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|VerbTense = 100
|VerbTense = 100
|VerbMood = 100
|VerbMood = 100
|VerbVoice = 0
|VerbVoice = 100
|AdjCase = 0
|AdjCase = 0
|AdjNumber = 0
|AdjNumber = 0
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|Infinitive = 0
|Infinitive = 0
|Modality = 0
|Modality = 0
|Words = 128
|Words = 132
|}}
|}}


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|'''n''' /n/
|'''n''' /n/
|
|
|'''ng''' /ɴ/
|
|
|'''ng''' /ɴ/
|-
|-
!Plosive
!Plosive
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|
|
|}
|}
/ʃ ʒ/ were originally velar stops /k g/ respectively. They were lenited to /x ɣ/ early on and shifted forward to their current values at a later stage. Modern Qulmian has no velar consonant phonemes, though some dialects may occasionally shift /q/ forward to a post-velar or velar position. When following a vowel and preceding another consonant, /q/ may be lenited to [χ] or [qχ].
/ʃ ʒ/ were originally velar stops /k g/ respectively. They were lenited to /x ɣ/ early on and shifted forward to their current values at a later stage.
 
Modern Qulmian has no velar consonant phonemes, but some dialects may occasionally shift /q/ forward to a post-velar or velar position, and it is often pronounced [k] before an unstressed /i/: ''sitiqiti'' [sɪˈtɪkɪˌtɪ]
 
When following a vowel and preceding another consonant, /q/ may be lenited to [χ] or [qχ].


Unlike most other languages of Taercnim, Qulmian has no rhotic phonemes. Loanwords containing rhotic sounds have them transcribed as either /ʒ/ or /l/.
Unlike most other languages of Taercnim, Qulmian has no rhotic phonemes. Loanwords containing rhotic sounds have them transcribed as either /ʒ/ or /l/.
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Word-final /ɪt/ is often realized as [ɪə̯t̚], with an unreleased [t].
Word-final /ɪt/ is often realized as [ɪə̯t̚], with an unreleased [t].
=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
Qulmian has five vowel phonemes. Vowel articulation is always quite lax, even in long vowels.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!
!
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|}
|}


The phoneme /æ/ is usually realized as [æ] or [a]. In the diphthong ''ai'', it is realized as [ä].
The phoneme /æ/ is usually realized as [æ] or [a]. In the diphthong ''ai'', it is sometimes realized as [ä].


/ɯ/ may be realized as [i] in the diphthong ''oy''.
The pronunciation of /ɯ/ varies between dialects. Some dialects have retained a lax [ɯ], whereas others have reduced it to [ə], and others still have shifted it forward to [e]. In all dialects, /ɯ/ may be realized as [i] in the diphthong ''oy''.


Vowel length is phonemic. Long vowels are marked in the script with an additional vowel symbol, and in romanization with an acute accent.
Vowel length is phonemic. Long vowels are marked in the script with an additional vowel symbol, and in romanization with an acute accent.


=== Stress ===
=== Stress ===
By default, stress in Qulmian is placed on the antepenultimate syllable. If a long vowel is present in the word, it receives the stress. If there are two or more long vowels in the word, the last one of them receives the stress.
By default, stress in Qulmian is placed on the vowel between the first and second radicals. If a mutant T (see T-mutation below) is present and has vowels on both sides, the vowel following it receives the stress.
 
If a long vowel is present in the word, it receives the stress. If there are two or more long vowels in the word, the last one of them receives the stress.


== Script ==
== Script ==
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Verbs in forms 3 and 4 may undergo a phonological process called ''T-mutation''. All verbs in these forms have a T sound after the first radical, and when the two consonants are not separated by a vowel, the T may either change its phonetic value or switch places with the first radical.
Verbs in forms 3 and 4 may undergo a phonological process called ''T-mutation''. All verbs in these forms have a T sound after the first radical, and when the two consonants are not separated by a vowel, the T may either change its phonetic value or switch places with the first radical.


There are two kinds of T-mutation: some apply in all positions, others apply only word-initially.
There are two kinds of T-mutation rules. Some rules apply in all positions, others apply only word-initially.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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|Anywhere
|Anywhere
|*''mtosqa'' – ''mposqa''
|*''mtosqa'' – ''mposqa''
|Some dialects may realize the mutated consonant as ''b'' word-initially, but it is always written as ''p''
|Some dialects may realize the mutated consonant as [b] word-initially, but it is always written and transliterated as ''p''.
|-
|-
|nt – ng
|nt – ng
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'''Definiteness:''' Light masculine nouns only receive the prefix if they are definite. If not, the prefix is dropped entirely: compare ''umísipa'' 'the day', ''mispa'' 'a day'.
'''Definiteness:''' Light masculine nouns only receive the prefix if they are definite. If not, the prefix is dropped entirely: compare ''umísipa'' 'the day', ''mispa'' 'a day'.
In everyday speech, the indefinite forms are always used, and no distinction is made between definite and indefinite nouns. The definite forms are reserved for more formal situations and are also used in some (mostly older) written literature.


2. '''Verb root''' placed into a nominalization pattern. Each verb form has its own set of patterns. Some patterns may only form light nouns, some only form heavy nouns, and some change their meaning depending on the weight of the noun.
2. '''Verb root''' placed into a nominalization pattern. Each verb form has its own set of patterns. Some patterns may only form light nouns, some only form heavy nouns, and some change their meaning depending on the weight of the noun.


The patterns change slightly depending on the definiteness of the noun. One vowel is always lengthened, causing some diphthongs to mutate into monophthongs. Epenthetic vowels are added in some cases to avoid two consecutive consonants after a long vowel.
The patterns change slightly depending on the definiteness of the noun. One vowel is always lengthened, causing some monophthongization. Epenthetic vowels are added in some cases to avoid two consecutive consonants after a long vowel.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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|}
|}


* Note: in plural nouns in case T, the ending ''–it'' fuses with the plural suffix: ''–imp'' for masculine nouns, ''–iqs'' for feminine.
* Note: in plural nouns in case T, the ending ''–it'' fuses with the plural suffix: ''–imp'' for masculine nouns, ''–iqs'' for feminine ones.


In most verbs with only two parameters, case 1 is the nominative case and case 2 is the accusative case:
In most verbs with only two parameters, case 1 is the nominative case and case 2 is the accusative case. The verb ''monqa'' (to hold) is an example of this:


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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|maln'''i'''
|maln'''i'''
|-
|-
|1s.'''1'''
|1s-'''1'''
|hold-1s-PRES
|hold.1s.PRES
|pen.'''2'''
|pen-'''2'''
|-
|-
| colspan="3"| “I am holding a pen.”
| colspan="3"| “I am holding a pen.”
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|maln'''o'''
|maln'''o'''
|-
|-
|1s.'''1'''
|1s-'''1'''
|give-1s-FUT
|give.1s.FUT
|2s.'''2'''
|2s-'''2'''
|pen.'''3'''
|pen-'''3'''
|-
|-
| colspan="4"| “I will give you a pen.”
| colspan="4"| “I will give you a pen.”
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The citation form of a noun is its case 1 form.
The citation form of a noun is its case 1 form.
====== Secondary case endings ======
In rare cases the case ending may take on a completely different form. This is usually found in nouns where a phonological process causes the ending to become long (see ''T‘ín imilna'' below). Some words always decline this way, such as ''vá'' “whether”.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
!Case
!Secondary ending
|-
|1
|–á
|-
|2
|–ai
|-
|3
|–ó
|-
|4
|–oy
|-
|5
|–ú
|-
|T
|–ait
|-
|T<br />+ masculine plural
|–amp
|-
|T<br />+ feminine plural
|–aqs
|}


==== Adjectives ====
==== Adjectives ====
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==== ''T‘ín imilna'' ====
==== ''T‘ín imilna'' ====
The consonant-based nature of Qulmian morphology occasionally leads to problems when the second and third radicals of a root are the same. As a result, words tend to mutate according to the following rule: '''merging of two consonants requires lengthening of an adjacent vowel'''. This grammatical feature is known as the double-radical rule, or ''t‘ín imilna''.
The consonant-based nature of Qulmian morphology occasionally leads to problems when the second and third radicals of a root are the same. This grammatical feature is known as the double-radical rule, or ''t‘ín imilna''.
 
One purpose of this rule is to '''avoid word-final geminates'''. When the last two radicals form a word-final geminate consonant, they merge into a single non-geminate consonant. As a result, a “degemination compromise” occurs: the vowel preceding the degeminated consonant is lengthened.


If an adjective ends with the second and third radical next to each other with no vowel separating them, and the two radicals are the same, they merge into a single consonant, and the preceding vowel is lengthened. The feature’s name itself demonstrates this: the noun ''t‘inna'' refers to “something that is doubled”. When acting as an adjective, the case vowel is removed, which would give *''t‘inn''. Applying the rule gives the correct form ''t‘ín''.
The feature’s name itself demonstrates this: the noun ''t‘inna'' refers to “something that is doubled”. When acting as an adjective, the case vowel is removed, which would give *''t‘inn''. Applying the rule gives the correct form ''t‘ín''.


In nouns containing double radicals, such as ''icotta'' “darkness”, definiteness works differently. According to the rules of noun derivation, its definite counterpart should be ''icótyta'', where an epenthetic /ɯ/ separates the two consonants, seemingly rendering the double-radical rule irrelevant. The reason for applying it is historical: the epenthetic vowel separating the consonants is a relatively recent development in the language. Before its appearance, the definite counterpart of ''icotta'' would have been *''icótta'', which requires applying the double-radical rule.
A similar form of this rule also serves to '''avoid geminates following long vowels'''. In nouns containing double radicals, such as ''icotta'' “darkness”, definiteness works differently. According to the rules of noun derivation, its definite counterpart should be *''icótyta'', where an epenthetic /ɯ/ separates the two consonants, seemingly rendering the double-radical rule irrelevant. The reason for applying it is historical: the epenthetic vowel separating the consonants is a relatively recent development in the language. Before its appearance, the definite counterpart of ''icotta'' would have been *''icótta'', which requires applying the double-radical rule.


Definite nouns are formed by lengthening one vowel in the word – generally the one immediately following the first radical: ''icotta'' &rarr; *''icótta''. As with adjectives, the two consonants are merged: *''icótta'' &rarr; *''icóta''. Merging of two consonants requires lengthening of an adjacent vowel. In this case, since the preceding vowel is already long, the following one becomes long instead. However, the following vowel also happens to be the case marking. A case marking does not simply become long; instead, it mutates into a secondary case ending:
Definite nouns are formed by lengthening one vowel in the word – generally the one immediately following the first radical: ''icotta'' &rarr; *''icótta''. As with adjectives, the two consonants are merged: *''icótta'' &rarr; *''icóta''. This is where the degemination compromise takes place. In this case, the following vowel becomes long instead of the preceding one. However, the following vowel also happens to be the case marking. A case marking does not simply become long; instead, it mutates into a secondary case ending:


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
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|icót'''ú'''
|icót'''ú'''
|-
|-
|T
|T<br />(singular)
|icott'''it''' [ɪʃɒtːɪə̯t̚]
|icott'''it''' [ɪʃɒtːɪə̯t̚]
|icót'''ait''' [ɪʃɒːtæɪə̯t̚]
|icót'''ait''' [ɪʃɒːtæɪə̯t̚]
|-
|T<br />(plural)
|icott'''iqs'''
|icót'''aqs'''
|}
|}


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==== Word order ====
==== Word order ====
As explained earlier in the Cases section, Qulmian cases do not have truly fixed meanings. Prepositions are almost nonexistent, and as a result, word order is highly flexible and can be used to emphasize certain words in a sentence. For example, the sentences
As explained earlier in the Cases section, Qulmian cases do not have truly fixed meanings. Prepositions are almost nonexistent, and as a result, word order is highly flexible and can be used to emphasize certain words in a sentence. For example, the sentences
* Apahna mpuloni milni
* Apahna mpuloni milni (Apahna-1 read.3sf.PRES book-2)
* Apahna milni mpuloni
* Apahna milni mpuloni (Apahna-1 book-2 read.3sf.PRES)
* Milni Apahna mpuloni
* Milni Apahna mpuloni (book-2 Apahna-1 read.3sf.PRES)
* Milni mpuloni Apahna
* Milni mpuloni Apahna (book-2 read.3sf.PRES Apahna-1)
* Mpuloni milni Apahna
* Mpuloni milni Apahna (read.3sf.PRES book-2 Apahna-1)
* Mpuloni Apahna milni
* Mpuloni Apahna milni (read.3sf.PRES Apahna-1 book-2)
all have the exact same meaning: “Apahna is reading a book”, only with slightly different emphasis. Some orders are more common than others – the most common order is the one shown in the first example, used when no certain word is to be given special attention.
all have the exact same meaning: “Apahna is reading a book”, only with slightly different emphasis. Some orders are more common than others – the most common order is the one shown in the first example, used when no certain word is to be given special attention.


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Example:
Example:


- A: '''''So''' mpolin qody milni.'' (I haven't read that book.)
- A: '''''So''' mpolin qody milni.'' “I haven't read that book.” (no read.1s.PAST that book-2)


- B: ''Da milnim '''so''' mpulon '''soqtaqt!''''' (You never read books at all!)
- B: ''Da milnim '''so''' mpulon '''soqtaqt!''''' “You never read books at all!” (you-1 book-2-PL no read.2s.PRES never)


The negated word does not have to be a verb. Nouns can be negated in the same way:
The negated word does not have to be a verb. Nouns can be negated in the same way:
* '''''So''' umísipi colib adnyqu yn icítai.'' (It is not the day that we must respect, but the night.)
* '''''So''' umísipi colib adnyqu yn icítai.'' “It is not the day that we must respect, but the night.” (no day.DEF-2 must respect.1p.PRES but night.DEF-2)


==== Questions ====
==== Questions ====


==== Modality ====
''Under construction''


==== Genitive constructions ====
==== Possessive constructions ====
Qulmian does not directly mark the genitive case. Instead, possession is implied through syntax: the possessor is placed directly after the possessed object, without any linking morphemes that explicitly indicate a connection.
 
The object of possession can be definite when the speaker and the receiver both have a certain object in mind.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|ca
|ahmil
|di
|''umálin'''o'''''
|''c'''o'''''
|-
|1s-1
|give.1s.FUT
|2s-2
|''pen.DEF-'''3'''''
|''1s-'''3'''''
|-
| colspan="5"| “I will give you ''my pen''.”<br />(assuming the speaker refers to a certain pen)
|}
 
When the receiver does not know what object is being referred to, the indefinite form is always used. (Compare “a friend of mine” vs. “my friend”.) As with all nouns, the indefinite form is used in both cases in less formal speech.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|ca
|ahmil
|di
|''maln'''o'''''
|''c'''o'''''
|-
|1s-1
|give.1s.FUT
|2s-2
|''pen-'''3'''''
|''1s-'''3'''''
|-
| colspan="5"| “I will give you ''one of my pens''.”<br />
|}


==== Noun phrases ====
==== Noun phrases ====
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====== Noun clauses as parameters ======
====== Noun clauses as parameters ======


==== Aspect verbs ====
==== Aspect and mood ====
 
==== Sentential nouns ==== <!-- TODO: EXAMPLES -->
 
Most Qulmian nouns are derived from verbs placed into a pattern, but nouns can be derived from entire sentences as well. These kinds of nouns are not as common as ones derived directly from verbs.
 
In an ordinary sentence, there are very few hard rules regarding word order. The verb can be placed anywhere in the sentence and the order of arguments changes only the emphasis within it, not its grammatical correctness. However, when deriving nouns from sentences, a few restrictions are imposed:
* The verb must come at the end, after all the necessary arguments are introduced.
* The verb must always be in the second-person singular present form.
* In Conjugation I verbs, the initial a- is dropped.
 
Thus, a sentential noun has the following structure:
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|Marking for gender, weight and definiteness<br />''a, o, i, u, Ø''
|Arguments in free order, always keeping case marking
|Verb in one of four forms:<br />''XXoX, XiXoX, XtuXoX, XitiXoX''
|Case and number markings<br />''a, o, i, y, u, it<br />am, om, im, ym, um, imp<br />aq, oq, iq, yq, uq, iqs''
|}


==== Sentential nouns ====
[[Category:Languages]] [[Category:A_priori]][[Category:Root-and-pattern languages]]
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