Qino: Difference between revisions

'''Qino''' (native: ''Qino afka'' /ɠino afka/, Western Arabic script: <big>ڧں أڢک</big>, Eastern Arabic script: <big>قن أفك</big>, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang.

Qino is a Lowland East Cushitic language. It is largey based on Somali, Oromo, and Afar, with inspiration taken from various other languages.

Qino can be written in the Arabic, Latin, or Ge'ez scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with accent indicated) is used for ease of reading. The Arabic script has two variants: Western ("Traditional") and Eastern ("Modern").

| <big>ـأ أ</big> || <big>أ</big> || ' || አ || ʔ || Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).

| <big>ببب ب</big> || <big>ب</big> || b || በ || b || Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels (may be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ).  

| <big>پپپ پ</big> || <big>ڀ</big> || bh || ጰ || ɓ || Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.

| <big>تتت ت</big> || <big>ت</big> || t || ተ || t ||  

| <big>ثثث ث</big> || <big>ث</big> || th || ሠ || θ || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.

| <big>ججج ج</big> || <big>ج</big> || j || ጀ || d͡ʒ || Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ی/y).

| <big>ڃڃڃ ڃ</big> || <big>ݧ</big> || ny || ኘ || ɲ ||  

| <big>چچچ چ</big> || <big>ڇ</big> || jh || ጨ || ʄ || Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.

| <big>ححح ح</big> || <big>ح</big> || x || ሐ || ħ ||  

| <big>خخخ خ</big> || <big>خ</big> || kh || ኀ || x ~ χ || Occurs in loanwords.

| <big>ـد د</big> || <big>د</big> || d || ደ || d || Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).

| <big>ـذ ذ</big> || <big>ذ</big> || dz || ዘ || ð || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.

| <big>ـر ر</big> || <big>ر</big> || r || ረ || r || Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.

| <big>ـز ز</big> || <big>ز</big> || z || ዘ || z || Occurs in loanwords. May be nativized as /s/.

| <big>سسس س</big> || <big>س</big> || s || ሰ || s ||

| <big>ششش ش</big> || <big>ش</big> || sh || ሸ || ʃ ||  

| <big>صصص ص</big> || <big>ص</big> || s || ሰ || s || Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.

| <big>ضضض ض</big> || <big>ض</big> || lh || ፀ || lˀ || In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.

| <big>ططط ط</big> || <big>ط</big> || dh || ጠ || ɗ || Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.

| <big>ظظظ ظ</big> || <big>ظ</big> || dz || ጸ || ð || Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.

| <big>ڟڟڟ ڟ</big> || <big>ڟ</big> || rh || ጠ || ɾˀ || Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.

| <big>ععع ع</big> || <big>ع</big> || c || ዐ || ʕ ||  

| <big>غغغ غ</big> || <big>غ</big> || gh || ቐ || ɣ ~ ʁ || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.

| <big>ڢڢڡ ڡ</big> || <big>ف</big> || f || ፈ || f ||  

| <big>ڥڥڥ ڥ</big> || <big>پ</big> || p || ፐ || p || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.

| <big>ڧڧٯ ٯ</big> || <big>ق</big> || q || ቀ || ɠ || Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.

| <big>ققق ق</big> || <big>ڹ</big> || ng || ጘ || ŋ ||  

| <big>ڨڨڨ ڨ</big> || <big>ڠ</big> || g || ገ || ɡ || Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).

| <big>ککک ک</big> || <big>ك</big> || k || ከ || k ||  

| <big>ݣݣݣ ݣ</big> || <big>چ</big> || ch || ቸ || t͡ʃ ||  

| <big>للل ل</big> || <big>ل</big> || l || ለ || l ||  

| <big>ممم م</big> || <big>م</big> || m || መ || m ||  

| <big>ننں ں</big> || <big>ن</big> || n || ነ || n ||  

| <big>ـو و</big> || <big>و</big> || w || ወ || w ||  

| <big>ـۋ ۋ</big> || <big>ڤ</big> || v || ቨ || v || Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.

| <big>ههه ه</big> || <big>ه</big> || h || ሀ || h || May be used at the end of words to show a final accented vowel.

| <big>ییی\ـے ی\ے</big> || <big>ي</big> || y || የ || j || In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or vowelless /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.

| <big><big>(ـهْ)</big></big> || <big><big>(ـهْ)</big></big> || -V́ (or -Vh, -VV) || (ህ) || ˈ-V || Used for an accented word-final short vowel. In verbs, often indicated with a final ''-h''. In nouns, may be written as a long vowel or with a following glottal stop.

Diphthongs only occur natively in vocatives and "nickname" forms, where they always occur word-finally. They consist of a non-high vowel followed by a semivowel, giving a total of 12 possible diphthongs.

By default, primary accent falls on the last "long" syllable (i.e. syllable that is closed and/or contains a long vowel). If there are no long syllables, the initial syllable is accented. Words that do not conform to this rule are indicated in this article with an acute accent. Some exceptions are nouns that end in a consonant in the absolutive and words nominalized with ''-n/m'', which behave as if they ended in a vowel (e.g. ''Maxammad'' is pronounced ''Maxámmad'', not ''Maxammád''). A word may contain multiple accented syllables, in which case primary accent falls on the final accented syllable.

Qino has a pitch accent system. A word normally has a single accented vowel, which is pronounced with a higher pitch. In contrast to other Cushitic languages, the accent-bearing unit is the vowel and not the mora. Not all words have an accented syllable. For instance, many clitics and particles are unaccented.

A final long vowel is accented by default. If the word ends in a consonant or semi-vowel, the final vowel is accented. If the word ends in a vowel, the penultimate syllable is accented. Words that differ from these rules indicate the accented vowel with an acute accent in the Latin orthography. <!--Secondary accent is usually not indicated, but it may be indicated with a grave accent (this article does so somewhat inconsistently). -->Exceptions include subordinating ''-n'' and enclitics such as ''-ne'' "and", which do not affect accent.

In verbs, accent is fully determined by morphology. Nouns may have distinctive accent. A final accented vowel can be pronounced aspirated in verbs (where it may be written with a final ''-h'') and glottalized in nouns (which may be indicated with an apostrophe).

When used in a sentence, some words that normally have accent may be unaccented (especially if unfocused), etc. In a noun phrase, words after the first accented word have their accent weakened or dropped entirely (unless focused). Words such as genitives, adjectives, verbs, and proximal/distal articles are accented.

:e.g. ''náma'' "person"

::''ka náma'' "the person" (definite article is unaccented, so ''nama'' keeps its accent)

::''kána nama'' "this person" (proximal article is accented, so ''nama'' loses/weakens accent)

::''bidáarle kana nama'' "this bald person" (''bidaarle'' "bald" is accented, so ''kana'' and ''nama'' lose/weaken their accent)

::''cáse ka nama'' "the red person" (''case'' "red" is accented, so ''nama'' loses/weakens accent)

::''case ka náma'' "the red ''person''" (''nama'' is stressed for emphasis)

:e.g. ''hurdá'' "he is sleeping", ''hurd<b>i</b>tá / hur<b>u</b>ddá / hu<b>dur</b>tá'' "she is sleeping"

====Sandhi and Allophony====

*Between vowels (may not always occur for all speakers especially before accented vowels):

*When a homorganic diphthong (i.e. ''e(e)y, i(i)y, o(o)w, u(u)w'') would occur, the semi-vowel is dropped before applying sandhi.

**''t, s + n'' → ''nn''  

**''w + n'' → ''nn'' (after unrounded vowels)

===Nouns===

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs are nominalized with the subordinating suffix ''-n'' before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are grammatically feminine). <!--Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle ''in'' "that (subordinator)".-->

**'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. Absolutives ending in a single consonant followed by a short, unaccented vowel (especially ''-a'' or ''-i'') often drop their final vowel, especially when closely linked to the following word.

***Masculine singulative: ''-u'' - e.g. ''afka'' "mouth, language" → ''afku''

***Feminine singulative: no change - e.g. ''shimmirti'' "bird" → ''shimmirti'' (no change)

***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú''

***Feminine/plural with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí''

***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unaccented vowel: -́i (with penultimate accent) - e.g. nama → nami

**'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.

**'''Vocative:''' Used for calling someone. The masculine ending is ''-ow'' and the feminine ending is ''-ey''. Original word accent is maintained. These endings may change if the word ends in a vowel.  

***Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'' (except Arabic names in ''-i'') : ''-ew; -ey'' - e.g. ''qaalhi'' → ''qáalhew''; ''dubarti'' → ''dubártey''

***Absolutive ending in ''-í'' or ''-ii'': ''-iyow; -iyey''

***Absolutive ending in ''-ú'' or ''-uu'': ''-uwow; -uwey''

****''a, e, o'': lengthen final vowel if short and add ''-w/y'' (for masculine/feminine respectively) - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinaay''

****''i'': add epenthetic ''-y-'' followed by ''-ow/ey''

**'''Predicative''': Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional, and in the present indicative the copula is usually dropped entirely (except for emphasis).

***Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unaccented vowel: ''-e'' (declines as adjective; inchoative: ''-achi'')<!--, ''-dha'' (invariant; present only; doesn't affect accent)--> - e.g. ''Maxámmad'' → ''Maxammade<!--, Maxámmaddha-->''

***Absolutive ending in long or accented vowel: ''-she'' (declines as adjective; inchoative: ''-chi'')<!--, ''-dha'' (invariant; present only)--> - e.g. ''makiiná'' → ''makiinashe<!--, makiinadha-->''

***Independent form of the copula: <!--''dha'' (invariant; present only),-->''(sh)e'' (adjective declension; inchoative: ''achi'')<!--, ''dhe'' (= ''dha + e''; adjective declension)-->

:::e.g. ''Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama she / <!--nama dha / nama dhe / -->namé<!-- / námadha-->.'' "Muhammad is a person."

====Number====

Many nouns are by default unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with the suffixes ''-ka, -icha'' (masculine) or ''-ti, -itti'' (feminine) and their variants. The plural is formed with suffixes such as ''-oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, -oowa, -iina'' and ''-aati''. Broken plurals are common in Arabic loanwords and are sometimes extended to other words. The endings ''-eeya'', ''-oowa'', and ''-ooya'' may be analyzed as collectives rather than true plurals.

=====Some examples=====

*''nama'' "person" uses the unmarked form to refer to an indefinite person or multiple people (e.g. "''Someone'' should do this", "I saw some ''people''"). The singulative is used to refer to a specific person (e.g. "I see ''a person''") or to specify the gender of an indefinite person (e.g. "''Some man'' should do this"). The plural is used to emphasize the large number of people or to talk about multiple groups of people.

====Diminutives and Augmentatives====

A form identical to the vocative but with the accent shifted the final syllable can be used as a nickname - e.g. ''Maxammadow'' (< ''Maxámmad''); ''bidaarlow'' (< ''bidaarle'' "bald person").

====Derived Nouns====

*''-ina (f.)'': verbal nouns (from class 3 verbs), abstract nouns (from nouns and adjectives) - e.g. ''casina'' "redness"

*''-eena (m.), -eená (f.)'': nouns of profession - e.g. ''faraseena'' "horseman"

*''-mo / m-o (f.)'': verb-derived nouns - e.g. ''farsimo'' "handwriting"; ''maddho'' "word; statement"

===Pronouns===

====Personal Pronouns====

| anaani || anaaní || kiina || kiini || kiinoo || kiinak || kiinas || kiinal || kiinad

| ataani || ataaní || siina || siini || siinoo || siinak || siinas || siinal || siinad

| isaani || isaaní || koota || kooti || kootoo || kootak || kootas || kootal || kootad

*Clitic subject pronouns (except the impersonal) are optional and are usually dropped unless needed for clarity.

*The clitic accusatives (either long or short) can be used with nouns as a genitive.

*The reflexive, reciprocal, and imperonal object pronouns can be used as postpositional objects.

 

Demonstratives are used to specify something. They can occur as an article before a noun or can be used independently. There are three demonstratives: the definite, proximate, and distal demonstratives. The definite article is unaccented, while the others are accented if they occur at the beginning of a noun phrase.

The definite demonstrative is used to specify something and to indicate definiteness. It can be translated to "the" (as an article) or "the one(s)" (as a pronoun)

:e.g. ''<b>ka</b> nama'' "'''the''' person"; ''cascase <b>ta</b>'' "'''the''' red '''ones'''".

The proximal demonstrative is used to refer to something that is near to the speaker. It can be translated to "this/these (one(s))"

:e.g. ''<b>kana</b> nama'' "'''this''' person"; ''cascase <b>tana</b>'' "'''these''' red '''ones'''".

The distal demonstrative is used to refer to something at a distance from the speaker. It can be translated to "that/those (one(s))"

:e.g. ''<b>koona</b> nama'' "'''that''' person"; ''cascase <b>toona</b>'' "'''those''' red '''ones'''".

When used as an article, they directly precede the noun being modified. An exception is with numerals: the article precedes the numeral and agrees with it in gender - e.g. ''ta afar nama'' "the four people" (not *''afar ka nama''). Articles only decline in primary cases; other cases use the absolutive forms. When used as pronouns, demonstratives occur at the end of the noun phrase and can take secondary case endings.

! rowspan=2" | !! colspan="2" | Definite !! colspan = "2" | Proximal !! colspan="2" | Distal

! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Feminine

| ka || ta || kana || tana || koona || toona

| ku || tu || kuni || tuni || kooni || tooni

| ki || ti || kini || tini || kooni || tooni

====Indefinite Pronoun====

The indefinite pronoun ''mitta'' is used to refer to something that is indefinite. It can be translated as "one". It is equivalent to the numeral one - e.g. ''case mitta'' "a red one"; ''mit nama'' "one person"

The indefinite pronoun declines only when it occurs at the end of the noun phrase. When used before a noun, the attributive form is used. The attributive form is accented.

The indefinite pronoun can take a definite article, in which case it is synonymous with the definite demonstrative - e.g. ''case ka'' = ''case ka mitta'' "the red one"

| mitta || mitti

| mittu || mitti

| mitti || mitti

====Interrogative Pronouns====

*''maxa'': what <!--(< ''ma'' + ''waxa'')-->

*''iyya'': who

*''ma nama'': who

*''ma mitta (m.); ma mitti (f.)'': which

====Class 1: Non-adjectival Root Verbs====

=====Class 1a: Suffix Conjugation=====

!  !! colspan="2" | Imperfect Affirmative !! colspan="2" | Imperfect Subordinate !! colspan="2" | Impf. Subord. Neg. !! colspan="2" | Perfect Aff. !! colspan="2" | Perfect Negative !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Aff.<small>³</small> !! colspan="2" | Jussive/Imperative Neg.<small>³</small>

| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-inó'' || ''sheen<b>inó</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-iné'' || ''sheen<b>iné</b>''|| ''-ú'' || ''sheen<b>ú</b>'' || ''-inú'' || ''sheen<b>inú</b>''

| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-intó'' || ''sheen<b>intó</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-inté'' || ''sheen<b>inté</b>''|| ''-tú/ -i'' || ''sheen<b>tú</b>/ sheen<b>i</b>'' || ''-intú/ -ini'' || ''sheen<b>intú</b>/ sheen<b>ini</b>''  

| ''-á'' || ''sheen<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''sheen<b>ó</b>''|| ''-inó'' || ''sheen<b>inó</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''sheen<b>é</b>''|| ''-iné'' || ''sheen<b>iné</b>''|| ''-u'' || ''sheen<b>ú</b>'' || ''-inú'' || ''sheen<b>inú</b>''

| ''-tá'' || ''sheen<b>tá</b>''|| ''-tó'' || ''sheen<b>tó</b>''|| ''-intó'' || ''sheen<b>intó</b>''|| ''-té'' || ''sheen<b>té</b>''|| ''-inté'' || ''sheen<b>inté</b>''|| ''-tú'' || ''sheen<b>tú</b>'' || ''-intú'' || ''sheen<b>intú</b>''

| ''-ná'' || ''sheen<b>ná</b>''|| ''-nó'' || ''sheen<b>nó</b>''|| ''-innó'' || ''sheen<b>innó</b>''|| ''-né'' || ''sheen<b>né</b>''|| ''-inné'' || ''sheen<b>inné</b>''|| ''-nú'' || ''sheen<b>nú</b>'' || ''-innú'' || ''sheen<b>innú</b>''

<small>²</small> For forms ending in a short accented vowel, the final accented vowel may be aspirated and can be written with a final ''-h'' instead of an acute accent. They lose their accent when unfocused or used descriptively before nouns, and they lengthen in questions.

=====Class 1b: Prefix Conjugation=====

| ''-á'' || ''ark<b>á</b>''|| ''-ó'' || ''ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''-inó'' || ''ark<b>ino</b>''|| ''-é'' || ''ark<b>é</b>''|| ''-ine'' || ''ark<b>ine</b>''|| ''-ú'' || ''ark<b>ú</b>'' || ''-inú'' || ''ark<b>inú</b>''

| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-inó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inó</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-iné'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>iné</b>''|| ''t-ú/ -i'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ú</b>/ ark<b>i</b>'' || ''t-inú/ -ini'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inú</b>/ ark<b>ini</b>''  

| ''y-á'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''y-ó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''y-inó'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inó</b>''|| ''y-é'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''y-iné'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>iné</b>''|| ''y-ú'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>u</b>'' || ''y-inú'' || ''<b>y</b>ark<b>inú</b>''

| ''t-á'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''t-ó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''t-inó'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inó</b>''|| ''t-é'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''t-iné'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>iné</b>''|| ''t-ú'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>ú</b>'' || ''t-inú'' || ''<b>t</b>ark<b>inú</b>''

| ''n-á'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>á</b>''|| ''n-ó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ó</b>''|| ''n-inó'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>inó</b>''|| ''n-é'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>é</b>''|| ''n-iné'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>iné</b>''|| ''n-ú'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>ú</b>'' || ''n-inú'' || ''<b>n</b>ark<b>inú</b>''

====Class 2: Suffix-derived Verbs====

Suffix-derived verbs always dynamic and follow the suffix conjugation. When multiple derivational suffixes co-occur, the order is inchoative-causative-middle-passive.

=====Class 2a: ''-am-'' Passive=====

The passive can be used (in the 3SM) as a pseudopassive - e.g. ''Ardamé'' "(Someone) ran" (literally: "It was run").

=====Class 2b: ''-s-'' Causative=====

Formed with the suffix ''-(i)s-'' (single causative) or ''-(i)siis-'' (double causative). Follows suffix conjugation.

It is used for the causative. The double causative is often used with transitive verbs, forming a causative that can take two direct objects - e.g. ''cabbi'' "to drink" → ''cabsi'' "to give (someone/something) a drink" (can only take one accusative object) vs ''cabsiisi'' "to give (someone) (something) to drink" (can take two accusative objects)

=====Class 2c: ''-at-'' Middle=====

Formed with the suffix ''-at-''. Follows suffix conjugation with some irregularities:

Verbs derived with this suffix may have various meanings, sometimes unpredictable. It often indicates that an action affects the subject (middle or reciprocal) or is done for the subject's benefit. Often, the same verb has multiple possible meanings.

::''kulussi'' "to make fat" → ''kulussati'' "to make oneself fat; to become fat (intentionally); to make (something) fat for one's benefit"

This suffix may be derive verbs from nouns and inchoatives from statives.

=====Class 2d: ''-oow-'' Inchoative=====

====Class 3: Adjectival Conjugation====

This is used for adjectives and some stative verbs. The citation form is the 3S imperfect attributive form. They each have a Class 1 or Class 2 counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: ''case'' "to be red" (inchoative: ''casoowi'' "to become red"). For the verbal infinitive, passive, and imperatives/jussives, use the inchoative counterpart.

====Tense, Aspect, Mood====

*The Class 1 forms ending in an accented vowel lose the accent when <!--non-final or -->unfocused or used descriptively and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. ''Cali arká'' "I see Ali"; ''Cáli arka'' "I see ''Ali''"; ''yarka nama'' "person who sees"; ''Cali tarkaa?'' "Do you see Ali?"

=====Simple Tenses=====

======Simple Present======

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Imperfect subordinate" - e.g. ''ma yarkó'' "he does not see"

**Affirmative: "Imperfect subordinate" - e.g. ''yarkonoo'' "so that he sees"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Imperfect subordinate negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinonoo'' "so that he does not see" (or can use compound tense - see below)

======Simple Past======

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Perfect negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkiné'' "he did not see"

**Negative: ''ma'' + "Perfect negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinenas '' "because he did not see" (or can use compound tense - see below)

*Negative: ''hin'' + "Imperative negative" - e.g. ''hin arkini'' "do not see!"

*Affirmative: ''haa'' + "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. ''haa yarkú'' "let him see!"

*Negative: ''ma'' + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ''ma yarkinú'' "let him not see!"

=====Compound Tenses=====

::''Kacé ka manak<b>ne</b> baxé bunni mana<b>ne</b> galé shaahi<b>ne</b> cabbé.'' "He got up '''and''' left the house '''and''' entered a café '''and''' drank tea."

All derivation suffixes cause the verb to follow the suffix conjugation pattern. For more information, see [[Qino#Class 2: Suffix-derived Verbs|Suffix-derived Verbs]]. When formed from a noun or adjective, a suffix (often ''-aa-'') may be added before the suffix.  

*Causative: ''-(i)s-''; ''-(i)siis-'' <!--(Denominal: ''-aas-'') -->- e.g. ''casaasi'' "to make red", ''sheensiisi'' "to make (someone) give"

*Passive: ''-am-'' - e.g. ''sheenami'' "to be given"

*Middle: ''-at-'' <!--(Denominal: ''-aat-'')-->- e.g. ''sheenati'' "to bring for oneself", ''jacalaati'' "to come to love". This suffix has some irregularities.

** The ''-t-'' becomes ''-dh-'' in the first person singular and in the imperative - e.g. ''jacalaadhé'' "I came to love" vs ''jacalaaté'' "he came to love".

**The verbal noun is formed with the suffix ''-ashu'' (''f.'')

*Inchoative: ''-oow-'' - e.g. ''casoowi'' "to become red"

Verbs may also be derived by prefixes, but this is mostly non-productive. If the prefix begins in a vowel, the verb follows the prefix conjugation. Otherwise, it follows the suffix conjugation. Prefixes include inchoative ''a-'', middle ''t-'', mediopassive ''m-'', and causative ''s-''.

 

The main verbal noun (which is always feminine) is formed with the suffix ''-iya'' or ''-ina'' depending on verb class. Some verb classes form it in other ways (see [[Qino#Verbs|Verbs]] for more information).  

*''-mo (f.)'' (prefix conjugation may use ''m-o'') - e.g. ''farsimo'' "handwriting" (< ''farsi'' "to write"); ''maddho'' "word; statement" (< ''addhi'' "to say")

Patient nouns are formed by adding agent suffixes to stative passive or to ''-am-'' passive - e.g. ''arkanaa'' "one who is seen (''m.'')", ''arkameeya'' "those who are seen". The two forms (i.e. stative vs ''-am-'' passive) have slightly different connotations. For example, ''arkanaa'' might refer to someone who is being seen at the moment, while ''arkamaa'' might refer to someone who is regularly seen.

===Numbers===

====Cardinal Numbers====

When used with a noun, the dependent forms are used. When used as a pronoun, the independent forms are used. All numbers are grammatically feminine except for "one", which can be either gender. The masculine form of "one" (i.e. ''mitta'') is used for counting.

Cardinal numbers come before nouns in the unmarked form. If there is no unmarked form, the singulative is used - e.g. ''lammá nama'' "two people" (NOT ''*lammá namooti''); ''áfar afka'' "four mouths/languages" (NOT ''*áfar afaani'')

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Qino cardinal numbers

| ||

| mitta (''m.''); mitti (''f.'') || mit

| lamma || lammá

| sidexa || sidex

| áfara || áfar

| shana || shan

| lexa || lex

| todba || todbá

| siddeeta || siddeet

| sagaala || sagaal

| tamana || taman

| tamana shi mitta || taman shi mit

| lammáatama || lammáatam

| sóddoma || sóddom

| afártama || afártam

| kóntoma || kóntom

| léxtama || léxtam

| todbáatama || todbáatam

| siddéettama || siddéettam

| sagáaltama || sagáaltam

| baqala || baqal

| kuma || kum

===Attributives===

Attributives (also called definitives) modify a noun/pronoun and occur at the beginning of the noun phrase. Some agree with the noun in gender/number, but most are invariable. Strictly speaking, words that can occur independently (such as articles) or that are declined forms of nouns/verbs are not attributives, but they are included here for convenience.

See [[Qino#Demonstratives|Demonstratives]].

See [[Qino#Numbers|Numbers]].

Nouns/pronouns in the genitive behave as attributives. They must occur with a head noun or pronoun and are accented - e.g. ''<b>kiishi</b> mana'' "'''my''' house", ''<b>Maxammadi</b> ka'' "Mohammad's one".

====Quantifiers====

Quantifiers are accented and occur at the beginning of the noun phrase. Some are listed below.

*''kulli'': all (can also occur as a pronoun, in which case it declines as a feminine noun)