Rangyayo: Difference between revisions

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==General information==

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The following are phonemic transcriptions of Rangyan consonants.

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# /ɾ/ is an alveolar flap [ɾ] in the syllable onset; and is [l] in the syllable coda. <!--which can only be found in foreign loanwords.-->

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# /u/ is /ʊ/ before velar codas /ŋ, k̚/

In the Rangyan language, because semivowels /j/ and /w/ may follow consonants in initial position in a word, which no other consonant can do, and perhaps due also to yenmun orthography, which transcribes them as vowels, they are sometimes considered to be elements of diphthongs and triphthongs rather than separate consonant phonemes.

# /uɪ/ is a falling diphthong [uɪ] after a consonant in an open syllable; and is a rising diphthong [wi] when it is a syllable of its own or in a closed syllable.

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! width="50%"|j-

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Rangyan consonants have two principal positional allophones: initial and final. The initial form is found at the beginning of a syllable and the final form is found at the end of a syllable.

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Rangyan syllable structure is maximally ''CgVC'', where the first ''C'' is the initial consonant; ''g'' is a semivowel glide /j/ or /w/; ''V'' is a vowel; the second ''C'' is a coda. Any consonant but /ŋ/ may occur initially, whereas only /m, n, ŋ, p, t, k, s, l/ may occur finally. <!-- whereas only /m, n, ŋ, p, t, k/ may occur finally in non-foreign words, and /s, l/ in foreign words.-->

Additional finals /wam/, /wɛm/, /wap/, /wɛp/ can be found in foreign loanwords.

Traditionally, the Rangyan language has had strong vowel harmony; that is, in pre-modern Rangyan, not only did the inflectional and derivational affixes change in accordance to the main root vowel, but native words also adhered to vowel harmony. However, this rule is no longer observed strictly in modern Rangyan. In modern Rangyan, it is only applied in certain cases such as onomatopoeia and interjections.

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<!--Pitch accent is a restricted accent system that uses variations in pitch to give prominence to a syllable within a word. The placement of this accent can give different meanings to otherwise similar words.-->

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Rangyan has no grammatical number, gender or articles. Thus, Rangyan nouns are non-inflecting. The noun ''iku'' ({{Dl_lang||犬||i.ku}}) can be translated as "dog", "dogs", "a dog", "the dog", "some dogs" and so forth, depending on context. However, as part of the extensive pair of grammatical systems that Rangyan possesses for honorification and politeness, nouns too can be modified. Nouns take politeness prefix ''ya-'' ({{Dl_lang|||야|ja}}) to produce their respectful forms. A few examples are given in the following table.

Lacking grammatical number, the noun ''haya'' ({{Dl_lang||鳥||ha.ja}}) may refer to a single bird or several birds. Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a counter word). For example, both ''pu ik tu haya'' ({{Dl_lang||２翼두鳥||pu ɪk̚ tu ha.ja}}) and ''haya i ik'' ({{Dl_lang||鳥二翼||ha.ja i ɪk̚}}), or simply ''pu haya'' ({{Dl_lang||２鳥||pu ha.ja}}), mean two birds.

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! width="110" style="text-align:left"|First person

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Rangyan has three reflexive pronouns ''jishin'', ''jiki'' and ''osu'', all meaning "self". However, there are subtle differences in usage among the three reflexive pronouns.

* ''jishin'' ({{Dl_lang||自身||dʑi.ɕin}}) tends to take a local antecedent and is used more often for first person antecedents;

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|{{Dl_span|ja|'''我'''¹위彼와'''自己두'''²冊여予누웨。}}

|'''I'''¹ gave him '''my own'''² book.

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|{{Dl_span|ja|我위'''彼'''¹와'''自身두'''²冊여予누웨。}}

|I gave '''him'''¹ '''his own'''² book.

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|{{Dl_span|ja|'''彼'''¹위我와'''自己두'''²冊여予누웨。}}

|'''He'''¹ gave me '''his own'''² book.

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|{{Dl_span|ja|彼위'''我'''¹와'''自身두'''²冊여予누웨。}}

|He gave '''me'''¹ '''my own'''² book.

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Verbs are the most complex lexical category in Rangyan. Their structure when used as the predicate of a clause is verb stem + up to six suffixes, and can be illustrated with this table.

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! width="14%"|Verb stem

! width="14%"|Polarity

! width="14%"|Voice

! width="14%"|Honorific

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# indicative :

# causative (''-iss-''):

# necessitative (''-us-''):

# desiderative (''-ag-''): expresses wishes and desires

# optative (''-eik-''): expresses hopes

# potential (''-ints-''): indicates that, in the opinion of the speaker, the action or occurrence is considered likely

# subjunctive (''-oir-''):

# tentative (''-eng-''):

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Rangyan has many compound verbs, reflecting the agglutinative nature of the language. A Rangyan compound verb is a multi-word compound that acts as a single verb. The main component of the compound is a verb in its conjunctive participial form, which carries most of the semantics of the compound, and determines its arguments. The other component is a vector, which carries any conjugations, indicating tense, mood, or aspect, but provides only fine shades of meaning.

For example, in ''yuttsubirü'' ({{Dl_lang||讀주始르||jut̚.tsu.bi.ɾʉ}}) "start reading", the vector verb ''birü'' ({{Dl_lang||始르||bi.ɾʉ}}) "start" changes according to tense, mood, aspect, and the like, while the main verb ''yutts'''ü''''' ({{Dl_lang||讀즈||jut̚.tsʉ}}) "read" stays in its conjunctive participial form ''yutts'''u''''' ({{Dl_lang||讀주||jut̚.tsu}}) "reading" and remains unchanged.

A Rangyan attributive verb is a verb which modifies (gives the attributes of) a noun as an attributive, rather than expressing an independent idea as a predicate. Unlike English, Rangyan allows regular verbs to be attributive. In Rangyan, predicative verbs come at the end of the clause, after the nouns, while attributive verbs come before the noun. These are equivalent to relative clauses in English as Rangyan does not have relative pronouns like "who", "which", or "when".

Example:

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The Rangyan copula ''rü'' ({{Dl_lang||르||ɾʉ}}) is a verb-like word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement). Rangyan sentences with ''rü'' most often equate one thing with another, that is, they are of the form "A is B".

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Demonstratives occur in the ''i-'', ''ne-'', and ''ko-'' series. The ''i-'' (proximal) series refers to things closer to the speaker than the hearer, the ''ne-'' (mesial) series for things closer to the hearer, and the ''ko-'' (distal) series for things distant to both the speaker and the hearer. With ''ma-'', demonstratives turn into the corresponding interrogative form.

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Demonstratives limit, and therefore precede, nouns; thus ''i maro'' ({{Dl_lang||이石||i ma.ɾɔ}}) for "this stone", ''ne maro'' ({{Dl_lang||너石||nɛ ma.ɾɔ}}) for "that stone", and ''ko maro'' ({{Dl_lang||고石||kɔ ma.ɾɔ}}) for "that stone over there".

All Rangyan adjectives end in ''-i'', for example, ''kho'i'' ({{Dl_lang||大이||kʰɔ.i}}) "big" and ''hyogi'' ({{Dl_lang||重끼||çjɔ.gi}}) "heavy". Their syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or referent of pronoun. In Rangyan, adjectives form an open class of words, that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation.

* Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula to the noun or pronoun they modify, for example, ''kho'i'' is a predicate adjective in ''haku wi kho'i rü'' ({{Dl_lang||牛위大이르||ha.ku wi kʰɔ.i ɾʉ}}) "cow is big".

In Rangyan language, attributive adjectives usually occur in this default order, with other orders being permissible:

# demonstrative

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Rangyan adjectives, unlike their English counterparts, do not have a comparative form. To compare two things (<small>NP1</small> and <small>NP2</small>), the noun phrase being compared (<small>NP2</small>), together with the postpositional comparative particle ''pe'', are placed between the subject noun phrase (<small>NP1</small>) and the predicative adjective in a sentence ended with a copula.

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Rangyan adjectives also lack a superlative form. The adverb ''tsum'' ({{Dl_lang||줌||tsum}}) "most" is placed before adjectives for superlative degree of comparison.

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An adverb is any word that modifies verbs, adjectives, clauses, sentences and other adverbs. Not all but many Rangyan adverbs are formed by adding ''-m'' to adjectives. For example, ''nepi'' ({{Dl_lang||怒비||nɛ.pi}}; "angry") yields ''nepi'''m''''' ({{Dl_lang||怒빔||ne.pim}}; "angrily") and ''wa'i'' ({{Dl_lang||良이||wa.i}}; "good") yields ''wa'i'''m''''' ({{Dl_lang||良임||wa.im}} "well"). This derivation is quite productive but there are a few adjectives from which adverbs may not be derived.

Particles in Rangyan are postpositional, as they immediately follow the modified component.

! width="80%" style="text-align:left"|Function

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|''wi'' {{Dl_span|ko|위}}

|style="text-align:left"|nominative case; subject

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|''wei'' {{Dl_span|ko|웨}}

|style="text-align:left"|additive case; inclusive subject

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|''ye'' {{Dl_span|ko|여}}

|style="text-align:left"|accusative case; direct object

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|''wa'' {{Dl_span|ko|와}}

|style="text-align:left"|dative case; indirect object

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|''tu'' {{Dl_span|ko|두}}

|style="text-align:left"|genitive case; possession

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|''yo'' {{Dl_span|ko|요}}

|style="text-align:left"|instrumental case; by means of

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|''ti'' {{Dl_span|ko|디}}

|style="text-align:left"|locative case; location

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|''hi'' {{Dl_span|ko|히}}

|style="text-align:left"|allative case; direction

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|''yu'' {{Dl_span|ko|유}}

|style="text-align:left"|ablative case; from

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|''to'' {{Dl_span|ko|도}}

|style="text-align:left"|up to; until; as far as; indicates a time or place as a limit

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|''pe'' {{Dl_span|ko|버}}

|style="text-align:left"|comparative

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! width="80%" style="text-align:left"|Function

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|''ta'' {{Dl_span|ko|다}}

|style="text-align:left"|conjunction; and

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|''tai'' {{Dl_span|ko|대}}

|style="text-align:left"|moreover; and

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|''wai'' {{Dl_span|ko|왜}}

|style="text-align:left"|for

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|''tsoi'' {{Dl_span|ko|죄}}

|style="text-align:left"|as

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|''kwe'' {{Dl_span|ko|궈}}

|style="text-align:left"|concerning; about

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|''ton'' {{Dl_span|ko|돈}}

|style="text-align:left"|when

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|''ten'' {{Dl_span|ko|던}}

|style="text-align:left"|although

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|''gwa'' {{Dl_span|ko|꽈}}

|style="text-align:left"|but; however

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|''yai'' {{Dl_span|ko|얘}}

|style="text-align:left"|because

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|''khui'' {{Dl_span|ko|퀴}}

|style="text-align:left"|thanks to

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|''mo'' {{Dl_span|ko|모}}

|style="text-align:left"|interrogation; question

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|''ho'' {{Dl_span|ko|호}}

|style="text-align:left"|tag question; asks agreement or confirmation

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|''re'' {{Dl_span|ko|러}}

|style="text-align:left"|emphasis; certainty

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|''yei'' {{Dl_span|ko|예}}

|style="text-align:left"|indirect speech; reported speech

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Sound symbolic words or mimetic words occur more often in Rangyan than in English. They are found in formal as well as vernacular language.

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The system of Rangyan numerals is the system of number names used in the Rangyan language. The Rangyan numerals in writing are entirely based on the Chinese numerals and the grouping of large numbers follow the Chinese tradition of grouping by myriads (10000) rather than thousands (1000). Two sets of pronunciations for the numerals exist in Rangyan: one is based on Sino-Rangyan readings of the Chinese characters and the other is based on the native Rangyan readings.

When denoting the age of a person, one will use ''yumpi'' ({{Dl_lang||歳||jum.pi}}) for the native Rangyan numerals, and ''sei'' ({{Dl_lang||歳||seɪ}}) for Sino-Rangyan. For example, ''chojohe yumpi'' ({{Dl_span|ja|３８歳}}) and ''samzhippat sei'' ({{Dl_span|ja|三十八歳}}) both mean "thirty-eight years old".

There are two ways of writing the numbers in Rangyan, in Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3) or in Chinese numerals (一, 二, 三). The Arabic numerals are more often used in horizontal writing, and the Chinese numerals are more common in vertical writing.

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Rangyan has a traditional system of numerals for decimal fractions.

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This system, however, is not often seen in modern usage except for representing decimal fractions of rate or discount. For example, ''cho-pun tha-ri heirün'' ({{Dl_span|ja|三分五厘減른}}) "35% discount". Instead, decimal fractions are typically written with either Chinese numerals (in vertical writing) or Arabic numerals (in horizontal writing), preceded by a decimal point, and are read as successive digits, as in Western convention. Note that, in written form, they can be combined with either the traditional system of expressing numerals (42.195 四十二・一九五), in which powers of ten are written, or with the place value system, which uses zero (50.04 五〇・〇四). In both cases, however, the reading follows the traditional system (''kejopu tem me kon tha'' for 42.195; ''thajo tem moi ke'' for 50.04).

To construct a fraction, the denominator is written first, followed by ''pun tu'' ({{Dl_span|ja|分두}}) "parts of" and then the numerator. This is the opposite of how fractions are read in English, which is numerator first. Each half of the fraction is written the same as a whole number. Mixed numbers are written with the whole-number part first, followed by ''ta'' ({{Dl_lang||다||ta}}) "and", then the fractional part.

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Ordinal numbers are formed by adding ''tai'' ({{Dl_lang||第||taɪ}}) "sequence" before Sino-Rangyan numerals and by adding ''hin'' ({{Dl_lang||힌||çin}}) after native Rangyan numerals.

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Negative numbers are formed by adding ''byu'' ({{Dl_lang||負||bju}}) "negative" before the number.

As with Chinese numerals, there exists in Rangyan a separate set of hanji for numerals called ''daishyuji'' ({{Dl_lang||大数字||daɪ.ɕju.dʑi}}) used in legal and financial documents to prevent unscrupulous individuals from adding a stroke or two, turning a one into a two or a three. The formal numbers are identical to the Chinese formal numbers except for minor stroke variations. <!--Today, only the formal numbers for one, two, three, five, seven, ten, hundred, thousand and myriad are used in legal documents. They are the ones whose common forms can be changed to a higher value by adding strokes (1 and 2 were explained above, while 3 can be changed to 5, 10 to 1000 and etc.).--> In some cases, the digit 1 is explicitly written like {{Dl_span|ja|壱佰壱拾}} for 110, as opposed to {{Dl_span|ja|百十}} in common writing.

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In Rangyan, counter words can be used along with numbers to count things, actions, and events.

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Rangyan does not employ relative pronouns to relate relative clauses to their antecedents. Instead, the relative clause directly modifies the noun phrase as an attributive verb, occupying the same syntactic space as an attributive adjective (before the noun phrase).

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Direct speech is a sentence (or several sentences) that reports speech or thought in its original form, as phrased by the first speaker. In Rangyan, it is enclosed in quotation marks. The cited speaker is either mentioned or implied.

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In Rangyan, indirect speech is not enclosed in quotation marks, and does not phrase the reported statement or question the way the original speaker did; instead, person is changed when the person speaking and the person quoting the speech are different.

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The modern Rangyan writing system uses two main scripts:

* '''Hanji''' ({{Dl_lang||漢字||han.dʑi}}), ideographs from Chinese characters, and

Romanised Rangyan, called '''romaji''' ({{Dl_lang||로마字||ɾɔ.ma.dʑi}}), is frequently used by foreign students of Rangyan, who have not yet mastered the two main scripts, and by native speakers for computer input.

<!--http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_writing_system-->

Yenmun is a phonemic alphabet organized into syllabic blocks. Each block consists of at least two of the 24 yenmun letters (''jimu''), with at least one each of the 14 consonants and 10 vowels. These syllabic blocks can be written horizontally from left to right as well as vertically from top to bottom in columns from right to left. Originally, the alphabet had several additional letters for pre-modern Korean, however, these letters have never been used in Rangyan.

Jimu ({{Dl_lang||字母|찌무|dʑi.mu}}) are the units that make up the yenmun alphabet. ''Ji'' means letter or character, and ''mo'' means mother, so the name suggests that the jimu are the building-blocks of the script.

The doubled letters are ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅉ, ㅆ. Double jimu do not represent geminate consonants, but rather a voiced phonation.

The alphabetical order of yenmun does not mix consonants and vowels as Western alphabets do. Rather, the order is that of the Indic type, first velar consonants, then coronals, labials, sibilants, etc. However, the vowels come after the consonants rather than before them as in the Indic systems.

The consonantal order of yenmun in 1446 in the document titled ''Funmintsengim'' ({{Dl_lang||訓民正音||ɸun.min.tsɛŋ.im}}) "The Proper Sounds for the Instruction of the People" was,

  ㄱ ㅋ ㆁ ㄷ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅊ ㅅ ㆆ ㅎ ㅇ ㄹ ㅿ

  ㆍ ㅡ ㅣ ㅗ ㅏ ㅜ ㅓ ㅛ ㅑ ㅠ ㅕ

In the Rangyan order, double jimu are placed immediately after their single counterparts. No distinction is made between silent and nasal ㅇ:

  ㄱ ㄲ ㅋ ㅇ ㄷ ㄸ ㅌ ㄴ ㅂ ㅃ ㅍ ㅁ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅅ ㅆ ㅎ ㄹ

"Null" stands for no final jimu. <!--, and the final jimu ㅅ and ㄹ can only be found in foreign loanwords.-->

There are a number of methods of rendering Rangyan in Roman letters. The Mackenzie method of romanisation ''makkhenzhi-sik romaji'' ({{Dl_lang||막컨씨式로마字||mak̚.kʰɛn.ʑi.sɪk̚ ɾɔ.ma.dʑi}}), designed for English speakers, is a de facto standard widely used inside and outside Rangya. <!--The Kunrei-shiki system has a better correspondence with yenmun, making it easier for the Rangyan themselves to learn; it is officially sanctioned by the Ministry of Education, and often used by non-native speakers who are learning Rangyan as a second language. Other systems of romanisation include Nihon-shiki, JSL, and Wāpuro.-->

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<!-- Codas ''-s'' and ''-l'' can only be found in foreign loanwords. -->