Qino

Qino (native: Qino afka /ɠino afka/, Western Arabic script: ڧں أڢک, Eastern Arabic script: قن أفك, Ge'ez script: ቅኖ አፍከ) is a Cushitic conlang.

Introduction

Qino is a Cushitic language. It is largely based on Saho-Afar, Oromo, and Somali, with inspiration taken from various other languages.

Phonology

Orthography

Qino can be written in the Arabic, Latin, or Ge'ez scripts. In this article, the Latin script (with stress indicated) is used for ease of reading. The Arabic script has two variants: Western ("Traditional") and Eastern ("Modern").

Consonants

Western Arabic	Eastern Arabic	Latin	Ge'ez	IPA	Notes
ـأ أ	أ	'	አ	ʔ	Here hamzah is shown on alif, but it may occur on waw (ؤ), ya' (ئ), or without a "chair" (ء).
ببب ب	ب	b	በ	b	Lenited to [β ~ β̞] between vowels (may be indicated in traditional Arabic script as ۋ).
پپپ پ	ڀ	bh	ጰ	ɓ	Lenited to [β̞ˀ] between vowels.
تتت ت	ت	t	ተ	t
ثثث ث	ث	th	ሠ	θ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /t/.
ججج ج	ج	j	ጀ	d͡ʒ	Lenited to [ʝ ~ j] between vowels (may be indicated orthographically as ی/y).
ڃڃڃ ڃ	ݧ	ny	ኘ	ɲ
چچچ چ	ڇ	jh	ጨ	ʄ	Lenited to [jˀ] between vowels.
ححح ح	ح	x	ሐ	ħ
خخخ خ	خ	kh	ኀ	x ~ χ	Occurs in loanwords.
ـد د	د	d	ደ	d	Lenited to [ð ~ ð̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as ذ).
ـذ ذ	ذ	dz	ዘ	ð	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /d/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d/.
ـر ر	ر	r	ረ	r	Becomes a tap (/ɾ/) between vowels.
ـز ز	ز	z	ዘ	z	Occurs in loanwords. May be nativized as /s/.
سسس س	س	s	ሰ	s
ششش ش	ش	sh	ሸ	ʃ
صصص ص	ص	s	ሰ	s	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /sˁ/.
ضضض ض	ض	lh	ፀ	lˀ	In Arabic loanwords, may be pronounced as in Fusha (/dˁ/ or /d͡lˁ/ or whatever) or the "hybrid" pronunciations /ɗ͡l(ˁ)/ or /lˁ/.
ططط ط	ط	dh	ጠ	ɗ	Lenited to [ɾˀ] between vowels, which may be indicated orthographically as ڟ/rh. In loanwords, may be pronounced /t̪ˁ/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ɗ̪(ˁ)/.
ظظظ ظ	ظ	dz	ጸ	ð	Occurs in Arabic loanwords. Educated pronunciation is /ðˁ/. Nativized as /d/ or /ɗ/.
ڟڟڟ ڟ	ڟ	rh	ጠ	ɾˀ	Allophone of /ɗ/ between vowels. May not be distinguished from ط/dh.
ععع ع	ع	c	ዐ	ʕ
غغغ غ	غ	gh	ቐ	ɣ ~ ʁ	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /ɡ/ or /ɠ/. May be used for the intervocalic allophone of /ɡ/.
ڢڢڡ ڡ	ف	f	ፈ	f
ڥڥڥ ڥ	پ	p	ፐ	p	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /b/ or /f/.
ڧڧٯ ٯ	ق	q	ቀ	ɠ	Lenited to [ɰˀ] between vowels. In loanwords, may be pronounced /q/ or the hybrid pronunciation /ʛ/.
ققق ق	ڹ	ng	ጘ	ŋ
ڨڨڨ ڨ	ڠ	g	ገ	ɡ	Lenited to [ɣ ~ ɣ̞] between vowels (may be indicated in Arabic script as غ).
ککک ک	ك	k	ከ	k
ݣݣݣ ݣ	چ	ch	ቸ	t͡ʃ
للل ل	ل	l	ለ	l
ممم م	م	m	መ	m
ننں ں	ن	n	ነ	n
ـو و	و	w	ወ	w
ـۋ ۋ	ڤ	v	ቨ	v	Occurs in loanwords. Nativized as /f/, /b/, or /w/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /b/.
ههه ه	ه	h	ሀ	h	May be used at the end of words to show a final stressed vowel.
ییی\ـے ی\ے	ي	y	የ	j	In the traditional Arabic script, written as ے when representing a final /i(ː)/ or vowelless /-j/. May be used for intervocalic allophone of /d͡ʒ/.

Vowels

Western Arabic	Eastern Arabic	Latin	Ge'ez	IPA	Notes
ـَ	ـَ	a	አ	a
ـٜ	ـٖ	e	ኤ	e
ـِ	ـِ	i	ኢ ፣ እ	i	ኢ is used in the Ge'ez script when word-final and in a few other cases. Otherwise, እ is used.
ـٗ	ـٗ	o	ኦ	o
ـُ	ـُ	u	ኦ	u
ـَا	ـَا	aa	ኣ	aː
ـٜیٰ، ـَےْ	ـٖي٬ ـَيْ	ee	ኤ	eː
ـِے	ـِي	ii	ኢ	iː
ـٗو٬ ـَوْ	ـٗو، ـَوْ	oo	ኦ	oː
ـُو	ـُو	uu	ኡ	uː
ـْ	ـْ	C	እ	C	Used for a consonant not followed by a vowel.
ـّ	ـّ	CC	-	Cː	Used for a geminate consonant.
ـهْ	ـهْ	-V́ (or -Vh)	(ህ)	ˈ-V	Used for a stressed word-final short vowel.

Consonants

Qino consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal/ Postalveolar	Velar	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal	plain	m		n	ny /ɲ/	ng /ŋ/
	glottalized	[mˀ]		[nˀ]	[ɲˀ]	[ŋˀ]
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t		ch /t͡ʃ/	k		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d		j /d͡ʒ/	ɡ
	glottalized	bh /ɓ/		dh /ɗ/	jh /ʄ/	q /ɠ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	(th /θ/)	s	sh /ʃ/	(kh /x ~ χ/)	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	(v)	(dz /ð/)	(z)		(gh /ɣ ~ ʁ/)	c /ʕ/
Approximant	plain	w		l	y /j/
	glottalized	[β̞ˀ]		lh /lˀ/	[jˀ]	[ɰˀ]
Trill/Tap	plain			r
	glottalized			(rh [ɾˀ])

Notes:

¹ ch, ny, and ng are geminated between vowels.

² Phonemes in brackets are only found in loanwords.

³ The implosives are heavily glottalized and may be represented [dˀ], etc. They may be partially or completely devoiced depending on speaker and environment. /ɗ/

⁴ The glottalized sounds [mˀ, nˀ, ɲˀ, ŋˀ] and [β̞ˀ, ɾˀ, jˀ, ɰˀ] are not considered separate phonemes but rather allophones of glottalized stops before/after nasals and between vowels respectively. Only rh [ɾˀ] is (optionally) distinguished orthographically.

⁵ /r/ may be pronounced as a tap ([ɾ]), especially when ungeminated after a vowel.

Vowels

a e i o u aa ee ii oo uu

Prosody

Intonation

Qino does not have distinctive tone, but stressed vowels are pronounced with a higher pitch. A question is indicated with a falling intonation.

Stress

A final long vowel is stressed by default. If the word ends in a consonant or semi-vowel, the final vowel is stressed. If the word ends in a vowel, the penultimate syllable is stressed. Words that differ from these rules indicate primary stress with an acute accent in the Latin orthography. Secondary stress is usually not indicated, but it may be indicated with a grave accent (this article does so somewhat inconsistently). Exceptions include subordinating -n and enclitics such as -ne "and", which do not affect stress.

In verbs, stress is fully determined by morphology. Nouns may have distinctive stress.

Phonotactics

• Syllable structure is (C)V(C)
• Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Epenthetic consonants such as w and y are inserted.
• When a cluster of three consonants would occur, the epenthetic vowel -i- is inserted. Alternatively, the consonant cluster can be separated with an "echo" vowel, sometimes with metathesis.

e.g. hurdá "he sleeps", hurditá / huruddá / hudurtá "she sleeps"

Morphophonology

Sandhi and Allophony

• Between vowels (may not always occur for all speakers, especially before stressed vowels):
  • /b, d, d͡ʒ, ɡ/ → [β ~ β̞, ð ~ ð̞, ʝ ~ j, ɣ ~ ɣ̞]
  • /ɓ, ɗ, ʄ, ɠ/ → [β̞ˀ ~ ˀβ̞, ɾˀ ~ ˀɾ, jˀ ~ ˀj, ɰˀ ~ ˀɰ]
• mbh, ndh, njh, nq = [mːˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋːˀ] (may not occur for all speakers)
• -n- of 1st person plural:
  • bh, dh, lh, jh, q + n → [mnˀ, nːˀ, ɲːˀ, ŋnˀ] (written bhn, dhn, etc)
  • r, l, lh + n → [rː, lː, lːˀ] (written rr, ll, llh)
  • b, d, j, g + n → mn, nn, ny [ɲː], gn [ŋn]
  • t, s + n → nn
  • sh + n → ny [ɲː]
• -t- of 2nd person, 3rd person feminine:
  • bh, dh, lh, q: t becomes dh (bh, dh, lh + dh are written bdh, ddh, ldh)
  • jh + t → jjh [ʄː]
  • b, d, g: t becomes d
  • j + t → jj
  • sh + t → ch [t͡ʃː]

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs are nominalized with the subordinating suffix -n before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are grammatically feminine). Subordinate verbs can alternatively be preceded by the particle in "that (subordinator)".

• Primary cases:
  • Absolutive: Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. Absolutives ending in unstressed -a often drop their final vowel, especially when closely linked to the following word.
  • Nominative: Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows:
    • Masculine singulative: -u - e.g. afka "mouth, language" → afku
    • Feminine singulative: no change - e.g. shimmirti "bird" → shimmirti (no change)
    • Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, -a: -ú - e.g. nama "person" → namú
    • Feminine/plural with absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -í - e.g. nafa "soul" → nafí
    • Absolutive ending in other short, unstressed vowel: stress on final syllable - e.g. Qino → Qinó
    • Absolutive ending in a long and/or stressed vowel: -n - e.g. makiiná "car" → makiinan
    • Independent form: ni
  • Genitive: Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -́i (with penultimate stress) - e.g. nama → nami
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -t - e.g. makiiná → makiinat
• Secondary cases:
  • Dative: Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -óo - e.g. nama → namoo
    • Absolutive ending in other short unstressed vowel: lengthen final vowel + final stress - e.g. shimmirti → shimmirtii
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -s - e.g. makiiná → makiinas
    • Independent form: oo
  • Ablative: Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"), "in regards to".
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ák - e.g. Maxámmad → Maxàmmadak
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́k - e.g. nama → namak
    • Independent form: ak
  • Instrumental: Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ás - e.g. Maxámmad → Maxàmmadas
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́s - e.g. nama → namas
    • Independent form: as
  • Comitative: Used for accompaniment ("in company with").
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ál - e.g. Maxámmad → Maxàmmadal
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́l - e.g. nama → namal
    • Independent form: al
  • Locative: Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant: -ád - e.g. Maxámmad → Maxàmmadad
    • Absolutive ending in vowel: -́d - e.g. nama → namad
    • Independent form: ad
• Pseudo-cases:
  • Vocative: Used for calling someone. The masculine ending is -ow and the feminine ending is -ey. Original word stress is maintained. These endings may change if the word ends in a vowel.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or -a: -ow; -ey (for masculine and feminine respectively)
    • Absolutive ending in -e or -i (except names in -i) : -ew; -ey
    • Name ending in -i: -iyow; -ey
    • Absolutive ending in -o or -u (except names in -u): -ow; -oy
    • Name ending in -u: -ow; -uwey
    • Absolutive ending in stressed/long a, e, or o: lengthen final vowel if short and add -w (masculine) or -y (feminine)
    • Absolutive ending in -í or -ii: -iyow; -iyey
    • Absolutive ending in -ú or -uu: -uwow; -uwey
  • Predicative: Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional, and in the present indicative the copula can be dropped entirely.
    • Absolutive ending in consonant or short, unstressed vowel: -e (declines as adjective; inchoative: -achi) - e.g. Maxámmad → Maxammade
    • Absolutive ending in long or stressed vowel: -she (declines as adjective; inchoative: -chi) - e.g. makiiná → makiinashe, makiinadha
    • Independent forms of the copula: dha (invariant; present only), (sh)e (adjective declension; inchoative: achi)

e.g. Maxammadú nama / nama e / nama she / nama dha / name. "Muhammad is a person."

namiye "I am a person"; namaché "I have become a person"

Number

Many nouns are by default unmarked for number. The singulative is formed with suffixes such as -sha, -ha, -ka, -icha, -eesha, -ocha, (masculine) or -ti, -itti, -eeti, -otti (feminine). The plural is formed with suffixes such as -oota, -ani, -aani, -eeni, -ooni, -eeCi, -ooCi, -eeya, -ooya, -iina and -aati. Broken plurals are common in Arabic loanwords and are sometimes extended to other words.

The exact usage depends on the noun in question. When all three forms exist, the unmarked form is generally used with numerals, as a collective, and when number is not particularly important. The singulative is used to refer to a specific individual, and the plural is used to emphasize the plurality (especially if it is not clear from context) or to refer to multiple groups. Multiple plural forms often exist and ad-hoc forms are common.

Not every noun has all three forms. If there is no unmarked form, the singulative and plural are used for singular and plural respectively, but the singulative is used with numerals. Some uncountable nouns are always in the plural (pluralia tantum) - e.g. bisheeya "water".

If a noun has a different gender than the person it refers to, the noun takes articles according to its gender but verbs normally conjugate according to the gender of the person. Similarly, nouns that are unmarked for number take singular or plural forms depending on the referent. In very formal language, however, the verb conjugates according to the gender and number of the noun. In both formal and colloquial language, plural nouns can either take plural or feminine singular verbal agreement.

Some examples

• nama "person" uses the unmarked form to refer to an indefinite person or multiple people (e.g. "Someone should do this", "I saw some people"). The singulative is used to refer to a specific person (e.g. "I see a person") or to specify the gender of an indefinite person (e.g. "Some man should do this"). The plural is used to emphasize the large number of people or to talk about multiple groups of people.
• shimmira "bird" uses the singulative for a single bird and the unmarked form as a collective. It does not have a dedicated plural form, though ad-hoc formations such as shimmiroota may be used to refer to a very large number of birds.
• afka "mouth/language" uses the singulative for a single mouth/language and the plural for more than one. It does not have an unmarked form.
• bisheeya "water" is always in the plural. A singulative bisheeti meaning "cup/bottle of water" exists, but it is treated as a separate noun and has its own plural (bisheetoota).

Diminutives and Augmentatives

The diminutive is formed with the suffixes -icha (m.)/ -itti (f.). Note that these suffixes may also be used for the singulative.

The augmentative is formed with the suffix -oowa (takes gender of noun), with the singulative -ooka (m.)/ -ooti (f.).

Definitives

Definitives always modify a noun and generally occur at the beginning of the noun phrase. Some agree with the noun in gender/number, but most are invariable.

Definite Article

The definite article precedes the noun being modified. It only declines in primary cases; other cases use the absolutive forms. Plural nouns use feminine articles.

The definite article always comes at the beginning of a noun phrase and has two forms: short and long. The short forms are used when the article directly preceding the noun being modified. If there is separation, the long forms can be used, especially if the short forms may cause confusion.

e.g. ka mana "the house"; ka wiine mana or kana wiine mana "the big house" (no confusion)

ka yarka nama or kana yarka nama "the person who sees" (but the first may alternatively mean "a person who sees him")

Qino definite article

	Short		Long
Masculine	Feminine	Masculine	Feminine
Absolutive	ka	ta	kana	tana
Nominative	ku	tu	kuni	tuni
Genitive	ki	ti	kini	tini

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Qino independent personal pronouns

	Absolutive	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	ana	anu	kiisha	kiishi	kiishoo	kiishak	kiishas	kiishal	kiishad
2SM	ata	atu	kaaha	kaahi	kaahoo	kaahak	kaahas	kaahal	kaahad
2SF	ati	ati	taati	taati	taatii	taatik	taatis	taatil	taatid
3SM	usa	usu	keesha	keeshi	keeshoo	keeshak	keeshas	keeshal	keeshad
3SF	ishi	ishi	teeti	teeti	teetii	teetik	teetis	teetil	teetid
1Inc	una	unu	keena	keeni	keennoo	keenak	keenas	keenal	keenad
1Exc	anaani	anaani	kiina	kiini	kiinoo	kiinak	kiinas	kiinal	kiinad
2P	ataani	ataani	siina	siini	siinoo	siinak	siinas	siinal	siinad
3P	isaani	isaani	koota	kooti	kootoo	kootak	kootas	kootal	kootad

Qino clitic personal pronouns

	Subject	Accusative 1	Accusative 2	Dative	Ablative	Instrumental	Comitative	Locative
1S	an	yi	kii	yoo	yak	yas	yal	yad
2SM	at	ku	kaa	kuu	kuk	kus	kul	kud
2SF	at	tu	taa	tuu	tuk	tus	tul	tud
3SM	us	ka	kee(sh)	koo	kak	kas	kal	kad
3SF	ish	ta	tee(t)	too	tak	tas	tal	tad
1Inc	un	na	keen	noo	nak	nas	nal	nad
1Exc	anan	yin	kiin	yinoo	yinak	yinas	yinal	yinad
2P	atan	sin	siin	sinoo	sinak	sinas	sinal	sinad
3P	isan	tin	koo(t)	tinoo	tinak	tinas	tinal	tinad
REF	–	is	–	isoo	isak	isas	isal	isad
REC	–	ol	–	oloo	olak	olas	olal	olad

Notes:

• When there is one accusative object pronoun, either the "accusative 1" or "accusative 2" forms can be used. When there are multiple clitic objects, the final one takes the "accusative 2" form and the rest the "accusative 1" form.
• Third person clitic pronouns are often omitted. When the this occurs in oblique cases, the corresponding free postposition forms are used (oo, ak, as, al, and ad respectively).
• The "accusative 1" forms can be used with nouns as a genitive.

Verbs

Verbs in Qino fall into three main conjugation classes. In terms of meaning, verbs can be classified into two categories: stative and eventive verbs.

Stative verbs usually refer to a state of being (e.g. kusli "to be fat"). Some may refer to an ongoing action (e.g. arki "to see"). Some class 1 and all class 3 verbs fall into this category.

Eventive verbs refer to an event, which may be an action (e.g. cabbi "to drink") or the entering of a state (inchoative - e.g. raagi "to become late/old"). Most class 1 and all class 2 verbs fall into this category. Inchoative verbs in the past tense may be used for a present state - e.g. fahmé "I came to understand" = "I understand".

Class 1: Non-adjectival Root Verbs

Non-adjectival root verbs may follow either suffix or prefix conjugations, depending on whether the stem begins in a vowel or a consonant.

Class 1a: Suffix Conjugation

Consonant-initial root verbs that do not conjugate as adjectives fall into this category. Example: sheeni "to give".

Roots ending in a semivowel drop it word-finally and before consonant endings. In the verbal noun and stative passive, -yVn- and -wVn- are often simplified to -n- (lengthening the previous vowel if short).

Suffix conjugation

Infinitive					-i					sheeni
Verbal noun					-ina					sheenina
Stative Converb					-aa					sheenaa
Perfect Converb					-ee					sheenee
Stative Passive1					-an-					sheenan-
	Present Affirmative2		Present Subordinate2		Pres. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative2		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.3		Jussive/Imperative Neg.3
1S	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-ino	sheenino	-é	sheené	-ine	sheenine	-u	sheenu	-inu	sheeninu
2S	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-into	sheeninto	-té	sheenté	-inte	sheeninte	-tu/ -i	sheentu/ sheeni	-intu/ -ini	sheenintu/ sheenini
3SM	-á	sheená	-ó	sheenó	-ino	sheenino	-é	sheené	-ine	sheenine	-u	sheenu	-inu	sheeninu
3SF	-tá	sheentá	-tó	sheentó	-into	sheeninto	-té	sheenté	-inte	sheeninte	-tu	sheentu	-intu	sheenintu
1P	-ná	sheenná	-nó	sheennó	-inno	sheeninno	-né	sheenné	-inne	sheeninne	-nu	sheennu	-innu	sheeninnu
2P	-taana	sheentaana	-toona	sheentoona	-intoona	sheenintoona	-teeni	sheenteeni	-inteeni	sheeninteeni	-teenu/ -a	sheenteenu/ sheena	-inteenu/ -ina	sheeninteenu/ sheenina
3P	-aana	sheenaana	-oona	sheenoona	-inoona	sheeninoona	-eeni	sheeneeni	-ineeni	sheenineeni	-a	sheena	-ina	sheenina

Notes:

¹ Conjugates as an adjective.

² The final vowel in the singular and 1P forms (i.e. -á/ó/é) lose their stress when non-final/unfocussed and lengthen in questions.

³ Separate imperative forms only exist in the second person.

Class 1b: Prefix Conjugation

Vowel-initial non-adjectival root verbs. Example verb: arki "to see". Inchoative verbs formed by adding an initial vowel to the corresponding adjectival verb also fall under this class - e.g. adheeri "to become tall" (from dheere "(is) tall").

Prefix conjugation

Infinitive					-i					arki
Verbal noun					-ina					arkina
Stative converb					(prefix)-aa					(Ø/y/t/n)arkaa
Perfect converb					(prefix)-ee					(Ø/y/t/n)arkee
Stative Passive					-an-					arkan-
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Pre. Subord. Neg.		Past Affirmative		Past Negative		Jussive/Imperative Aff.		Jussive/Imperative Neg.
1S	-á	arká	-ó	arkó	-ino	arkino	-é	arké	-ine	arkine	-u	arku	-inu	arkinu
2S	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-ino	tarkino	t-é	tarké	t-ine	tarkine	t-u/ -i	tarku/ arki	t-inu/ -ini	tarkinu/ arkini
3SM	y-á	yarká	y-ó	yarkó	y-ino	yarkino	y-é	yarké	y-ine	yarkine	y-u	yarku	y-inu	yarkinu
3SF	t-á	tarká	t-ó	tarkó	t-ino	tarkino	t-é	tarké	t-ine	tarkine	t-u	tarku	t-inu	tarkinu
1P	n-á	narká	n-ó	narkó	n-ino	narkino	n-é	narké	n-ine	narkine	n-u	narku	n-inu	narkinu
2P	t-aana	tarkaana	t-oona	tarkoona	t-inoona	tarkinoona	t-eeni	tarkeeni	t-ineeni	tarkineeni	t-eenu/ -a	tarkeenu/ arka	t-ineenu/ -ina	tarkineenu/ arkina
3P	y-aana	yarkaana	y-oona	yarkoona	y-inoona	yarkinoona	y-eeni	yarkeeni	y-ineeni	yarkineeni	y-eenu	yarkeenu	y-ineenu	yarkineenu

Class 2: Suffix-derived Verbs

Suffix-derived verbs always dynamic and follow the suffix conjugation. When multiple derivational suffixes co-occur, the order is inchoative-causative-middle-passive.

Class 2a: -am- Passive

Formed with the suffix -am-. Indicates passive meaning. For intransitive stative verbs, indicates inceptive/inchoative. Follows suffix conjugation. Example: sheenami "to be given" (< sheeni "to give"); kuslami "to become fat" (< kusli "to be fat").

Class 2b: -s- Causative

Formed with the suffix -(i)s- (single causative) or -(i)siis- (double causative). Follows suffix conjugation.

Class 2c: -at- Middle

Formed with the suffix -at-. Follows suffix conjugation with some irregularities:

• The -t- becomes -dh- in the first person singular and in the 2S imperative - e.g. jacaladhé "I came to love" vs jacalaté "he came to love".
• The verbal noun is formed with the suffix -ashu (f.) (instead of expected -atina).

Verbs derived with this suffix may have various meanings, sometimes unpredictable. It often indicates that an action affects the subject (middle or reciprocal) or is done for the subject's benefit. Often, the same verb has multiple possible meanings.

e.g. daqi "to wash" + -at- → daqati "to wash oneself; to wash for one's benefit"

kulussi "to make fat" → kulussati "to make oneself fat; to become fat (intentionally); to make (something) fat for one's benefit"

Class 2d: -oow- Inchoative

Formed with the suffix -oow-. Mostly formed from adjectives and nouns. Follows suffix conjugation with the expected irregularities (i.e. loss of -w- in certain situations).

Class 3: Adjectival Conjugation

This is used for adjectives and some stative verbs. The citation form is the 3SM present affirmative, though the infinitive may also be used. They each have a Class 1 or Class 2 counterpart that is used inchoatively. Example: case "red" (inchoative: casoowi "to become red"). For the passive participle and imperatives/jussives, use the inchoative forms.

Adjectival conjugation

Infinitive			-aan			casaan
Verbal noun			-aana			casaana
Stative converb			-ii			casii
Perfect converb			-iishii			casiishii
	Present Affirmative		Present Subordinate		Past Affirmative		Past Negative
1S	-iye	casiye	-iyé	casiyé	-iishe	casiishe	-iishé	casiishé
2S	-ite	casite	-ité	casité	-iiche	casiiche	-iiché	casiiché
3SM	-e	case	-é	casé	-iishe	casiishe	-iishé	casiishé
3SF	-e	case	-é	casé	-iiche	casiiche	-iiché	casiiché
1P	-ine	casine	-iné	casiné	-iinye	casiinye	-iinyé	casiinyé
2P	-itiini	casitiini	-itiini	casitiini	-iichiini	casiichiini	-iichiini	casiichiini
3P	-iini	casiini	-iini	casiini	-iishiini	casiishiini	-iishiini	casiishiini

Note: The present subordinate negative form is identical to the present subordinate affirmative.

Tense, Aspect, Mood

Notes:

• The Class 1 forms ending in a stressed vowel lose the stress when non-final or unfocused and lengthen the final vowel when used interrogatively - e.g. Cali yarká "Ali sees"; Cáli yarka "Ali sees"; yarka nama "a person who sees"; Cali tarkaa? "Do you see Ali?"

Simple Tenses

Simple Present

• Used for an action in the present or future, or that started in the past but continue into the present (i.e. English past perfect continuous).
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present indicative" - e.g. yarká "he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate" - e.g. ma yarkó "he does not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Present subordinate" - e.g. yarkonoo "so that he sees"
  • Negative: ma + "Present subordinate negative" - e.g. ma yarkinonoo "so that he does not see" (or can use compound tense - see below)

Simple Past

• Used for an action in the past.
• Main clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarké "he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkine "he did not see"
• Subordinate clause:
  • Affirmative: "Past affirmative" - e.g. yarkenas "because he saw"
  • Negative: ma + "Past negative" - e.g. ma yarkinenas "because he did not see" (or can use compound tense - see below)

Imperative

• Used for a command in the second person. The imperative forms without t are used.
• Affirmative: "Imperative affirmative" - e.g. arki "see!"
• Negative: hin + "Imperative negative" - e.g. hin arkini "do not see!"

Jussive

• Used for a wish, command, etc, mostly in the first and third person. The second person uses the forms with t.
• Affirmative: haa + "Jussive affirmative" - e.g. haa yarku "let him see!"
• Negative: ma + "Jussive negative" - e.g. ma yarkinu "let him not see!"

Converbs

Converbs are used for actions that occur simultaneously/subsequently or that make up one verbal meaning. It may occur in the stative or perfect.

The stative converb is used for an action/state that was occurring when another verb occurred, similarly to the present participle in English. It is formed with the suffix -aa for classes 1 & 2 and -ii for class 3. Prefix-conjugation verbs additionally take a prefix appropriate to the person being referred to.

e.g. Yardaa ka mana galé. "Running, he entered the house."

Furanii dhalatté. "She was born free."

The perfect converb is used for an actions that occur subsequently to each other. It is formed with the suffix -ee for classes 1 & 2 and -iishii for class 3. Again, prefix-conjugation verbs take the appropriate prefix.

e.g. Yardee ka mana galé. "Having ran, he entered the house."

Furaniishii xidhanté. "Having been free, she was imprisoned."

In many cases, interchanging the two forms does not greatly affect the meaning. This can be seen with the "running" examples above.

Derivation

Verb derivation affixes

All derivation suffixes cause the verb to follow the suffix conjugation pattern. For more information, see Suffix-derived Verbs.

• Causative: -(i)s-; -(i)siis- (Denominal: -aas-) - e.g. casaasi "to make red", sheensiisi "to make (someone) give"
• Passive: -am- - e.g. sheenami "to be given"
• Middle: -at- (Denominal: -aat-) - e.g. sheenati "to bring for oneself", jacalati "to come to love". This suffix has some irregularities.
  • The -t- becomes -dh- in the first person singular and in the imperative - e.g. jacaladhé "I came to love" vs jacalaté "he came to love".
  • The verbal noun is formed with the suffix -ashu (f.)
• Inchoative: -oow- - e.g. casoowi "to become red"

Verbs may also be derived by prefixes, but this is mostly non-productive. If the prefix begins in a vowel, the verb follows the prefix conjugation. Otherwise, it follows the suffix conjugation. Prefixes include inchoative a-, middle t-, mediopassive m-, and causative s-.

e.g. le "to have" → alli "to obtain"

addhi "to say" → taddhi "to think"

Verbs can also be derived by reduplication, forming intensives.

e.g. jhiri "to cut" → jhirjhiri "to cut in small pieces"

Stative passive

The stative passive is a class 3 verb formed from classes 1 & 2 with the suffix -an-. The corresponding inchoative/inceptive is the -am- passive.

For intransitive stative class 1 verbs, the -am- passive and passive participle have an active meaning - e.g. kusli "to be fat" → kuslane "(is) fat", kuslami "to become fat".

Verbal nouns

The main verbal noun (which is always feminine) is formed by adding -na to the infinitive if it ends in a vowel or -a if it ends in -n. Some verb classes form it in other ways (see Verbs for more information).

Additional verbal nouns can be formed with a variety of suffixes depending on the verb in question. A few common formations are shown below.

• -itaana (m.) - e.g. cabbitaana "drink; juice" (< cabbi "to drink")
• -mo (f.) (prefix conjugation may use m-o) - e.g. farsimo "handwriting" (< farsi "to write"); maddho "word; statement" (< addhi "to say")

Agent and patient nouns

Agent nouns are formed with the following suffixes:

• -a (prefix conjugation: y-a) (m.), -tu (prefix conjugation: t-u) (f./pl.) - e.g. sheena/sheentu "giver", yarka/tarku "seer", casa/castu "red person/thing"
• -eeya (unmarked/collective), -eesha (m., sg.), -eeti (f., sg.) - e.g. sheeneesha "giver (m.)", arkeeti "seer (f.)", caseeya "red people/things"

Patient nouns are formed by adding agent suffixes to stative passive or to -am- passive - e.g. arkana "one who is seen (m.)", arkameeya "those who are seen". The two forms (i.e. stative vs -am- passive) have slightly different connotations. For example, arkana might refer to someone who is being seen at the moment, while arkama might refer to someone who is regularly seen.

Particles

Particles are small, non-inflecting words that do not fit into any other class. They include conjunctions, postpositions, focus particles, etc.

Syntax

Constituent order

Normally SOV. May be modified for emphasis.

Noun phrase

• Modifiers come before the noun being modified.
• Case endings and postpositions come at the end of a noun phrase. If it does not end in a noun, an -n is added before case endings or non-clitic forms are used.

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Western Arabic script: كل نم ڢرنے شرڢكں شے حفوفک ألڨطے طلتاں. ماں شے ضمير شينميں٬ أبلنسں ألل ربدوںں فباں

Eastern Arabic script: كل نم فرني شرفكن شي حقوقك ألڠطي طلتان. مان شي ضمير شينمين، أبلنسن ألل ربدونن قبان

Ge'ez script: ኩሊ ነሙ ፉረኒ ሸረፈክኔ ሺ ሑቁቀክ ኦል ግጢ ጠለታነ። ማነ ሺ ፀሚረ ሼነሜኒ፣ ኦቦሊነስኔ ኦለል ሩብዶነን ቀባነ።

Latin script: Kulli namú furanii sharafakne shi xuquuqak ol giddhii dhalataana. Maana shi lhamiira sheenameeni, obbolinasne olal rubdoonan qabaana.

IPA: /ˈkul.li naˈmu furaˈniː ʃaraˈfak.ne ʃi xuɠuːˈɠak ol ˌgiɗ.ˈɗiː ɗalaˈtaːna ˈmaːna ʃi lˀaˈmiːra ˌʃeːnaˈmeːni ˌobːoliˈnas.ne oˈlal ˌrubˈdoːnan ɠaˈbaːna/

Gloss: All people.NOM free.PART dignity.ABL-and and rights.ABL each-other equal.PART born.3P. Reason and conscience give.PASS.PST.3P, brotherhood.INS-and each-other.COM live.SBJV.3P.REL have.3P

Literal translation: All people are born free and resembling each other in dignity and rights. They were given reason and conscience, and they have that they live with each other with brotherhood.

Translation: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.