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Ruthenian: Difference between revisions
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===Internal history=== | ===Internal history=== | ||
The Ruthenian language developed from [[w:Ruthenian language|Old Ruthenian]], which itself is a descendant of [[w:Old East Slavic language|Old East Slavic]]. It was the group of East Slavic dialects spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many loanwords from Polish and other languages entered Ruthenian and influenced its phonology, such as the adoption of the /f/ and /g/ sounds, absent in the language prior to that. After the rule of the Austrian Empire and formation of the [[w:Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] German and Yiddish words began entering the language, primarily its | The Ruthenian language developed from [[w:Ruthenian language|Old Ruthenian]], which itself is a descendant of [[w:Old East Slavic language|Old East Slavic]]. It was the group of East Slavic dialects spoken in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later in the East Slavic territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many loanwords from Polish and other languages entered Ruthenian and influenced its phonology, such as the adoption of the /f/ and /g/ sounds, absent in the language prior to that. After the rule of the Austrian Empire and formation of the [[w:Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria]] German and Yiddish words began entering the language, primarily its Southwestern variety, called Red Ruthenian. For most of its history Ruthenian was written using both the Cyrillic and Latin scripts with Cyrillic being dominant. The use of the Latin script for Ruthenian was promoted by authorities in the Polish-Lituanian Coomnwealth (and later in the RTN), until it became the dominant script instead. But it was only at the end of the XIXth century, when the Ruthenian language became recognized as a co-official language of the state, along with Lithuanian and Polish (which prior to that was the only official language of the Commonwealth). | ||
The use of the Ruthenian language is mostly stagnant with a bit of decline. All the countries neighbouring the RTN historically have regions with a sizable Ruthenian population and therefore Ruthenian language speakers, although many identify as Rusyn speakers instead. Ruthenian is also spoken by a large emigrant population, particularly in Canada, the United States, Australia and several countries of South America like Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. The founders of this population primarily emigrated from Galicia and to a slightly lesser extend from [[w:Podlachia|northern]] part of Ruthenia. | The use of the Ruthenian language is mostly stagnant with a bit of decline. All the countries neighbouring the RTN historically have regions with a sizable Ruthenian population and therefore Ruthenian language speakers, although many identify as Rusyn speakers instead. Ruthenian is also spoken by a large emigrant population, particularly in Canada, the United States, Australia and several countries of South America like Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay. The founders of this population primarily emigrated from Galicia and to a slightly lesser extend from [[w:Podlachia|northern]] part of Ruthenia. | ||
==Written language== | ==Written language== | ||
Ruthenian has two alphabets: Latin and Cyrillic. The Cyrillic alphabet consists of 33 letters and an apostrophe. The standardized variant, used nowadays, was proposed in 1952 with the letter "Ё" (and "ё") being introduced to mark the vowel, pronounced /ɔ/ and /jɔ/ in the Northern Ruthenian dialects, and the letter "Щ" (and its lowercase "щ") being excluded from the alphabet. The letter "ѕ" which looks the same as a Latin "s" was occasionally used to represent /d͡z/ and sounds respectively, but it was substituted with a digraph "дз". The apostrophe acts like a letter in Ruthenian and marks the /j/ sound after consonants. | Ruthenian has two alphabets: Latin and Cyrillic. The Cyrillic alphabet consists of 33 letters and an apostrophe. The standardized variant, used nowadays, was proposed in 1952 with the letter "Ё" (and "ё") being introduced to mark the vowel, pronounced /ɔ/ and /jɔ/ in the Northern Ruthenian dialects, and the letter "Щ" (and its lowercase "щ") being excluded from the alphabet. The letter "ѕ" which looks the same as a Latin "s" was occasionally used to represent /d͡z/ and sounds respectively, but it was substituted with a digraph "дз". The apostrophe acts like a letter in Ruthenian and marks the /j/ sound after consonants. | ||
===Latin=== | ===Latin=== | ||
The Ruthenian Latin alphabet has 39 letters: | The Ruthenian Latin alphabet has 39 letters (40 including ''Ł''): | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" | ||
|+Ruthenian alphabet | |+Ruthenian alphabet | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| A || B || C || Ć || Č || D || Ď || E || IE || (Ë) | | A || B || C || Ć || Č || D || Ď || E || IE || (Ë) | ||
| Ě || F || G || H || I || J || K || L || Ľ || | | Ě || F || G || H || I || J || K || L || Ľ || (Ł) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| N || Ń || O || Ǒ || P || R || Ŕ || S || Ś || | | M || N || Ń || O || Ǒ || P || R || (Ŕ) || S || Ś | ||
| Š || T || Ť || U || W || Y || Z || Ź || Ž || Ǯ | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="21" | Minuscule forms (lowercase/small letters) | ! colspan="21" | Minuscule forms (lowercase/small letters) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| a || b || c || ć || č || d || ď || e || ie || (ë) | | a || b || c || ć || č || d || ď || e || ie || (ë) | ||
| ě || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || ľ || | | ě || f || g || h || i || j || k || l || ľ || (ł) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| n || ń || o || ǒ || p || r || ŕ || s || ś || | | m || n || ń || o || ǒ || p || r || (ŕ) || s || ś | ||
| š || t || ť || u || w || y || z || ź || ž || ǯ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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The letter ''Ë'' is not always considered to be separate from ''E''. The diactritic above this letter is optional, except for some words, it is only used consistently in dictionaries and books for children, such as primers. The letter ''Ë'' indicates the sound [ɔ] or [ä] in Northern Ruthenian varieties, which corresponds to [ɛ] in other varieties, for example ''sëstra'' "sister" is pronounced [sɛstra] in the South and is usually written as ''sestra''. Such words as ''čëtyri'' ("four") are always written with ''ë'', because they are pronounced with an [ɛ] only in the Red Ruthenian variety. The digraph ''IE'' represents an outcome of the Common Slavic *ę, which coincided with /ja/ in most varieties, but unlike ''ë'' its distribution is not predictable and thus substituting it with "''ja"'' or ''"a"'' is considered a spelling error. | The letter ''Ë'' is not always considered to be separate from ''E''. The diactritic above this letter is optional, except for some words, it is only used consistently in dictionaries and books for children, such as primers. The letter ''Ë'' indicates the sound [ɔ] or [ä] in Northern Ruthenian varieties, which corresponds to [ɛ] in other varieties, for example ''sëstra'' "sister" is pronounced [sɛstra] in the South and is usually written as ''sestra''. Such words as ''čëtyri'' ("four") are always written with ''ë'', because they are pronounced with an [ɛ] only in the Red Ruthenian variety. The digraph ''IE'' represents an outcome of the Common Slavic *ę, which coincided with /ja/ in most varieties, but unlike ''ë'' its distribution is not predictable and thus substituting it with "''ja"'' or ''"a"'' is considered a spelling error. | ||
Other letters, such as ''Ě'' and ''Ǒ'' represent the outcomes of so-called "narrow vowels", which used to be written as ''"é"'' and ''"ó"'' just as in Polish. In the Southern varieties they are both pronounced [i], while in the Black Ruthenian variety they instead became diphthongs [ɪe] and [ʊo]. The letter ''Ŕ'' is only consistently used in official documents and in Green Ruthenian, where it denotes a distinct sound [rʲ], elsewhere it can be optionally used – both ''buŕak'' and ''burak'' ("beet") are acceptable. The letter ''Ł'' had been used until 1952, but is now substituted with ''W'', however it can still occasionally be found in some texts or logos. | Other letters, such as ''Ě'' and ''Ǒ'' represent the outcomes of so-called "narrow vowels", which used to be written as ''"é"'' and ''"ó"'' just as in Polish. In the Southern varieties they are both pronounced [i], while in the Black Ruthenian variety they instead became diphthongs [ɪe] and [ʊo]. The letter ''Ŕ'' is only consistently used in official documents and in Green Ruthenian, where it denotes a distinct sound [rʲ], elsewhere it can be optionally used – both ''buŕak'' and ''burak'' ("beet") are acceptable. The letter ''Ł'' (sometimes called "the Polish ''l''" had been widely used until 1952, being carried over from the Polish alphabet, but it is now substituted with ''W'' in all cases (''wołk'' "wolf" is now written ''wowk''), however the letter is retained specifically for writing Polish proper names and placenames, such as '''''Ł'''ódź'' (never ''*'''W'''ôď'', which would be the correct Ruthenian transcription). All Ruthenian words still containing "ł" are names; there it is pronounced as either [w], or etymologically as [l]. It can still occasionally be found in some texts or logos. | ||
===Cyrillic=== | ===Cyrillic=== | ||
{| cellpadding=4 style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-bottom: 1em;" | {| cellpadding=4 style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-bottom: 1em;" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Black | ! Black | ||
| [u.ˈsʲɪe̞ ˈlʲu.d͡zʲi. nä.rä.ˈd͡ʐä.ju.t͡sːä. ˈʋɔlʲ.nɨ. | | [u.ˈsʲɪe̞ ˈlʲu.d͡zʲi. nä.rä.ˈd͡ʐä.ju.t͡sːä. ˈʋɔlʲ.nɨ.miɪ̯. ˈrɔu̯.nɨ.mi. u. sʋɔ.ˈjɔɪ̯. ˈɣɔd.nɔ.sʲt͡sʲiɪ̯. prä.ˈʋäx. a.ˈnɨ. nä.ˈd͡zʲɪe̞.lʲɛ.nɨ. ˈrɔ.zu.mäm. i. sum.ˈlʲɪe̞.nʲːäm. i. pä.ˈʋi.nːɨ. ˈd͡zʲɪe̞.jä.t͡sʲ u. ɣäd.ˈnɔ.ʂɛ.nʲːi. ä.ˈd͡zʲin. dä. äd.nä.ˈɣɔu̯. ˈdu.sʲi. brä.ˈt͡sʲɛr.stʋä] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! English translation | ! English translation | ||