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'''Togarmite''' ('' | '''Togarmite''' (''Þėgamiþ'' /θegamiθ/ or ''yn lysėn Þėgami'') is a Semitic language closely related to Hebrew. It is inspired by Lithuanian, Germanic languages (particularly Icelandic) and the Semitic conlang Alashian. | ||
Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring, taking features of the [[Verse:Lõis/Levantine sprachbund|Turkey-Northern Levant-Iranian sprachbund]], in common with [[L-Persian]], [[Padmanábha]] and [[Time Traveler English|English]]: | Modern Togarmite retains the Semitic root-and-pattern morphology of [[Togarmite/Old|Old Togarmite]], but has undergone some phonological and grammatical restructuring, taking features of the [[Verse:Lõis/Levantine sprachbund|Turkey-Northern Levant-Iranian sprachbund]], in common with [[L-Persian]], [[Padmanábha]] and [[Time Traveler English|English]]: | ||
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==Orthography== | ==Orthography== | ||
Togarmite uses an abugida based on the Phoenician alphabet, called '' | Togarmite uses an abugida based on the Phoenician alphabet, called ''albėþyn'' (after the first 2 letters). | ||
The abjadi letter names: | The abjadi letter names: | ||
''al, bėþ, gam, dal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, tėþ, | ''al, bėþ, gam, dal, hė, wau, zėn, žėn, tėþ, jød, xaf, lam, mėm, nun, ȝėn, fė, pė, cad, køf, rėš, sin, šin, þau'' | ||
==Dialects== | ==Dialects== | ||
==Pronouns== | ==Pronouns== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!|Nominative/Conjunctive | !|Nominative/Conjunctive | ||
|''nėx''||''aþ''||''eþ''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||'' | |''nėx''||''aþ''||''eþ''||''hu''||''hi''||''že''||''nan''||''aþøm''||''høm'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
!|Objective/Disjunctive | !|Objective/Disjunctive | ||
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|colspan=3| ''ži'' (sg); ''eli'' (pl) || ''šam'' || ''šamo'' || ''me šam'' || ''ež'' | |colspan=3| ''ži'' (sg); ''eli'' (pl) || ''šam'' || ''šamo'' || ''me šam'' || ''ež'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! what | ! what | ||
| ''mi'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''xeix'' || ''lama'' ||''xma, marby'' | | ''mi'' || ''ma'' || ''ėjo'' || ''ein'' || ''eino'' || ''men ein'' || ''møran'' || ''xeix'' || ''lama'' ||''xma, marby'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! all; every | ! all; every | ||
| ''xøl bašar; xølhad'' || ''xøl | | ''xøl bašar; xølhad'' || ''xøl dbar'' || ''xøl'' || ''xølein'' || ''xøleino'' || ''me xølein'' || ''xølam'' || ''xølad darxy'' || ''-'' || ''-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! any | ! any | ||
| ''nux bašar'' || ''nux | | ''nux bašar'' || ''nux dbar'' || ''nux'' || ''nuxein'' || ''nuxeino'' || ''me nuxein'' || ''xølam'' | ||
|| ''nux darxy'' || ''my nux sebt'' || ''-'' | || ''nux darxy'' || ''my nux sebt'' || ''-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! some | ! some | ||
| ''bil bašar'' || ''bil | | ''bil bašar'' || ''bil dbar'' || ''bil '' || ''bilein'' || ''bileino'' || ''me bilein'' || ''ly zman''; ''bil zman'' | ||
|| ''bil darxy'' || ''my bil sebt'' || ''-'' | || ''bil darxy'' || ''my bil sebt'' || ''-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! none | ! none | ||
| ''lėm bašar'' || ''lėm | | ''lėm bašar'' || ''lėm dbar'' || ''lėm'' || ''lėmein'' || ''lėmeino'' || ''me lėmein'' || ''lėfȝam'' | ||
|| ''lėm darxy'' || ''my lėm sebt'' || ''-'' | || ''lėm darxy'' || ''my lėm sebt'' || ''-'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Demonstratives come before nouns as in Arabic | Demonstratives come before nouns as in Arabic. The demonstratives "this" and "that" take the definite form. | ||
*''žini | *''žini beiþyn'' 'this house' | ||
*''eli | *''eli beiþil'' 'those houses' | ||
==Nouns== | ==Nouns== | ||
In some ways declension has simplified: Like [[Knánith]], Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. | In some ways declension has simplified: Like [[Knánith]], Modern Togarmite has lost grammatical gender. Nouns and adjectives still have indefinite and definite states, but the construct state has been lost. | ||
However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more | However, declension has become more complicated in other ways. For example, Modern Togarmite has innovated more declension paradigms. | ||
===Regular declension=== | ===Regular declension=== | ||
Most nouns have a regular plural in ''-i'', definite ''-il''. | Most nouns have a regular plural in ''-i'', definite ''-il''. | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''ȝėlam'' || ''ȝėlam'''i''''' | | ''ȝėlam'' || ''ȝėlam'''i''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''ȝėlam'''yn''''' || ''ȝėlam'''il''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
===Segolates=== | ===Segolates=== | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''xalby'' || ''xlab'''i''''' | | ''xalby'' || ''xlab'''i''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''xalby'''n''''' || ''xlab'''il''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''þėgam'''i''''' || ''þėgam'''ije''''' | | ''þėgam'''i''''' || ''þėgam'''ije''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''þėgami'''jyn''''' || ''þėgami'''jel''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''šeȝar'''t''''' || ''šeȝar'' | | ''šeȝar'''t''''' || ''šeȝar'' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''šeȝar'''tyn''''' || ''šeȝar'''il''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
===Former feminines/body parts=== | ===Former feminines/body parts=== | ||
This class consists of a small number of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, such as many body parts, which take a plural in ''- | This class consists of a small number of nouns that were feminine in Old Togarmite, such as many body parts, which take a plural in ''-ėþ'': | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''øžny'' || ''øžn'''ė''''' | | ''øžny'' || ''øžn'''ė''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''øžn'''yn''''' || ''øžn'''ėþil''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''lysėn'' || ''lysėn''' | | ''lysėn'' || ''lysėn'''ėþ''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''lysėn'''yn''''' || ''lysėn'''ėþil''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''apolož'''a''''' || ''apolož'''es''''' | | ''apolož'''a''''' || ''apolož'''es''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''apolož'''an''''' || ''apolož'''ėþil''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
|+'' | |+''þėma'' 'topic' | ||
! || singular || plural | ! || singular || plural | ||
|- | |- | ||
! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| '' | | ''þėm'''a''''' || ''þėm'''es''''' / ''þėm'''ata''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''þėm'''an''''' || ''þėmė'''þil''''' / ''þėmat'''aþil''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
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! indefinite | ! indefinite | ||
| ''het'''a''''' || ''het'''es''''' | | ''het'''a''''' || ''het'''es''''' | ||
|- | |||
! definite | |||
| ''het'''an''''' || ''het'''ėþil''''' | |||
|} | |} | ||
==Adjectives== | ==Adjectives== | ||
Adjectives have the same declension patterns as nouns | Adjectives have the same declension patterns as nouns. | ||
===Degree=== | ===Degree=== | ||
Adjectives do not have separate degree forms, unlike in Indo-European languages. A dedicated particle ''šøm'' is used for 'than'. | Adjectives do not have separate degree forms, unlike in Indo-European languages. A dedicated particle ''šøm'' is used for 'than'. | ||
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The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative. | The citation form is the 2nd person singular imperative. | ||
===Binyanim=== | ===Binyanim=== | ||
Modern Togarmite inherits all 7 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''þy-'' of Binyan 6 ('' | Modern Togarmite inherits all 7 binyanim of Old Togarmite. The ''þy-'' of Binyan 6 (''þyfaȝel'') verbs has become a productive derivational prefix, however, so some analyze Binyan 6 as a result of ''þy-'' added to ''faȝel'' verbs, rather than as a binyan in its own right. | ||
====Binyan 1: ''føȝøl''==== | ====Binyan 1: ''føȝøl''==== | ||
This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''xøþøb'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''tøȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel. | This binyan can take -ø- (e.g. ''xøþøb'' 'to write'), -e- (''sen'' 'to sleep') or -a- (''tøȝam'' 'to choose') as the theme vowel. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yxþøb'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yxþøb'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi xþøb'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan xþøb'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm xþøb'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm xþøb'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wyxþab'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wyxþab'' | ||
| ''fė | | ''fė wyxþab'' | ||
| ''finė | | ''finė wyxþab'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wyxþab'' | ||
| ''fu | | ''fu wyxþab'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yxėþøb'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yxėþøb'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi xėþøb'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan xėþøb'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm xėþøb'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm xėþøb'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še | | ''nėx še wyxþab'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wyxþab'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še | | ''hu/hi še wyxþab'' | ||
| ''nan še | | ''nan še wyxþab'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wyxþab'' | ||
| ''høm šu | | ''høm šu wyxþab'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yxþøban'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yxþøban'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi xþøban'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan xþøban'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm xþøbun'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm xþøbun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe xþėb'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe xþėb'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe xþėb'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe xþėb'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu xþėb'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu xþėb'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
| ''li | | ''li myxþub'' | ||
| ''lax/lex | | ''lax/lex myxþub'' | ||
| ''lau/la | | ''lau/la myxþub'' | ||
| ''lanė | | ''lanė myxþub'' | ||
| ''laxøm | | ''laxøm myxþub'' | ||
| ''laum | | ''laum myxþub'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''xøþøb!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! active participle | ! active participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''xėþeb'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! passive participle | ! passive participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''myxþub'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! w-form | ! w-form | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''wyxþab'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''xþėb'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
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! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx ysaxen'' | | ''nėx ysaxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ysaxen'' | ||
| ''hu/hi saxen'' | | ''hu/hi saxen'' | ||
| ''nan saxen'' | | ''nan saxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm saxen'' | ||
| ''høm saxen'' | | ''høm saxen'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wysaxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wysaxen'' | ||
| ''fė wysaxen'' | | ''fė wysaxen'' | ||
| ''finė wysaxen'' | | ''finė wysaxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wysaxen'' | ||
| ''fu wysaxen'' | | ''fu wysaxen'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx ysxėxen'' | | ''nėx ysxėxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ysxėxen'' | ||
| ''hu/hi sxėxen'' | | ''hu/hi sxėxen'' | ||
| ''nan sxėxen'' | | ''nan sxėxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm sxėxen'' | ||
| ''høm sxėxen'' | | ''høm sxėxen'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še wysaxen'' | | ''nėx še wysaxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wysaxen'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še wysaxen'' | | ''hu/hi še wysaxen'' | ||
| ''nan še wysaxen'' | | ''nan še wysaxen'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wysaxen'' | ||
| ''høm šu wysaxen'' | | ''høm šu wysaxen'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''ani ysaxenan'' | | ''ani ysaxenan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ysaxenan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi saxenan'' | | ''hu/hi saxenan'' | ||
| ''nan saxenan'' | | ''nan saxenan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm saxenun'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm saxenun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
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! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx ažxer'' | | ''nėx ažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ažxer'' | ||
| ''hu/hi ažxer'' | | ''hu/hi ažxer'' | ||
| ''nan ažxer'' | | ''nan ažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm ažxer'' | ||
| ''høm ažxer'' | | ''høm ažxer'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wažxer'' | ||
| ''fė wažxer'' | | ''fė wažxer'' | ||
| ''finė wažxer'' | | ''finė wažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wažxer'' | ||
| ''fu wažxer'' | | ''fu wažxer'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx ažėxer'' | | ''nėx ažėxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ažėxer'' | ||
| ''hu/hi ažėxer'' | | ''hu/hi ažėxer'' | ||
| ''nan ažėxer'' | | ''nan ažėxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm ažėxeru'' | ||
| ''høm ažėxeru'' | | ''høm ažėxeru'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še wažxer'' | | ''nėx še wažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wažxer'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še wažxer'' | | ''hu/hi še wažxer'' | ||
| ''nan še wažxer'' | | ''nan še wažxer'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wažxer'' | ||
| ''høm šu wažxer'' | | ''høm šu wažxer'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx ažxeran'' | | ''nėx ažxeran'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ažxeran'' | ||
| ''hu/hi ažxeran'' | | ''hu/hi ažxeran'' | ||
| ''nan ažxeran'' | | ''nan ažxeran'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm ažxerun'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm ažxerun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
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====Binyan 4: ''yftyȝel''==== | ====Binyan 4: ''yftyȝel''==== | ||
This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the | This binyan comes from the Proto-Semitic t-stem and shares similarities with the Hebrew binyan ''hitpa33el'' and Arabic ''ifta3ala''. It is characterized by the þ- prefix that comes from the *t infix. | ||
Meanings: | Meanings: | ||
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*reciprocal | *reciprocal | ||
The prefix '' | The prefix ''þ'' metathesizes with C1 when | ||
*C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: '' | *C1 = f x s š c h z ž ȝ: ''þf þx þs þš þh þz þž þȝ'' > ''ft xt st št ct ht zd žd ȝd'' | ||
*C1 = d t þ: '' | *C1 = d t þ: ''þd þt þþ'' > ''d t þ'' | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Binyan 4 conjugation: '' | |+ Binyan 4 conjugation: ''hyþlymed'' 'find one's way around' | ||
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ||
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþlymed'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þlymed'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þlymed'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þlymed'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wyþlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''fė | | ''fė wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''finė | | ''finė wyþlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''fu | | ''fu wyþlymed'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþlėmed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþlėmed'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þlėmed'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þlėmed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þlėmed'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þlėmed'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še | | ''nėx še wyþlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še | | ''hu/hi še wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''nan še | | ''nan še wyþlymed'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wyþlymed'' | ||
| ''høm šu | | ''høm šu wyþlymed'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþlymedan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþlymedan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þlymedan'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þlymedan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þlymedun'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þlymedun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe hyþlymud'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe hyþlymud'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe hyþlymud'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe hyþlymud'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu hyþlymud'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu hyþlymud'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
| ''li | | ''li møþlymad'' | ||
| ''lax/lex | | ''lax/lex møþlymad'' | ||
| ''lau/la | | ''lau/la møþlymad'' | ||
| ''lanė | | ''lanė møþlymad'' | ||
| ''laxøm | | ''laxøm møþlymad'' | ||
| ''laum | | ''laum møþlymad'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
|colspan=6|'' | |colspan=6|''yþlymed!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! active participle | ! active participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møþlymed'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! passive participle | ! passive participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møþlymad'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! w-form | ! w-form | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''wyþlymėd'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''hyþlymud'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
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{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Binyan 5 conjugation: '' | |+ Binyan 5 conjugation: ''eþygdel'' 'grow up' | ||
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ||
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ||
Line 606: | Line 630: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx eþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ eþygdel'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi eþygdel'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan eþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm eþygdelu'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm eþygdelu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti weþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit weþygdel'' | ||
| ''fė | | ''fė weþygdel'' | ||
| ''finė | | ''finė weþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm weþygdel'' | ||
| ''fu | | ''fu waþygdel'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx eþygėdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ eþygėdel'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi eþygėdel'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan eþygėdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm eþygėdelu'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm eþygėdelu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še weþygdel'' | | ''nėx še weþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še weþygdel'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še weþygdel'' | | ''hu/hi še weþygdel'' | ||
| ''nan še weþygdel'' | | ''nan še weþygdel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu weþygdel'' | ||
| ''høm šu weþygdel'' | | ''høm šu weþygdel'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx eþygdelan'' | | ''nėx eþygdelan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ eþygdelan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi eþygdelan'' | | ''hu/hi eþygdelan'' | ||
| ''nan eþygdelan'' | | ''nan eþygdelan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm eþygdelun'' | ||
| ''høm eþygdelun'' | | ''høm eþygdelun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe heþygdul'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe heþygdul'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe heþygdul'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe heþygdul'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu heþygdul'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu heþygdul'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
| ''li | | ''li meþygdal'' | ||
| ''lax/lex | | ''lax/lex meþygdal'' | ||
| ''lau/la | | ''lau/la meþygdal'' | ||
| ''lanė | | ''lanė meþygdal'' | ||
| ''laxøm | | ''laxøm meþygdal'' | ||
| ''laum | | ''laum meþygdal'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
| | | ''-'' | ||
| ''heþygdel!'' | |||
| ''-'' | |||
| ''-'' | |||
| ''heþygdelu!'' | |||
| ''-'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! active participle | ! active participle | ||
Line 677: | Line 706: | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Binyan 6: '' | ====Binyan 6: ''þyfaȝel''==== | ||
This binyan comes from the tD-stem (t- with geminate stem) and corresponds directly to the Arabic binyan ''tafa33ala''. | This binyan comes from the tD-stem (t- with geminate stem) and corresponds directly to the Arabic binyan ''tafa33ala''. | ||
Line 683: | Line 712: | ||
*reciprocal or back-and-forth action | *reciprocal or back-and-forth action | ||
*reaction/back, re-: the most productive modern meaning | *reaction/back, re-: the most productive modern meaning | ||
**'' | **''þy'awer'' 'to reflect', from ''aur'' 'light' | ||
**'' | **''þyparkes'' 'to react', from ''parkis'' 'action' | ||
**'' | **''þysalem'' 'to repay', from √s-l-m 'peace, whole' | ||
**'' | **''þyȝanė'' 'to satisfy', from √ȝ-n-j 'distress, need'; probably influenced by a now obsolete meaning 'to answer' of the same root | ||
*unpredictable change in meaning | *unpredictable change in meaning | ||
The resemblance of this binyan to the very common ''faȝel'' binyan has led to the '' | The resemblance of this binyan to the very common ''faȝel'' binyan has led to the ''þy-'' prefix becoming productive, with some semantic overlap with the prefix ''re-'' in English. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Binyan 6 conjugation: '' | |+ Binyan 6 conjugation: ''þydares'' 'teach' | ||
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ||
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ||
Line 702: | Line 731: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþydares'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþydares'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þydares'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þydares'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þydares'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þydares'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| ''fiti | | ''fiti wyþydares'' | ||
| ''fit | | ''fit wyþydares'' | ||
| ''fė | | ''fė wyþydares'' | ||
| ''finė | | ''finė wyþydares'' | ||
| ''fitøm | | ''fitøm wyþydares'' | ||
| ''fu | | ''fu wyþydares'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþydrėres'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþydrėres'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þydrėres'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þydrėres'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þydrėres'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þydrėres'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še | | ''nėx še wyþydares'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wyþydares'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še | | ''hu/hi še wyþydares'' | ||
| ''nan še | | ''nan še wyþydares'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wyþydares'' | ||
| ''høm šu | | ''høm šu wyþydares'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx yþydaresan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yþydaresan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi þydaresan'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan þydaresan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm þydaresun'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm þydaresun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe þydarus'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe þydarus'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe þydarus'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe þydarus'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu þydarus'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu þydarus'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
| ''li | | ''li møþydaras'' | ||
| ''lax/lex | | ''lax/lex møþydaras'' | ||
| ''lau/la | | ''lau/la møþydaras'' | ||
| ''lanė | | ''lanė møþydaras'' | ||
| ''laxøm | | ''laxøm møþydaras'' | ||
| ''laum | | ''laum møþydaras'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
|colspan=6|'' | |colspan=6|''þydares!'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! active participle | ! active participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møþydares'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! passive participle | ! passive participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møþydaras'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! w-form | ! w-form | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''wyþydares'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''þydarus'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 776: | Line 805: | ||
This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew. | This binyan comes from the Št-stem and is directly related to the binyan ''istaf3ala'' in Arabic and the very rare binyan ''hishtaf3el'' in Biblical Hebrew. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Binyan 7 conjugation: '' | |+ Binyan 7 conjugation: ''stytȝem'' 'try out' | ||
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Tense | ||
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg | ||
Line 786: | Line 815: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx ystytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ystytȝem'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi stytȝem'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan stytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm stytȝem'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm stytȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wystytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''fė | | ''fė wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''finė | | ''finė wystytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''fu | | ''fu wystytȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx ystytėȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ystytėȝem'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi stytėȝem'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan stytėȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm stytėȝem'' | ||
| ''høm | | ''høm stytėȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present progressive | ! present progressive | ||
| ''nėx še | | ''nėx še wystytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''hu/hi še | | ''hu/hi še wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''nan še | | ''nan še wystytȝem'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu wystytȝem'' | ||
| ''høm šu | | ''høm šu wystytȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx | | ''nėx ystytȝeman'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ystytȝeman'' | ||
| ''hu/hi | | ''hu/hi stytȝeman'' | ||
| ''nan | | ''nan stytȝeman'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm stytȝemun'' | ||
| '' | | ''jystytȝemun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe stytȝum'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe stytȝum'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe stytȝum'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe stytȝum'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu stytȝum'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu stytȝum'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
| ''li | | ''li møstytȝam'' | ||
| ''lax/lex | | ''lax/lex møstytȝam'' | ||
| ''lau/la | | ''lau/la møstytȝam'' | ||
| ''lanė | | ''lanė møstytȝam'' | ||
| ''laxøm | | ''laxøm møstytȝam'' | ||
| ''laum | | ''laum møstytȝam'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
| '' | | ''stytȝem!'' | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
| '' | | ''stytȝemu!'' | ||
| ''-'' | | ''-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! active participle | ! active participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møstytȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! passive participle | ! passive participle | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''møstytȝam'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! w-form | ! w-form | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''wystytȝem'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''stytȝum'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 867: | Line 896: | ||
It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns: | It is used for recent loan verbs like ''maksimezi'' 'to maximize', but can also be used to derive verbs from native nouns: | ||
*''mydrasi'' 'to school' (from ''mydras'' 'school') | *''mydrasi'' 'to school' (from ''mydras'' 'school') | ||
*'' | *''þaxili'' 'to consume' (from ''þaxil'' 'consumption', itself from the root √ʔ-x-l 'to eat') | ||
*''žaxoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žaxo'' 'right') | *''žaxoji'' 'to entitle, to allow' (from ''žaxo'' 'right') | ||
*''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye') | *''ȝeini'' 'to eye' (from ''ȝein'' 'eye') | ||
Line 873: | Line 902: | ||
The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs. | The endings are mainly derived from Middle Togarmite forms of 3-y verbs. | ||
*[STEM]-i = active | *[STEM]-i = active | ||
* | *þy-[STEM]-i = re- | ||
*mø- = active participle | *mø- = active participle | ||
*- | *-ėþ = infinitive | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;" | ||
|+ Weak verb conjugation: ''mydrasi'' 'to school' | |+ Weak verb conjugation: ''mydrasi'' 'to school' | ||
Line 888: | Line 917: | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nėx ymydrasi'' | | ''nėx ymydrasi'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ymydrasi'' | ||
| ''hu/hi mydrasi'' | | ''hu/hi mydrasi'' | ||
| ''nan mydrasi'' | | ''nan mydrasi'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm mydrasi'' | ||
| ''høm mydrasi'' | | ''høm mydrasi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wymydrasi'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wymydrasi'' | ||
| ''fė wymydrasi'' | | ''fė wymydrasi'' | ||
| ''finė wymydrasi'' | | ''finė wymydrasi'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wymydrasi'' | ||
| ''fu wymydrasi'' | | ''fu wymydrasi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx ymydrasė'' | | ''nėx ymydrasė'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ymydrasė'' | ||
| ''hu/hi mydrasė'' | | ''hu/hi mydrasė'' | ||
| ''nan mydrasė'' | | ''nan mydrasė'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm mydrasė'' | ||
| ''høm mydrasė'' | | ''høm mydrasė'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 920: | Line 949: | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx ymydrasan'' | | ''nėx ymydrasan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ymydrasan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi mydrasan'' | | ''hu/hi mydrasan'' | ||
| ''nan mydrasan'' | | ''nan mydrasan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm mydrasun'' | ||
| ''høm mydrasun'' | | ''høm mydrasun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe mydrasėþ'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe mydrasėþ'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe mydrasėþ'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe mydrasėþ'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu mydrasėþ'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu mydrasėþ'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! perfect | ! perfect | ||
Line 955: | Line 984: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''mydrasėþ'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 971: | Line 1,000: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| '' | | ''fiti'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit'' | ||
| ''fė'' | | ''fė'' | ||
| ''finė'' | | ''finė'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm'' | ||
| ''fu'' | | ''fu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past progressive; past subjunctive | ! past progressive; past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''fiti wyfė'' | ||
| '' | | ''fit wyfė'' | ||
| ''fė wyfė'' | | ''fė wyfė'' | ||
| ''finė wyfė'' | | ''finė wyfė'' | ||
| '' | | ''fitøm wyfė'' | ||
| ''fu wyfė'' | | ''fu wyfė'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx še'' (or ''nėx'') | | ''nėx še'' (or ''nėx'') | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ še'' (or ''aþ/eþ'') | ||
| ''hu/hi še'' (or ''hu/hi'') | | ''hu/hi še'' (or ''hu/hi'') | ||
| ''nan še'' (or ''nan'') | | ''nan še'' (or ''nan'') | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm šu'' (or ''aþøm'') | ||
| ''høm šu'' (or ''høm'') | | ''høm šu'' (or ''høm'') | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,011: | Line 1,040: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! future | ! future | ||
| ''ėbe | | ''ėbe fėþ'' | ||
| ''tėbe | | ''tėbe fėþ'' | ||
| ''jėbe | | ''jėbe fėþ'' | ||
| ''nėbe | | ''nėbe fėþ'' | ||
| ''tėbu | | ''tėbu fėþ'' | ||
| ''jėbu | | ''jėbu fėþ'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! imperative | ! imperative | ||
Line 1,031: | Line 1,060: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! infinitive | ! infinitive | ||
|colspan=6| '' | |colspan=6| ''fėþ'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,047: | Line 1,076: | ||
! past; conditional | ! past; conditional | ||
| ''nex yxel'' | | ''nex yxel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yxel'' | ||
| ''hu/hi xel'' | | ''hu/hi xel'' | ||
| ''nan xel'' | | ''nan xel'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm xel'' | ||
| ''høm xel'' | | ''høm xel'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,071: | Line 1,100: | ||
! present subjunctive | ! present subjunctive | ||
| ''nėx yxelan'' | | ''nėx yxelan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ yxelan'' | ||
| ''hu/hi xelan'' | | ''hu/hi xelan'' | ||
| ''nan xelan'' | | ''nan xelan'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm xelun'' | ||
| ''høm xelun'' | | ''høm xelun'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,111: | Line 1,140: | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx høbė'' | | ''nėx høbė'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ høbė'' | ||
| ''hu/hi høbė'' | | ''hu/hi høbė'' | ||
| ''nan høbu'' | | ''nan høbu'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm høbu'' | ||
| ''høm høbu'' | | ''høm høbu'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Line 1,138: | Line 1,167: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! past subjunctive | ! past subjunctive | ||
| '' | | ''hwiti wyrši'' | ||
| '' | | ''hwit wyrši'' | ||
| ''hwė wyrši'' | | ''hwė wyrši'' | ||
| ''hwinė wyrši'' | | ''hwinė wyrši'' | ||
| '' | | ''hwitøm wyrši'' | ||
| ''hwu wyrši'' | | ''hwu wyrši'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! present | ! present | ||
| ''nėx ryšė'' | | ''nėx ryšė'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþ/eþ ryšė'' | ||
| ''hu/hi ryšė'' | | ''hu/hi ryšė'' | ||
| ''nan ryšu'' | | ''nan ryšu'' | ||
| '' | | ''aþøm ryšu'' | ||
| ''høm ryšu'' | | ''høm ryšu'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,188: | Line 1,217: | ||
*''ly'' (''l'' before V) 'to' | *''ly'' (''l'' before V) 'to' | ||
*''by'' (''b'' before V) 'by, at' | *''by'' (''b'' before V) 'by, at' | ||
*'' | *''šydo'' 'out of' (from *śadiy-ah 'to the field') | ||
*''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from' | *''me'' (''men'' before V) 'from' | ||
*''ȝem'' 'with' | *''ȝem'' 'with' | ||
*''ȝal'' 'on' | *''ȝal'' 'on' | ||
*'' | *''lid'' 'of (possessive)' | ||
*''ȝbar'' 'over' | *''ȝbar'' 'over' | ||
*'' | *''þaþ'' 'under' | ||
*'' | *''arþo'' 'down' (from *ʔarþ-ah "earthward") | ||
*'' | *''darxan'' 'along' | ||
===Syntax of prepositions=== | ===Syntax of prepositions=== | ||
Line 1,202: | Line 1,231: | ||
===Cardinal=== | ===Cardinal=== | ||
0: cefry | 0: cefry | ||
1: | 1: yhad | ||
2: šnein / attributive šnė | 2: šnein / attributive šnė | ||
3: šlėš (animate šlėšt) | 3: šlėš (animate šlėšt) | ||
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7: sabȝy (animate sabȝyt) | 7: sabȝy (animate sabȝyt) | ||
8: šmėni (animate šmėnt) | 8: šmėni (animate šmėnt) | ||
9: | 9: þesȝy (animate tesȝyt) | ||
10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt) | 10: ȝašry (animate ȝašryt) | ||
11: ȝašry | 11: ȝašry yhad | ||
12: ȝašry šnein | 12: ȝašry šnein | ||
20: ȝešrin | 20: ȝešrin | ||
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70: sybȝin | 70: sybȝin | ||
80: šmėnin | 80: šmėnin | ||
90: | 90: þesȝin | ||
100: me' | 100: me'yþ | ||
101: me' | 101: me'yþ yhad | ||
200: | 200: meþein | ||
300: šlėš me' | 300: šlėš me'yþ | ||
400: yrbaȝ me' | 400: yrbaȝ me'yþ | ||
1000: alfy | 1000: alfy | ||
2000: alfein | 2000: alfein | ||
3000: šlėš alf | 3000: šlėš alf | ||
1000000: alfun | 1000000: alfun | ||
10^9: | 10^9: bėþfun | ||
10^12: gamfun | 10^12: gamfun | ||
etc. | etc. | ||
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Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic. | Plural numerals usually take plural nouns. They used to take singular nouns, however this is considered archaic. | ||
Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through '' | Numbers ending in digits "3" through "9" (thus ending in ''šlėš'' through ''tesȝy''), or "10" (thus ending in ''ȝašry''), have two forms depending on the animacy of the noun: ''hymes myrþemi'' 'five abacuses', but ''hymest ahėþ'' 'five sisters'. The animate forms come from the masculine forms (reverse polarity) marked with ''*-t'' in Proto-Semitic. | ||
===Ordinal=== | ===Ordinal=== | ||
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*7th = sbuȝ | *7th = sbuȝ | ||
*8th = šmun | *8th = šmun | ||
*9th = | *9th = þsuȝ | ||
*10th = ȝšur | *10th = ȝšur | ||
*11th = ȝašry-yȝlė | *11th = ȝašry-yȝlė | ||
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===Fractional=== | ===Fractional=== | ||
Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form '' | Fractional numerals are formed with the segolate pattern CøCCy (pl. CøCaCi). Compound numerals can be inflected as well, like in the case of ordinal numerals. The analogized form ''øhdy'' is used for numerals ending in "1". | ||
*half = gøb (from *gunb- 'side') | *half = gøb (from *gunb- 'side') | ||
*3rd = šølšy | *3rd = šølšy | ||
*4th = røbȝy | *4th = røbȝy | ||
*11th = ȝašry- | *11th = ȝašry-øhdy | ||
To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''. | To express "m/n", Togarmite uses "m nths": "2/3" is ''šnė šølaši''. | ||
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==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
===Faulty accusative marker=== | ===Faulty accusative marker=== | ||
The faulty accusative marker '' | The faulty accusative marker ''iþ'' is used. It behaves like MSA accusative case and Welsh soft mutation: when there is a constituent separating the verb or predicate from a second constituent, ''iþ'' comes between the two constituents regardless of whether the second constituent is actually a direct object. Example: | ||
*''Halex wyfė li ''' | *''Halex wyfė li '''iþ''' šlėšt xlabi, wy ȝeþo lėš li '''iþ''' nux.'' = I used to have three dogs, and now I don't have any. | ||
*'' | *''Dėrestyn li ryšė li '''iþ''' ȝyšėþ rab þamuni beiþ.'' = My teacher wants me to do a lot of homework. | ||
===Questions=== | ===Questions=== | ||
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*''Ha iš lex zman?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time? | *''Ha iš lex zman?'' = Do you (f. sg.) have time? | ||
The particle ''iš'' uses the accusative marker '' | The particle ''iš'' uses the accusative marker ''iþ'' when the "object" is animate. | ||
===Conditional clauses=== | ===Conditional clauses=== | ||
*"if" = ''em'' | *"if" = ''em'' | ||
*"then" = ''ež'' | *"then" = ''ež'' | ||
===Relative clauses=== | ===Relative clauses=== | ||
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For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are two strategies like in English: | For relative clauses whose heads are prepositional objects in the relative clause, there are two strategies like in English: | ||
*In informal Togarmite, the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': '' | *In informal Togarmite, the relativizer is treated as a resumptive pronoun which takes the preposition, like English ''which'': ''gabryn ly xi nėx yþen maþanyn'', lit. 'the man to which I gave the gift'. This syntax arose from the influence of surrounding languages like English. | ||
*In formal Togarmite, the preposition goes to the end of the clause: '' | *In formal Togarmite, the preposition goes to the end of the clause: ''gabryn xi nėx yþen maþanyn ly'' lit. 'the man which I gave the gift to'. This syntax arose from the native Semitic construction which used a resumptive pronoun on the preposition: after the resumptive pronoun lost the stress, the preposition lost its pronominal suffix and moved to the end of the clause. | ||
*A combination of both strategies can be used: '' | *A combination of both strategies can be used: ''gabryn ly xi nėx yþen maþanyn ly'', lit. 'The man to which I gave the gift to'. | ||
==Derivation== | ==Derivation== | ||
===Noun and adjective patterns=== | ===Noun and adjective patterns=== | ||
*''CaCCy( | *''CaCCy(þ), CeCCy(þ), CøCCy(þ)'' = segolates | ||
*''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able | *''CyCiC'' = adjective; -able | ||
*''CyCuC'' = adjective; color | *''CyCuC'' = adjective; color | ||
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*''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument | *''myCCeC(t)'' = instrument | ||
*''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)'' | *''maCCeCt'' = causative version of ''myCCeC(t)'' | ||
*'' | *''þyCCuC'', ''þyCCiC'', ''þyCCėC'' = action or process | ||
*'' | *''þyCCøCt'' = (hypothetical cognate of Hebrew tiCCóCet) = system of things | ||
*''CaCėC'' = agentive | *''CaCėC'' = agentive | ||
**''CaCaCt'' = feminine agentive (not always used) | **''CaCaCt'' = feminine agentive (not always used) | ||
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*''-in'' = collectives | *''-in'' = collectives | ||
**''lamusin'' 'charity' | **''lamusin'' 'charity' | ||
*''- | *''-uþ'' = abstract noun | ||
*''-i'' = forms adjectives | *''-i'' = forms adjectives | ||
*''- | *''-iþ'' = forms adverbs | ||
*''i-'' = non-, un- | *''i-'' = non-, un- | ||
**''ibašari'' 'incorporeal' | **''ibašari'' 'incorporeal' | ||
**''iwøxli'' 'impossible' | **''iwøxli'' 'impossible' | ||
*'' | *''tarmy-'' = pre-, not yet | ||
**'' | **''tarmy-mynaša'' 'never married' | ||
*''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English) | *''-yr'' = someone who is characterized by X (from English) | ||
**'' | **''wduȝyr'' 'know-it-all', from ''wduȝ'' 'knowledgeable' | ||
*''-ri'' = -ry (from English) | *''-ri'' = -ry (from English) | ||
**''kdėsri'' = excessive piousness or asceticism, from ''kdės'' 'holy' | **''kdėsri'' = excessive piousness or asceticism, from ''kdės'' 'holy' | ||
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*''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative | *''e-'' = a- (from ʔiC-, an assimilated form of the OTog preposition ''ʔin'' 'in'); these adjectives can usually only be predicative | ||
**''e'est'' 'ablaze' | **''e'est'' 'ablaze' | ||
**'' | **''edarxy'' 'away' | ||
**'' | **''eþal'' 'galore' (lit. a-mound) | ||
**''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater | **''emein'' 'drowned, lost forever', lit. awater | ||
*''-byl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''abȝel'' 'to be able to') | *''-byl'' = -able (from English -able and native ''abȝel'' 'to be able to') | ||
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==Sample texts== | ==Sample texts== | ||
===Newton's laws of motion=== | ===Newton's laws of motion=== | ||
''I: | ''I: Dbar šėbøþ by dymi, o by ȝyþėk enomorfy, lulė ydraȝ prėkes ȝal þež.'' | ||
I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it. | I: An object stays at rest, or at a constant speed, unless a force acts on it. | ||
''II: | ''II: Šanujyn in þyȝþikyn lid gaf še myþxøni l' øþisin møþyfacaryn ȝal gafyn; wy šanujyn kėrė darxan kauyn þykinyn žė ži øþisin še møþyfacar ȝal.'' | ||
II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied. | II: The change in the momentum of a body is proportional to the force applied to the body; and the change occurs along the straight line on which that force is applied. | ||
''III: Iš ly xøl parkis | ''III: Iš ly xøl parkis iþ þyparkis is w' anteþet.'' | ||
III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. | III: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. | ||
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===O how quickly the sculpture of life=== | ===O how quickly the sculpture of life=== | ||
<poem> | <poem> | ||
''O! Xma | ''O! Xma myhiriþ myklaȝyn lid hein'' | ||
''Šaber in temaša zȝarȝeri!'' | ''Šaber in temaša zȝarȝeri!'' | ||
'' | ''Mygiluþyn lid malxyn ȝal þrønyn lau'' | ||
''Še | ''Še xliliþ mygruf edarxy by gali jam.'' | ||
'' | ''Aþøm xi jėþ heno mømancabta hen,'' | ||
''Ȝabry hen Elėh | ''Ȝabry hen Elėh aþøm lawani ȝal arþyn.'' | ||
''Xøl lanė | ''Xøl lanė mødajan ȝal parkisi lanė;'' | ||
'' | ''Þnenė þėþ ly ȝnijyn, wy agaþeržijėþ had ly wdud.'' | ||
O how quickly the sculpture of life | O how quickly the sculpture of life | ||
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===Stairway To Heaven=== | ===Stairway To Heaven=== | ||
<poem> | <poem> | ||
''' | '''Maȝlyþ ly Symeiniþyn''' | ||
Iš | Iš gabryþ xi še šur | ||
Xøl xi nėher še žahab | Xøl xi nėher še žahab | ||
Wy hi še wykna | Wy hi še wykna maȝlyþ ly symeiniþyn | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
===UDHR=== | ===UDHR=== | ||
''Xøl ynėsi še | ''Xøl ynėsi še mewøladi hyruri w' isi in akšoprepjan wy žyxawil laum. Høm še møþyhanani ȝym ložeki wy synidisi wy høbu ly parkus l' odšni in ruh lid ahwuþ.'' | ||
all human-PL COP be.born/PASS.PART-PL free-PL and equal-PL in dignity and right-PL. 3PL COP grant/PASS.PART-PL with reason and conscience and ought-3PL to act.VN to one_another in spirit of brotherhood | all human-PL COP be.born/PASS.PART-PL free-PL and equal-PL in dignity-DEF.SG and right/PL-DEF.PL 3PL.POSS. 3PL COP grant/PASS.PART-PL with reason and conscience and ought-3PL to act.VN to one_another in spirit of brotherhood | ||
/xøl ə'nesi ʃɛ mɛvø' | /xøl ə'nesi ʃɛ mɛvø'ladi hə'ruri 'visi in akʃo'prepjan v ʒə'xavil løym || høm ʃɛ møθəha'nani ɣəm lo'ʒɛki fsəni'disi və 'høbu lə 'parkus 'lotʃni in ruh lid 'ahvuθ/ | ||
[[Category:Semitic languages]] | [[Category:Semitic languages]] | ||
[[Category:Lõis]] | [[Category:Lõis]] |
edits