctive accent, but this is neutralized in some cases. Clitics, particles, and articles may be unaccented.

:e.g. ''bárafa'' "snow"

::''ka bárafa'' "the snow" (definite article is unaccented, so ''bárafa'' keeps its accent)

===Phonotactics===

*Word-initial vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop.

====Consonant clusters====

The general order for consonants in a cluster is as below (note that clusters can only occur word-internally and no more than two consonants can cluster at a time):

:'''Notes:'''

:*Nasals can occur before or after non-guttural fricatives.

:*When a labial and velar stop cluster, they may occur in either order. Coronal/palatal stops do not cluster with each other and always occur after labial/velar stops.

:*Semivowels do not occur before or after another consonant in native words.

:*Any non-guttural consonant (including semivowels) can be geminated between vowels.

===Morphophonology===

**'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of adpositions, and predicative nominals. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. Absolutives ending in a single consonant followed by a short, unaccented vowel (especially ''-a'' or ''-i'') often drop their final vowel, especially when closely linked to the following word.

**'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:

***Plural ending in ''-a'' or ''-i'': ''-i'' - e.g. ''loowa'' "cattle" → ''loowi''; ''anaani'' "us (excl.)" → ''anaani''

***Masculine non-plural with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''

***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́k'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namak''

***Independent form: ''ak''

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxammadas''

***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namas''

Some derivation suffixes:

*''-iya (f.)'': verbal nouns (from class 1 & 2 verbs) - e.g. ''ardiya'' "running"

*''-inná (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''obbolinná'' "brotherhood"

*''-umma/-imma (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''qinumma'' "Qinoness"

*''-iyá (f.)'': abstract nouns - e.g. ''demokraatiyá'' "democracy"

<!--*''-á (f.)'': mostly concrete nouns derived from verbs - e.g. ''-->

*''-itaana (m.)'': verb-derived nouns - e.g. ''cabbitaana'' "drink; juice"

====Pronouns====

The proximal demonstrative is used to refer to something that is near to the speaker. It can be translated to "this/these (one(s))".

The distal demonstrative is used to refer to something at a distance from the speaker. It can be translated to "that/those (one(s))".

When used as an article, demonstratives always take singular forms. When used independently, however, dedicated plural forms exist.

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=====Indefinite pronouns=====

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=====Interrogative pronouns=====

All of these decline regularly unless otherwise indicated (or unless they contain an irregular component such as ''mitta''). Some particularly important case forms are specified.

**Nominative is ''maxí''

*''mánama; mádada'': who (plural) - e.g. ''<b>Madadú</b> imaataani?'' "'''Who (''pl.'')''' are coming?"

*''maka (m.); mata (f.)'': which, what, who (can be used for animate or inanimate) - e.g. ''<b>Máta</b> tuni?'' "'''What/who''' is this?" (or: "'''What/who''' are these?")

**Nominative: ''makú/matú''; Genitive: ''maki/mati''

*''mámara'': synonymous to ''maka/mata'' but only for plural - e.g. ''<b>Mámara</b> tuni?'' "'''What/who''' are these?"

*''masi'': like what; how (condition) - e.g. ''<b>Mási</b> atí?'' "'''How''' are you (''f.'')?"

====Numbers====

Cardinal numbers come before nouns in the unmarked form. If there is no unmarked form, the plural is used if it ends in ''-eeya'', ''-ooya'', or ''-oowa''. Otherwise, the singulative is used.

:e.g. ''lammá nama'' "two people" (NOT ''*lammá namoota''); ''shan cadeeya'' "five toothbrushes" (NOT ''*shan cadeeti''); ''afar afka'' "four mouths/languages" (NOT ''*afar afaani'')

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Qino cardinal numbers

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! 0

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! 1

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! 2

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! 3

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! 4

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! 5

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! 6

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! 7

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! 8

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! 9

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! 10

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! 11

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! 20

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! 30

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! 40

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! 50

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! 60

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! 70

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! 80

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! 90

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! 100

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! 1000

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Formed with the suffix ''-láaba'' "-fold" (from the noun ''laaba (f.)'' "fold") attached to the unaccented dependent form of the numeral - e.g. ''lammalaaba'' "two-fold"

====Nominalizers====

*''-m''<!-- (''m.''; Nom.: ''-mí''; Gen: ''-́mi'')-->: Used as a head for otherwise headless attributives. It can often be roughly translated to "one". Its meaning overlaps with the indefinite pronoun, but ''-m'' is more general and cannot be used without a modifier - e.g. ''kíishim'' "mine"; ''dhéerem'' "tall (one)"

**When the attributive ends in a consonant, an epenthetic ''-i-'' is inserted - e.g. ''lábim'' "male (one)"

====Definite article====

The definite article is used to specify something and to indicate definiteness. It can be translated to "the".

When used as an article, it directly precedes the noun being modified. An exception is with numerals and measure words: the article precedes the modifier and agrees with it in gender - e.g. ''ta afar nama'' "the four people" (not *''afar ka nama''), ''ka kiilo muuza'' "the kilo of bananas". Articles only decline in primary cases; other cases use the absolutive forms.

====Attributive verbs====

====Attributive nominal====

====Measure words====

:e.g. ''kubbaaya bunna'' "a cup of coffee"

::''ki kubbaayi bunna'' "of the cup of coffee"

*''láb'': male (derived from the noun ''labba'' "man/men")

*''dubár'': female (derived from the noun ''dubara'' "woman/women")

*''gíddi'': all of; the entire

*''má/ma-'': what (see [[Qino#Interrogative_particles|interrogative particles]])

|-

! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SM  

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! 3SF  

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! 1P  

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! 2P

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! 1S  

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! 2S  

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! 3SM  

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! 3SF  

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! 1P  

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! 2P

====Class 2: Suffix-derived verbs====

=====Class 2a: ''-am-'' passive=====

The passive and pseuopassive uses of the ''-am-'' suffix can be interchanged with the impersonal.

::''Kitaaba an sheenamé.'' "I was given a book." = ''Kitaaba hu yi sheené.'' "(Someone) gave me a book."

Additional causative suffixes can be added indefinitely to derive causatives from other causatives.

=====Class 2c: ''-at-'' middle/autobenefactive=====

::''kulussi'' "to make fat" → ''kulussati'' "to make oneself fat; to become fat; to make (something) fat for one's benefit"

=====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' inchoative=====

====Tense, aspect, mood====

'''Notes:'''  

*The negation particle ''ma'' is accented and causes the verb's accent to be weakened or dropped (unless case endings or derivational prefixes are attached, in which case ''ma'' weakens its accent). It may be written attached to the verb. The jussive affirmative particle ''haa'' is also accented, but the imperative negative particle ''hin'' is unaccented.

<!--

*Main clause:

**Affirmative: "Imperfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees"

*Subordinate clause:

======Simple past======

*Main clause:

**Affirmative: "Perfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarké'' "he saw"

*Subordinate clause:

**Affirmative: "Perfect affirmative" - e.g. ''yarkenas'' "because he saw"

======Imperative======

*Used for a wish, command, etc, mostly in the first and third person. The second person uses the forms with ''t''.

*Affirmative: ''haa'' + "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. ''háa yarku'' "let him see!"

=====Compound tenses/aspects=====

======Progressive======

*Formed with infinitive + ''le'' "to have" (fused)

======Prospective======

*Formed with infinitive + ''qabi'' "to do"

:e.g. ''an caami qabá'' "I will/am going to eat"; ''at baxi qabdé'' "you were going to eat"

======Others======

*Perfect converb + ''sugi'' can be used to form anterior tenses - e.g. ''an caamee sugá'' "I have eaten", ''an caamee sugé'' "I had eaten", ''an caamee sugi qabá'' "I will have eaten"

=====Converbs=====

====Derivation====

=====Verb derivation affixes=====

*Passive: ''-am-'' (e.g. ''sheenami'' "to be given")

*Middle: ''-at-'', ''-aat-'' <!--(Denominal: ''-aat-'')-->(e.g. ''sheenati'' "to bring for oneself", ''jacalaati'' "to come to love"). This suffix has some irregularities.

** The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the imperative (e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love").

*Inchoative: ''-oow-'' (e.g. ''casoowi'' "to become red").

Verbs may also be derived by prefixes, but these are only marginally productive. If the prefix begins in a vowel, the verb follows the prefix conjugation. Otherwise, it follows the suffix conjugation. Prefixes include inchoative ''a-'', middle ''t-'', mediopassive ''m-'', and causative ''s-''.

:::'''Reflexive causative''': ''jhiifsaté'' = "he laid himself down (similar in meaning to the above, but slightly different shade of meaning)"

-->

=====Verbal nouns=====

The main verbal noun (which is always feminine) is formed with the suffix ''-iya'', ''-ashu'', or ''-ina'' depending on verb class (see [[Qino#Verbs|verbs]] for more information). Accusative objects of a verb occur in the genitive when used with a verbal noun.

Additional verbal nouns can be formed with a variety of suffixes depending on the verb in question. A few common patterns include:

*''-itaana (m.)'' - e.g. ''cabbitaana'' "drink; juice" (< ''cabbi'' "to drink")

=====Agent and patient nouns=====

====Conjunctions====

*''shi'': and - used to join items within a clause; occurs between items.

*''-se'': but - occurs in same position as ''-ne''.

====Postpositions====

====Adverbial particles====

Occur immediately before verb.

-->

====Negation particles====

*''hin'': imperatives and non-verbs.

====Mood particles====

Used to form specific verb moods.

====Focus particles====

*''-aa'': attaches to and places emphasis on subject. The subject is placed in the absolutive and keeps its accent. Any final short and/or open vowels are absorbed by the ''-aa''; long, non-open vowels add a semivowel. The verb is placed in the subordinate form.

:e.g. ''<b>Ánaa</b> baxe'' "'''It was I''' who left"; ''<b>Sharíifaa</b> ku màyarkino'' "'''It is Shariif''' who does not see you."

*''dha'':

*''mee'': interrogative focus particle (used similarly to ''dha''; see [[Qino#Interrogative_particles|interrogative particles]] for more information on usage)

*''má-'' = question particle

**Attaches to following word. Accented unless case endings are added.

<!--

*''-me'' = interrogative focus particle

===Dependent clauses===

<!-- etc. etc. -->

==Example texts==

===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===

'''Ge'ez script:''' ኩሊ ነሙ ፉረኒ ሸረፈክ ሺ ሑቁቀክኔ ኦል ግጢ ጠለታነ። ማነ ሺ ፀሚረ ሼነሜኒ፣ ኦቦሊነስኔ ኦለል ሩብዶነን ጅረህ።

'''Latin script (more common):''' Kulli namu furanii sharafak shi xuquuqakne ol giddhii dhalataana. Maana shi lhamiira sheenameeni, obbolinnasne olal rubdoonan jirah.

'''Gloss:''' All people.<small>NOM</small> free.<small>CVB</small> dignity.<small>ABL</small> and rights.<small>ABL</small>-and each-other equal.<small>CVB</small> born.<small>3P</small>. Reason and conscience give.<small>PASS.PST.3P</small>, brotherhood.<small>INS</small>-and each-other.<small>COM</small> live.<small>SBJV.3P</small> exist.<small>3S</small>

'''Literal translation:''' All people are born free and equal to each other in dignity and rights. They were given reason and conscience, and there is that they live with each other with brotherhood.

<!--All people being free and in dignity and in rights resembling each other are born. Reason and conscience they were given, and that with brotherhood they with each other live exists.-->

<tr>

<th>'''No.'''</th>

<th>[[wikipedia:English language|English]]</th>

</tr>

<tr><th>1</th><th>[[wiktionary:I|I]]</th><td>ana</td></tr>

<tr><th>2</th><th>[[wiktionary:you|you (singular)]]</th><td>ata (''m.''); ati (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>3</th><th>[[wiktionary:he|he]]</th><td>usa</td></tr>

<tr><th>5</th><th>[[wiktionary:you|you (plural)]]</th><td>ataani</td></tr>

<tr><th>6</th><th>[[wiktionary:they|they]]</th><td>isaani</td></tr>

<tr><th>7</th><th>[[wiktionary:this|this]]</th><td>kana (''m.''); tana (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>8</th><th>[[wiktionary:that|that]]</th><td>koona (''m.''); toona (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>12</th><th>[[wiktionary:what|what]]</th><td>maxa</td></tr>

<tr><th>15</th><th>[[wiktionary:how|how]]</th><td>masi</td></tr>

<tr><th>16</th><th>[[wiktionary:not|not]]</th><td>ma</td></tr>

<tr><th>17</th><th>[[wiktionary:all|all]]</th><td>kulli</td></tr>

<tr><th>19</th><th>[[wiktionary:some|some]]</th><td>mara</td></tr>

<tr><th>22</th><th>[[wiktionary:one|one]]</th><td>mitta (''m.''); mitti (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>23</th><th>[[wiktionary:two|two]]</th><td>lamma</td></tr>

<tr><th>25</th><th>[[wiktionary:four|four]]</th><td>afara</td></tr>

<tr><th>26</th><th>[[wiktionary:five|five]]</th><td>shana</td></tr>

<tr><th>28</th><th>[[wiktionary:long|long]]</th><td>dheere (''3''; adheeri)</td></tr>

<tr><th>31</th><th>[[wiktionary:heavy|heavy]]</th><td>cusle (''3''; cusloowi)</td></tr>

<tr><th>33</th><th>[[wiktionary:short|short]]</th><td>gaabe (''3''; agaabi)</td></tr>

<tr><th>39</th><th>[[wiktionary:child|child]]</th><td>ilma (''m.''; pl: ilmaani)</td></tr>

<tr><th>42</th><th>[[wiktionary:mother|mother]]</th><td>ayya (''f.''; pl: ayyaani ''f.''); ina (''f.''; pl: inaani ''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>43</th><th>[[wiktionary:father|father]]</th><td>awwa (''m.''; pl: awwaani ''f.''); abba (''m.''; pl: abbaani ''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>51</th><th>[[wiktionary:tree|tree]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>52</th><th>[[wiktionary:forest|forest]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>53</th><th>[[wiktionary:stick|stick]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>58</th><th>[[wiktionary:bark|bark]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>59</th><th>[[wiktionary:flower|flower]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>61</th><th>[[wiktionary:rope|rope]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>64</th><th>[[wiktionary:blood|blood]]</th><td>dhiiga (''f.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>66</th><th>[[wiktionary:fat|fat]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>67</th><th>[[wiktionary:egg|egg]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>68</th><th>[[wiktionary:horn|horn]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>69</th><th>[[wiktionary:tail|tail]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>72</th><th>[[wiktionary:head|head]]</th><td>mataxa (''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>73</th><th>[[wiktionary:ear|ear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>74</th><th>[[wiktionary:eye|eye]]</th><td>ila (''f.''; coll: indha ''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>75</th><th>[[wiktionary:nose|nose]]</th><td>sana (''m.'')</td></tr>

<tr><th>77</th><th>[[wiktionary:tooth|tooth]]</th><td>ilka (''m.''; pl: ilkaani)</td></tr>

<tr><th>79</th><th>[[wiktionary:fingernail|fingernail]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>80</th><th>[[wiktionary:foot|foot]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>81</th><th>[[wiktionary:leg|leg]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>83</th><th>[[wiktionary:hand|hand]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>84</th><th>[[wiktionary:wing|wing]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>88</th><th>[[wiktionary:back|back]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>89</th><th>[[wiktionary:breast|breast]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>94</th><th>[[wiktionary:bite|bite]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>95</th><th>[[wiktionary:suck|suck]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>97</th><th>[[wiktionary:vomit|vomit]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>99</th><th>[[wiktionary:breathe|breathe]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>102</th><th>[[wiktionary:hear|hear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>103</th><th>[[wiktionary:know|know]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>105</th><th>[[wiktionary:smell|smell]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>106</th><th>[[wiktionary:fear|fear]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>109</th><th>[[wiktionary:die|die]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>110</th><th>[[wiktionary:kill|kill]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>111</th><th>[[wiktionary:fight|fight]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>114</th><th>[[wiktionary:cut|cut]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>115</th><th>[[wiktionary:split|split]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>116</th><th>[[wiktionary:stab|stab]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>117</th><th>[[wiktionary:scratch|scratch]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>119</th><th>[[wiktionary:swim|swim]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>120</th><th>[[wiktionary:fly|fly]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>121</th><th>[[wiktionary:walk|walk]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>123</th><th>[[wiktionary:lie|lie]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>124</th><th>[[wiktionary:sit|sit]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>126</th><th>[[wiktionary:turn|turn]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>130</th><th>[[wiktionary:squeeze|squeeze]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>131</th><th>[[wiktionary:rub|rub]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>134</th><th>[[wiktionary:pull|pull]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>135</th><th>[[wiktionary:push|push]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>136</th><th>[[wiktionary:throw|throw]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>137</th><th>[[wiktionary:tie|tie]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>139</th><th>[[wiktionary:count|count]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>141</th><th>[[wiktionary:sing|sing]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>144</th><th>[[wiktionary:flow|flow]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>145</th><th>[[wiktionary:freeze|freeze]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>153</th><th>[[wiktionary:lake|lake]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>161</th><th>[[wiktionary:fog|fog]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>187</th><th>[[wiktionary:rotten|rotten]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>190</th><th>[[wiktionary:round|round]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>191</th><th>[[wiktionary:sharp|sharp]]</th><td> </td></tr>

<tr><th>192</th><th>[[wiktionary:dull|dull]]</th><td></td></tr>

<tr><th>193</th><th>[[wiktionary:smooth|smooth]]</th><td></td></tr>

</table>

==Other resources==