Qino: Difference between revisions

'''Qino''' (native: ''Qino afka'' /ɠino afka/, Western Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, Eastern Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang.

<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->

<!-- Here are some example sub-/other categories:

Qino is a Cushitic language.

Qino can be written in the Arabic, Latin, or Ge'ez scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with stress indicated) is used for ease of reading. The Arabic script has two variants: Western ("Traditional") and Eastern ("Modern").

| <big>ـأ أ</big> || <big>أ</big> || ' || አ || ʔ || Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).

| <big>ببب ب</big> || <big>ب</big> || b || በ || b || Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels (may be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ).  

| <big>پپپ پ</big> || <big>ڀ</big> || bh || ጰ || ɓ || Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.

| <big>تتت ت</big> || <big>ت</big> || t || ተ || t ||  

| <big>ثثث ث</big> || <big>ث</big> || th || ሠ || θ || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.

| <big>ججج ج</big> || <big>ج</big> || j || ጀ || d͡ʒ || Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ی/y).

| <big>ڃڃڃ ڃ</big> || <big>ݧ</big> || ny || ኘ || ɲ ||  

| <big>چچچ چ</big> || <big>ڇ</big> || jh || ጨ || ʄ || Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.

| <big>ححح ح</big> || <big>ح</big> || x || ሐ || ħ ||  

| <big>خخخ خ</big> || <big>خ</big> || kh || ኀ || x ~ χ || Occurs in loanwords.

| <big>ـد د</big> || <big>د</big> || d || ደ || d || Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).

| <big>ـذ ذ</big> || <big>ذ</big> || dz || ዘ || ð || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.

| <big>ـر ر</big> || <big>ر</big> || r || ረ || r || Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.

| <big>ـز ز</big> || <big>ز</big> || z || ዘ || z || Occurs in loanwords. May be nativized as /s/.

| <big>سسس س</big> || <big>س</big> || s || ሰ || s ||

| <big>ششش ش</big> || <big>ش</big> || sh || ሸ || ʃ ||  

| <big>صصص ص</big> || <big>ص</big> || s || ሰ || s || Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.

| <big>ضضض ض</big> || <big>ض</big> || lh || ፀ || lˀ || In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.

| <big>ططط ط</big> || <big>ط</big> || dh || ጠ || ɗ || Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.

| <big>ظظظ ظ</big> || <big>ظ</big> || dz || ጸ || ð || Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.

| <big>ڟڟڟ ڟ</big> || <big>ڟ</big> || rh || ጠ || ɾˀ || Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.

| <big>ععع ع</big> || <big>ع</big> || c || ዐ || ʕ ||  

| <big>غغغ غ</big> || <big>غ</big> || gh || ቐ || ɣ ~ ʁ || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.

| <big>ڢڢڡ ڡ</big> || <big>ف</big> || f || ፈ || f ||  

| <big>ڥڥڥ ڥ</big> || <big>پ</big> || p || ፐ || p || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.

| <big>ڧڧٯ ٯ</big> || <big>ق</big> || q || ቀ || ɠ || Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.

| <big>ققق ق</big> || <big>ڹ</big> || ng || ጘ || ŋ ||  

| <big>ڨڨڨ ڨ</big> || <big>ڠ</big> || g || ገ || ɡ || Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).

| <big>ککک ک</big> || <big>ك</big> || k || ከ || k ||  

| <big>ݣݣݣ ݣ</big> || <big>چ</big> || ch || ቸ || t͡ʃ ||  

| <big>للل ل</big> || <big>ل</big> || l || ለ || l ||  

| <big>ممم م</big> || <big>م</big> || m || መ || m ||  

| <big>ننں ں</big> || <big>ن</big> || n || ነ || n ||  

| <big>ـو و</big> || <big>و</big> || w || ወ || w ||  

| <big>ـۋ ۋ</big> || <big>ڤ</big> || v || ቨ || v || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.

| <big>ههه ه</big> || <big>ه</big> || h || ሀ || h || May be used at the end of words to show a final stressed vowel.

| <big>ییی\ـے ی\ے</big> || <big>ي</big> || y || የ || j || In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or vowelless /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.

| <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || <big><big>ـهْ</big></big> || -V́ (or -Vh) || (ህ) || ˈ-V || Used for a stressed word-final short vowel.

| colspan="2" | ''n''

| colspan="2" | [nˀ]

| colspan="2" |  ''t''

| colspan="2" | ''d''

| colspan="2" | ''dh'' /ɗ/

| (''v''), [β ~ β̞]

| (''dz'' /ð/), [ð ~ ð̞]

|  [ʝ ~ j]

| (''gh'' /ɣ ~ ʁ/), [ɣ ~ ɣ̞]

| colspan="2" | ''l''

| [β̞ˀ ~ ʔʷ]

| colspan="2" | ''lh'' /lˀ/

| [jˀ ~ ʔʲ]

| [ɰˀ ~ ʔ]

| colspan="2" | ''r''

| colspan="2" | ''rh'' [ɾˀ]

<small>²</small> Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

<small>³</small> The implosives are heavily glottalized and may be represented [dˀ], etc.

<small>⁴</small> The glottalized phonemes [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only ''rh'' [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

a e i o u

aa ee ii oo uu

Qino has a pitch accent system. The tone-bearing unit is the mora. There are two tones: high and low. These are only distinguished in stressed syllables. In this article, high tone is indicated with an acute accent, while low tone is indicated by its absence.

Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.

====Stress====

If a word contains a syllable with a high/rising/falling tone (indicated with an accute accent), that syllable is stressed. If there are multiple, primary stress falls on the final. If the word consists exclusively of low tones, stress falls on the final "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel), or on the initial syllable if all are short.

By default, primary stress falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is stressed. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. Some exceptions are nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive and words nominalized with ''-n/m'', which behave as if they ended in a vowel (e.g. ''Maxammad'' is pronounced ''Maxámmad'', not ''Maxammád''). A word may contain multiple stressed syllables, in which case primary stress falls on the final stressed syllable.

A final long vowel is stressed by default. If the word ends in a consonant or semi-vowel, the final vowel is stressed. If the word ends in a vowel, the penultimate syllable is stressed. Words that differ from these rules indicate primary stress with an acute accent in the Latin orthography. Secondary stress is usually not indicated, but it may be indicated with a grave accent (this article does so somewhat inconsistently). Exceptions include subordinating ''-n'' and enclitics such as ''-ne'' "and", which do not affect stress.

In verbs, stress is fully determined by morphology. Nouns may have distinctive stress.

*Syllable structure is (C)V(C)

:e.g. ''hurdá'' "he sleeps", ''hurd<b>i</b>tá / hur<b>u</b>ddá / hu<b>dur</b>tá'' "she sleeps"

====Sandhi and Allophony====

*Between vowels (may not occur before stressed vowels):

**/b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞]

**/ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ]

*''mbh, ndh, njh, nq'' = [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ]

**''b, d, j, g + n'' → ''mn, nn, jn'' [ɲː], ''gn'' [ŋn]

**''t + n'' → ''nn''  

*''-t-'' of 2nd person, 3rd person feminine<!--, singulative-->:

**''bh, dh, lh, q'': ''t'' becomes ''dh'' (''lh, dh'' + ''dh'' are written ''ldh, ddh'')

-->

===Nouns===

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs are nominalized with the subordinating suffix ''-n'' before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are grammatically feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle ''in'' "that (subordinator)".

**'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects.

***Masculine singulative: ''-u'' - e.g. ''afka'' "mouth, language" → ''afku''

***Feminine singulative: no change - e.g. ''shimmirti'' "bird" → ''shimmirti'' (no change)

***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''

***Feminine/plural with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí''

***Absolutive ending in other short, unstressed vowel: stress on final syllable - e.g. ''Qino'' → ''Qinó''

***Absolutive ending in a long and/or stressed vowel: ''-n''  - e.g. ''makiiná'' "car" → ''makiinan''

***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -́i (with penultimate stress) - e.g. nama → nami

***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-t'' - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinat''

**'''Dative''': Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").

***Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. ''shimmirti'' → ''shimmirtii''

***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-s'' - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinas''

**'''Ablative''': Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"), "in regards to".

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ák'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxàmmadak''

**'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxàmmadas''

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ál'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxàmmadal''

**'''Locative''': Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.

***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ád'' - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxàmmadad''

**'''Vocative:''' Used for calling someone. The masculine ending is ''-ow'' and the feminine ending is ''-ey''. Original word stress is maintained. These endings may change if the word ends in a vowel.

***Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-ow; -ey'' (for masculine and feminine respectively)

***Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'' (except names in ''-i'') : ''-ew; -ey''

***Name ending in ''-i'': ''-iyow; -ey''

***Absolutive ending in ''-o'' or ''-u'' (except names in ''-u''): ''-ow; -oy''

***Name ending in ''-u'': ''-ow; -uwey''

***Absolutive ending in stressed/long ''a, e,'' or ''o'': lengthen final vowel if short and add ''-w'' (masculine) or ''-y'' (feminine)

***Absolutive ending in ''-í'' or ''-ii'': ''-iyow; -iyey''

***Absolutive ending in ''-ú'' or ''-uu'': ''-uwow; -uwey''

***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: ''-ow'' (with stress maintained)  - e.g. ''namka'' → ''námkow'', ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxámmadow''

***Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: ''-ey'' (with stress maintained)  - e.g. ''shimmirti'' → ''shimírtey'', ''Faadhuma'' → ''Faadhúmey''

***Absolutive ending in long and/or stressed vowel: add epenthetic consonant followed by ''-ow/ey''. The epenthetic consonant depends on the final vowel:

****''a'': ''-h-'' for masculine, ''-t-'' for feminine

****''e'' or ''i'': ''-y-''

****''o'' or ''u'': ''-w-''

***Absolutive ending in long and/or stressed vowel:

****''a, e, o'': lengthen final vowel if short and add ''-w/y'' (for masculine/feminine respectively) - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinaay''

****''u'': add epenthetic ''-w-'' followed by ''-ow/ey''

**'''Predicative''': Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional, and in the present indicative the copula can be dropped entirely.

***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: ''-e'' (declines as adjective; inchoative: ''-achi'')<!--, ''-dha'' (invariant; present only; doesn't affect stress)--> - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxammade<!--, Maxámmaddha-->''

***Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: ''-she'' (declines as adjective; inchoative: ''-chi'')<!--, ''-dha'' (invariant; present only)--> - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinashe, makiinadha''

***Independent forms of the copula: ''dha'' (invariant; present only), ''(sh)e'' (adjective declension; inchoative: ''achi'')<!--, ''dhe'' (= ''dha + e''; adjective declension)-->

:::e.g. ''Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama she / nama dha / <!--nama dhe / -->name<!-- / námadha-->.'' "Muhammad is a person."

::::''namiye'' "I am a person"; ''namaché'' "I have become a person"

Many nouns are by default unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as ''-sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, <!---ta, -->-eesha, -ocha,'' (masculine) or ''-ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti'' (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as ''-oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, -iina'' and ''-aati''. Broken plurals are common in Arabic loanwords and are sometimes extended to other words.

The exact usage depends on the noun in question. When all three forms exist, the unmarked form is generally used with numerals, as a collective, and when number is not particularly important. The singulative is used to refer to a specific individual, and the plural is used to emphasize the plurality (especially if it is not clear from context) or to refer to multiple groups. Multiple plural forms often exist and ad-hoc forms are common.

 

=====Some examples=====

*''nama'' "person" uses the unmarked form to refer to an indefinite person or multiple people (e.g. "''Someone'' should do this", "I saw some ''people''"). The singulative is used to refer to a specific person (e.g. "I see ''a person''") or to specify the gender of an indefinite person (e.g. "''Some man'' should do this"). The plural is used to emphasize the large number of people or to talk about multiple groups of people.

*''bisheeya'' "water" is always in the plural. A singulative ''bisheeti'' meaning "cup/bottle of water" exists, but it is treated as a separate noun and has its own plural (''bisheetoota'').

 

The diminutive is formed with the suffixes ''-icha'' (m.)/ ''-itti'' (f.). Note that these suffixes may also be used for the singulative.

The augmentative is formed with the suffix ''-oowa'' (takes gender of noun), with the singulative ''-ooka'' (m.)/ ''-ooti'' (f.).

Definitives always modify a noun and generally occur at the beginning of the noun phrase. Some agree with the noun in gender/number, but most are invariable.

The definite article precedes the noun being modified. It only declines in primary cases; other cases use the absolutive forms. Plural nouns use feminine articles.

The definite article always comes at the beginning of a noun phrase and has two forms: short and long. The short forms are used when directly preceding the noun being modified. If there is separation, the long forms are used.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|-

! rowspan=2" | !! colspan="2" | Short !! colspan = "2" | Long

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

===Pronouns===

====Personal Pronouns====

| ana || anu ||kiisha || kiishi || kiishoo || kiishak || kiishas || kiishal || kiishad

| ata || atu ||kaaha || kaahi || kaahoo || kaahak || kaahas || kaahal || kaahad

| ati || ati ||taati || taati || taatii || taatik || taatis || taatil || taatid

| usa || usu || keesha || keeshi || keeshoo || keeshak || keeshas || keeshal || keeshad

| ishi || ishi || teeti || teeti || teetii || teetik || teetis || teetil || teetid

| una || unu || keena || keeni || keennoo || keenak || keenas || keenal || keenad

| isaani || isaani || koota || kooti || kootii || kootik || kootis || kootil || kootid

! !! Subject !! Accusative 1 !! Accusative 2 !! Dative !! Ablative !! Instrumental !! Comitative !! Locative

*When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.

*Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (''oo'', ''ak'', ''as'', ''al'', and ''ad'' respectively).

*The "accusative 1" forms can be used with nouns as a genitive.

Verbs in Qino fall into three main conjugation classes. In terms of meaning, verbs can be classified into two categories: stative and dynamic verbs.

Stative verbs usually refer to a state of being (e.g. ''kusli'' "to be fat"). Some may refer to an ongoing action (e.g. ''arki'' "to see"). Some class 1 and all class 3 verbs fall into this category.

Dynamic verbs refer to an action (e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink") or the entering of a state (inchoative - e.g. ''raagi'' "to become late/old"). Most class 1 and all class 2 verbs fall into this category. Inchoative verbs in the past tense may be used for a present state - e.g. ''fahmé'' "I came to understand" = "I understand".

====Class 1: Non-adjectival Root Verbs====

=====Class 1a: Suffix Conjugation=====

Roots ending in ''-e(e)y'' or ''-o(o)w'' lose the semivowel word-finally and before consonant endings. In the verbal noun and stative adjective, ''-e(e)yVn-'' and ''-o(o)wVn-'' are often simplified to ''-een-'' and ''-oon-'' respectively.

! colspan="5" | Verbal noun || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ina''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>ina</b>''</span>

! colspan="5" | Stative Converb || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-aa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>aa</b>''</span>

! colspan="5" | Perfect Converb || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ee''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''sheen<b>ee</b>''</span>

!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative<small>²</small> !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate<small>²</small> !! colspan="2" | Pres. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative<small>²</small> !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff.<small>³</small> !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.<small>³</small>

| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-ino'' || ''sheen<b>ino</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-ine'' || ''sheen<b>ine</b>''|| ''-u'' || ''sheen<b>u</b>'' || ''-inu'' || ''sheen<b>inu</b>''

| ''-aana'' || ''sheen<b>aana</b>''|| ''-oona'' || ''sheen<b>oona</b>''|| ''-inoona'' || ''sheen<b>inoona</b>''|| ''-eeni'' || ''sheen<b>eeni</b>''|| ''-ineeni'' || ''sheen<b>ineeni</b>''|| ''-a'' || ''sheen<b>a</b>'' || ''-ina'' || ''sheen<b>ina</b>''

<small>²</small> The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. ''-á/ó/é'') lose their stress when non-final and lengthen in questions.

=====Class 1b: Prefix Conjugation=====

Vowel-initial non-adjectival root verbs. Example verb: ''arki'' "to see". Inchoative verbs formed by adding an initial vowel to the corresponding adjectival verb also fall under this class - e.g. ''adheeri'' "to become tall" (from ''dheere'' "(is) tall").

! colspan="5" | Verbal noun || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ina''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''ark<b>ina</b>''</span>

! colspan="5" | Stative converb || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''(prefix)-aa''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''<b>(Ø/y/t/n)</b>ark<b>aa</b>''</span>

! colspan="5" | Perfect converb || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''(prefix)-ee''</span> || colspan="5" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''<b>(Ø/y/t/n)</b>ark<b>ee</b>''</span>

!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Pre. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff. !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.

| ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-ino'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ino</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-ine'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ine</b>''|| ''y-u'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>u</b>'' || ''y-inu'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inu</b>''

====Class 2: Suffix-derived Verbs====

Suffix-derived verbs always dynamic and follow the suffix conjugation. When multiple derivational suffixes co-occur, the order is inchoative-causative-middle-passive.

=====Class 2a: ''-am-'' Passive=====

=====Class 2b: ''-s-'' Causative=====

Formed with the suffix ''-(i)s-'' (single causative) or ''-(i)siis-'' (double causative). Follows suffix conjugation.

=====Class 2c: ''-at-'' Middle=====

Formed with the suffix ''-at-''. Follows suffix conjugation with some irregularities:

*The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the 2S imperative - e.g. ''jacaladhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaté'' "he came to love".

*The verbal noun is formed with the suffix ''-ashu'' (''f.'') (instead of expected ''-atina'').

Verbs derived with this suffix may have various meanings, sometimes unpredictable. It often indicates that an action affects the subject (middle or reciprocal) or is done for the subject's benefit. Often, the same verb has multiple possible meanings.

::''kulussi'' "to make fat" → ''kulussati'' "to make oneself fat; to become fat (intentionally); to make (something) fat for one's benefit"

=====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' Inchoative=====

====Class 3: Adjectival Conjugation====

This is used for adjectives and some stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative, though the infinitive may also be used. They each have a Class 1 or Class 2 counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''case'' "red" (inchoative: ''casoowi'' "to become red"). For the passive participle and imperatives/jussives, use the inchoative forms.

! colspan="3" | Infinitive || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-aan''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>aan</b>''</span>

! colspan="3" | Verbal noun || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-aana''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>aana</b>''</span>

! colspan="3" | Stative converb || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-ii''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>ii</b>''</span>

! colspan="3" | Perfect converb || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''-iishii''</span> || colspan="3" style="background: none" | <span style="font-weight:normal">''cas<b>iishii</b>''</span>

!  !! colspan="2" | Present Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Present Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Past Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Past Negative

| ''-iye'' || ''cas<b>iye</b>''|| ''-iyé'' || ''cas<b>iyé</b>''|| ''-iishe'' || ''cas<b>iishe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''

| ''-ite'' || ''cas<b>ite</b>''|| ''-ité'' || ''cas<b>ité</b>''|| ''-iiche'' || ''cas<b>iiche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''

| ''-e'' || ''cas<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iishe'' || ''cas<b>iishe</b>''|| ''-iishé'' || ''cas<b>iishé</b>''

| ''-e'' || ''cas<b>e</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''cas<b>é</b>''|| ''-iiche'' || ''cas<b>iiche</b>''|| ''-iiché'' || ''cas<b>iiché</b>''

| ''-ine'' || ''cas<b>ine</b>''|| ''-iné'' || ''cas<b>iné</b>''|| ''-iinye'' || ''cas<b>iinye</b>''|| ''-iinyé'' || ''cas<b>iinyé</b>''

| ''-itiini'' || ''cas<b>itiini</b>''|| ''-itiini'' || ''cas<b>itiini</b>''|| ''-iichiini'' || ''cas<b>iichiini</b>''|| ''-iichiini'' || ''cas<b>iichiini</b>''

| ''-iini'' || ''cas<b>iini</b>''|| ''-iini'' || ''cas<b>iini</b>''|| ''-iishiini'' || ''cas<b>iishiini</b>''|| ''-iishiini'' || ''cas<b>iishiini</b>''

*The Class 1 forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees", ''yarka nama'' "person who sees", ''yarkaa me?'' "does he see?"

<!--*Verbs can be used descriptively before a noun. The indicative is used if the noun is the only argument of the verb. Otherwise, subordinate forms are used (along with the relative particle ''kan'') - e.g. ''ka yarka nama'' "the person who sees", ''kan ku yarko nama'' "the person who sees you", ''kan ka arko nama'' "the person I see".-->

=====Simple Tenses=====

======Simple Present======

**Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. ''yarká'' "he sees"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''ma yarkó'' "he does not see"

**Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. ''yarkonoo'' "so that he sees"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinonoo'' "so that he does not see"

======Simple Past======

**Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. ''yarké'' "he saw"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkine'' "he did not see"

**Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. ''yarkenas'' "because he saw"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Past negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinenas '' "because he did not see"

*Negative: ''hin'' + "Imperative negative" - e.g. ''hin arkini'' "do not see!"

*Affirmative: ''haa'' + "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. ''haa yarku'' "let him see!"

*Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinu'' "let him not see!"

<!---

===Numbers===

====Cardinal Numbers====

Cardinal numbers come before nouns in the singular - e.g. ''lama nama'' "two people" (NOT ''*lama namooti'').

*3 - sadxa

*4 - afra

*8 - siddeeta

*9 - sagaala

=====Compound Tenses=====

Converbs are used for actions that occur simultaneously/subsequently or that make up one verbal meaning. It may occur in the stative or perfect.

The stative converb is used for an action/state that was occurring when another verb occurred, similarly to the present participle in English. It is formed with the suffix ''-aa'' for classes 1 & 2 and ''-ii'' for class 3. Prefix-conjugation verbs additionally take a prefix appropriate to the person being referred to.

The perfect converb is used for an actions that occur subsequently to each other. It is formed with the suffix ''-ee'' for classes 1 & 2 and ''-iishii'' for class 3. Again, prefix-conjugation verbs take the appropriate prefix.

:e.g. ''<b>Yardee</b> ka mana galé.'' "'''Having ran''', he entered the house."

::''<b>Furaniishii</b> xidhanté.'' "'''Having been free''', she was imprisoned."

In many cases, interchanging the two forms does not greatly affect the meaning. This can be seen with the "running" examples above.