User:IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Ancient: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|nativename = κubrīyā
|nativename = *hak-kana3nījō
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[User:IlL/Lõis|Lõis]]
|setting = [[Verse:Irta]]
|name = Ancient Cubrite
|name = Ancient Knench
|pronunciation = /'kʰubri:ja:/
|pronunciation =  
|region = Cyprus
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers =  
|speakers =  
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|fam2=Semitic
|fam2=Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam4=Togarmo-Canaanite
|fam4=Canaanite
|fam5=Canaanite
}}
}}


'''Ancient Cubrite''' (natively 𐤄𐤋𐤔𐤅𐤍 𐤄𐤒𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤀 ''hal-lasōn haκ-κubrīyā'' 'the Cubrite language' /ʔal'lasoːn ʔak'kʰubri:ja:/ or ''hal-lasōn hat-turūdīyā'' 'the Druidic language') is the stage of [[Cubrite]] after the split from Pre-Exilic Biblical Hebrew. It was used as a literary language during this period and was the language of Near-East druidism, a form of Celtic druidism incorporating Semitic pagan elements, before the religion was supplanted by Henosis Ousias. It was then that the drastic changes that had occurred in the spoken language began to be reflected in writing, thus ushering in the era of modern Cubrite.  
'''Ancient Knench''', also called "Punic" in Irta (natively ''*hal-lasūn hak-kana3nījō'' 'the Canaanite language') is the earliest attested stage of [[Knench]], first attested in the era of Biblical Hebrew. Post-Christianity it underwent drastic changes in mere centuries, thus ushering in the era of modern [[Knench]]. Ancient Knench was spoken in Iberia. Its premise is "Phoenician or Punic but a bit more Proto-Germanic".


Ancient Cubrite developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Celtic languages such as Gaulish and Galatian. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Lõis.
Ancient Knench developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Azalic languages and Latin. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Irta.


Surviving literature in Ancient Cubrite includes bardic poetry; one Beowulf-length heroic epic, ''Tabarē Harδūr'' (Tales of Arthur); incantations; and instructions for various rituals.
Ancient Knench speakers were mostly Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. As such their religion differed markedly from ancient Hebrew polytheism (and seems to have adopted Semitic religious terms for concepts that were very different).
 
Surviving literature in Ancient Knench are attested in the Phoenician alphabet and in transcriptions into Greek or Latin. It includes a portion of the epic ''*Tabarē [?]'' (Tales of [?]) and some incantations.
 
(Grimm should happen during Old Knench stage)


==Todo==
==Todo==
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==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Ancient Cubrite was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.
Ancient Knench was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script, and sometimed used a native invented vocalization system. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.


Since Ancient Cubrite merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (''half'') and he (''hê'') are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article ''haC-''.
Since Ancient Knench merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (''half'') and he (''hê'') are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article ''haC-''.


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Cubrite merged:
Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Knench merged:
* /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
* /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
* /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
* /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
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* /s/ and /š/ into /s/
* /s/ and /š/ into /s/


On the other hand, it gained consonants allophonically (see [[Ancient Cubrite#Mutations|#Mutations]]).
/m p b n t d t(phar) ts s(retracted) ts(phar) ɬ (Philly L) ħ k g q l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ {{angbr|''m p b n t d ᴛ z s c ś ȝ ħ k g ᴋ l w y r h''}}


/m p b f v n t d tʰ θ ð ts s tsʰ ɬ ɣ̃ ħ k g kʰ x ɣ l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ {{angbr|''m p b f v n t d ᴛ θ δ z s c ś ȝ ħ k g ᴋ x γ l w y r h''}}
===Vowels===
Ancient Knench retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels. It had the chain shift ''ā'' > ''ō'' > ''ū'', similar to our timeline's Punic and Irta's Tsarfati Hebrew, and developed a new ''ā'' from compensatory lengthening.


===Vowels===
'''a e i u ā ē ī ō ū ê î ô û''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/
Ancient Cubrite retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels.


'''a e i u ā ē ī ō ū â ê î ô û''' /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː aːː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/
Minimal pairs and triples for overlong vowels in Ancient Knench:
* ''malkō'' 'a queen', ''malkô'' 'her king'
* ''suprī'' 'count! (f.sg.)', ''suprî'' 'literary, written'
* ''harbi!'' 'do something a lot! (m.sg.)' ''harbī!'' 'ibid., f.sg.' ''harbî'' 'numerous'
* ''dammim'' 'bleed!', ''dammīm'' 'bloodshed', ''dammîm'' 'bloody, of or like blood (masculine plural)'
* ''bētū'' 'his house', ''bētû'' 'his houses'
* ''rū3ē'' 'the evils of', ''rū3ê'' 'the friends of'


Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)
Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: ''pû'' 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ,  Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)
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===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
There were major stress shifts away from final stress from Pre-Exilic Hebrew to Ancient Cubrite, eventually resulting in unconditional initial stress.


# Stress shifted to penultimate for feminine singular nouns ending in ''-ā'' in adjectives, then nouns, by analogy with the unstressed 3SG.F perfect affix ''-ā''.
# By analogy, stress shifted to penultimate for nouns ending in a plural suffix ''-īm'', ''-ē'', or ''-ōδ''.
# Stress became uniformly initial, ignoring proclitics such as the definite article ''haC-'', prepositions ''ka-'' 'and', ''li-'' 'dative', ''bi-'' 'locative/instrumental', ''miC-'' 'from', and the waw in waw-forms. Vowel reduction in surviving texts (missing matres lectionis, or changes in vowels) suggests that at first this was done deliberately as a stylized way to chant incantations.
====Intonation====
==Morphophonology==
==Morphophonology==
===Mutations===
Words can undergo initial mutation but the mutations are different from the begadkefat spirantization in Tiberian Hebrew. The following mutations occur after a vowel:
*beth /p/ → /b/
*pe /f/ → /v/
*daleth /t/ → /d/
*taw /θ/ → /ð/
*gimel /k/ → /g/
*kaph /x/ → /ɣ/
*zayin /ts/ → /dz/
*samekh /s/ → /z/
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Independent====
====Independent====
*1sg: ''hanī, nī''
*1sg: ''hani, ni''
*2sg: ''haθθa, θa'' (m); ''haθθe, θe'' (f)
*2sg: ''hatta, ta'' (m); ''hatte, te'' (f)
*3sg: ''hū'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*3sg: ''hū'' (m); ''hī'' (f)
*1pl: ''haħnu''
*1pl: ''haħnu''
*2pl: ''haθθemma, θemma'' (m); ''haθθenna, θenna'' (f)
*2pl: ''hattemma, temma'' (m); ''hattenna, tenna'' (f)
*3pl: ''hemma'' (m), ''henna'' (f)
*3pl: ''hemma'' (m), ''henna'' (f)


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Inflection====
====Inflection====
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔā-''.
The definite article was ''ʔaC-'' (~ Biblical Hebrew ''*haC-''). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ''ʔō-''.


Unstressed ''-ā'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ā́''. Other possible feminine endings are ''-t'', ''-θ'' or ''-δ''. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īm'' and unstressed ''-ōδ'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  
Unstressed ''-ō'' corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending ''*-ā''. ''-t'' was a much less common ending than in Biblical Hebrew. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed ''-īn'' and unstressed ''-ūt'', ~ Biblical Hebrew ''*-ī́m'' and ''*-ṓt''.  


Often ''-ā'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.
Often ''-ō'' is found where Hebrew has ''-t''.


The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.
The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.
Example with ''sūs'' 'horse' and ''sūsā'' 'female horse':
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
|+ '''Noun declension'''
! number
!colspan=2| singular
!colspan=2| plural
|-
! gender
! m. !! f. !! m. !! f.
|-
! indef.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''sūsā'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''sūsīm'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! def.
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''has-sūs'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːs/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀 ''has-sūsā'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsaː/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌‎ ''has-sūsīm'' <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsiːm/
| 𐤄𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''has-sūsōδ''  <br/> /ʔasˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! const.
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎 ''sūs'' <br/> /suːs/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕 ''sūsaδ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsað/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsē'' <br/> /ˈsuːseː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅𐤕‎‎ ''sūsōδ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsoːð/
|-
! "my"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉 ''sūsī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉 ''sūsaδī'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðiː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉‎ ''sūsajj'' <br/> /ˈsuːsai/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉‎‎ ''sūsuδajj''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðai/
|-
! "thy" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγa'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣa/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγa''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣa/
|-
! "thy" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊 ''sūsaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊 ''sūsaδaγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊‎ ''sūsēγe'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣɛ/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊‎‎ ''sūsuδēγe''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣɛ/
|-
! "his"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤅 ''sūsō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤅 ''sūsaδō'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðoː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤅‎ ''sūsô'' <br/> /ˈsuːsoːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤅‎‎ ''sūsuδô''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðoːː/
|-
! "her"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤀 ''sūsâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤀 ''sūsaδâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤀‎ ''sūseyâ'' <br/> /ˈsuːsejaːː/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤀‎‎ ''sūsuδēyâ''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːjaːː/
|-
! "our"
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤍 ''sūsinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤍 ''sūsaδinu'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðinu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤍‎ ''sūsēnu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːnu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēnu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːnu/
|-
! "y'all's" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤌 ''sūsaδaγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤌‎ ''sūsēγem'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣem/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤌‎‎ ''sūsuδēγem''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣem/
|-
! "y'all's" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤊𐤍 ''sūsaδaγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤊𐤍‎ ''sūsēγen'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːɣen/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤊𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδēγen''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːɣen/
|-
! "their" (m)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤌 ''sūsām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤌 ''sūsaδām(u)'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːm(u)/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎  ''sūsêm, sūsēmu'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːm, ˈsuːseːmu/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤌, 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤌𐤅 ‎‎‎ ''sūsuδêm, sūsuδēmu''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːm ˈsuːsuðeːmu/
|-
! "their" (f)
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤀𐤍 ''sūsān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤀𐤍 ''sūsaδān'' <br/> /ˈsuːsaðaːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤉𐤀𐤍‎ ''sūsên'' <br/> /ˈsuːseːːn/
| 𐤎𐤅𐤎𐤕𐤉𐤀𐤍‎‎ ''sūsuδên''  <br/> /ˈsuːsuðeːːn/
|}
TODO: Principal parts for segolates and other specific patterns


====Other inflections====
====Other inflections====
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===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hā́bā'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').
Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ''ħṓli hṓbō'' 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (''ħṓli'' is the construct of ''ħṓlē'' 'sick').


A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the prefix ''rō-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).
A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the clitic ''rū-'' (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic ''*ɸro-''; cognate to Irish ''ró-'', Welsh ''rhy'', both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
todo: get rid of 3fp forms
todo: get rid of 3fp forms


Ancient Cubrite used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''pôlêl'' and ''pôlal'') remained fully productive in Ancient Cubrite.
Ancient Knench used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל ''polėl'' and ''polal'') remained fully productive in Ancient Knench.


Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:
Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:
Line 212: Line 112:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
The following verb forms lost their productivity:
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*emphatic m.sg. imperative ''-a''
*jussive (only survives in ''hayā'' 'to be')
*jussive (only survives in ''hajō'' 'to be')
*infinitive absolute
*infinitive absolute


The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lō'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''xī'' 'when', ''(wa)hinni'' 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.
The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as ''lū'' 'not', ''him'' 'if; definitely not', ''ha-'' 'question particle', ''kī'' 'when', ''(wa)hinni'' 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"  
Line 222: Line 122:
|-
|-
! preterite
! preterite
| waw-preterite: ''wayyōγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lō haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
| waw-preterite: ''wayyūγal''<br/>'he ate' || perfect: ''lū haγal''<br/>'he did not eat'
|-
|-
! present
! present
| waw-stative: ''wāhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lō yōγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
| waw-stative: ''wōhaγal''<br/>'he eats' || imperfect: ''lū yūγal''<br/>'he does not eat'  
|}
|}


Line 248: Line 148:
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmurī''
| ''waθθesmurī''
| ''wayyesmur''
| ''wajjesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''waθθesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''wannesmur''
| ''waθθesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''wayyesmurū''
| ''wajjesmurū''
| ''waθθesmurna''
| ''waθθesmurna''
|-
|-
Line 261: Line 161:
| ''samarθe''
| ''samarθe''
| ''samar''
| ''samar''
| ''samarā''
| ''samarō''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarnu''
| ''samarθem''
| ''samarθem''
Line 273: Line 173:
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamarθe''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamar''
| ''wassamarā''
| ''wassamarō''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarnu''
| ''wassamarθem''
| ''wassamarθem''
Line 283: Line 183:
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmurī''
| ''θesmurī''
| ''yesmur''
| ''jesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''θesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''nesmur''
| ''θesmurū''
| ''θesmurū''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''yesmurū''
| ''jesmurū''
| ''θesmurna''
| ''θesmurna''
|-
|-
Line 304: Line 204:
|-
|-
!colspan=2|active participle
!colspan=2|active participle
|colspan=10| ''sōmḗr''
|colspan=10| ''sūmḗr''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|passive participle
!colspan=2|passive participle
|colspan=10| ''samū́r''
|colspan=10| ''samȳ́r''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
Line 333: Line 233:
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδibī''
| ''waθθixxaδibī''
| ''wayyixxaδib''
| ''wajjixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδib''
| ''wannixxaδib''
| ''wannixxaδib''
| ''waθθixxaδibū''
| ''waθθixxaδibū''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''wayyixxaδibū''
| ''wajjixxaδibū''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
| ''waθθixxaδibna''
|-
|-
Line 346: Line 246:
| ''nixθabθe''
| ''nixθabθe''
| ''nixθab''
| ''nixθab''
| ''nixθabā''
| ''nixθabō''
| ''nixθabnu''
| ''nixθabnu''
| ''nixθabθem''
| ''nixθabθem''
Line 358: Line 258:
| ''wannixθabθe''
| ''wannixθabθe''
| ''wannixθab''
| ''wannixθab''
| ''wannixθabā''
| ''wannixθabō''
| ''wannixθabnu''
| ''wannixθabnu''
| ''wannixθabθem''
| ''wannixθabθem''
Line 368: Line 268:
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδibī''
| ''θixxaδibī''
| ''yixxaδib''
| ''jixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδib''
| ''nixxaδib''
| ''nixxaδib''
| ''θixxaδibū''
| ''θixxaδibū''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''yixxaδibū''
| ''jixxaδibū''
| ''θixxaδibna''
| ''θixxaδibna''
|-
|-
Line 389: Line 289:
|-
|-
!colspan=2|participle
!colspan=2|participle
|colspan=10| ''nixθāb''
|colspan=10| ''nixθōb''
|-
|-
!colspan=2|infinitive
!colspan=2|infinitive
Line 412: Line 312:
!rowspan=2| preterite
!rowspan=2| preterite
!|indep.
!|indep.
| ''wâgattil''
| ''wôgattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattilī''
| ''waθθagattilī''
| ''wayyagattil''
| ''wajjagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''waθθagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''wannagattil''
| ''waθθagattilū''
| ''waθθagattilū''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''wayyagattilū''
| ''wajjagattilū''
| ''waθθagattelna''
| ''waθθagattelna''
|-
|-
Line 428: Line 328:
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittelθe''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittil''
| ''kittilā''
| ''kittilō''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelnu''
| ''kittelθem''
| ''kittelθem''
Line 440: Line 340:
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittelθe''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittil''
| ''wakkittilā''
| ''wakkittilō''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelnu''
| ''wakkittelθem''
| ''wakkittelθem''
Line 450: Line 350:
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattilī''
| ''θagattilī''
| ''yagattil''
| ''jagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''θagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''nagattil''
| ''θagattilū''
| ''θagattilū''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''yagattilū''
| ''jagattilū''
| ''θagattelna''
| ''θagattelna''
|-
|-
Line 494: Line 394:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâbdīl''
| ''wôbdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
| ''waθθabdīlī''
| ''wayyabdīl''
| ''wajjabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''wannabdīl''
| ''waθθabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''wayyabdīlū''
| ''wajjabdīlū''
| ''waθθabdelna''
| ''waθθabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 510: Line 410:
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdelθe''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīl''
| ''hibdīlā''
| ''hibdīlō''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelnu''
| ''hibdelθem''
| ''hibdelθem''
Line 521: Line 421:
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdelθe''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdel''
| ''wêbdelā''
| ''wêbdelō''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelnu''
| ''wêbdelθem''
| ''wêbdelθem''
Line 531: Line 431:
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīlī''
| ''θabdīlī''
| ''yabdīl''
| ''jabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''θabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''nabdīl''
| ''θabdīlū''
| ''θabdīlū''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''yabdīlū''
| ''jabdīlū''
| ''θabdelna''
| ''θabdelna''
|-
|-
Line 575: Line 475:
|-
|-
! preterite indep.
! preterite indep.
| ''wâθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wôθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wajjiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wanniθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''wayyiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''wajjiθnaᴋᴋimū''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
| ''waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna''
|-
|-
Line 591: Line 491:
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemnu''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''hiθnaᴋᴋemθem''
Line 602: Line 502:
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθe''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimā''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋimō''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
| ''wêθnaᴋᴋemθem''
Line 612: Line 512:
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋimī''
| ''yiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''jiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''θiθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
| ''niθnaᴋᴋim''
Line 642: Line 542:
*1sg: -ni
*1sg: -ni
*2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
*2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
*3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ū), -ō (after C) (m); -â, -hâ (f)
*3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ȳ), -ū (after C) (m); -ô, -hô (f)
*1pl: -nu
*1pl: -nu
*2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
*2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
Line 648: Line 548:


====Gzarot====
====Gzarot====
:''Main article: [[Ancient Cubrite/Gzarot]]''
:''Main article: [[Ancient Knench/Gzarot]]''


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
*yōδ = direct object marker
*jūδ = direct object marker
*li- = to, for, of
*li- = to, for, of
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
*pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
*xamu- = like, as
*tum la- = like, as
*miC- = from
*miC- = from
*ȝim, hiδ = with (comit.)
*ȝim, hiδ = with (comit.)
*wēn = without
*wēn = without
*ya3n = because of
*jaȝn = because of
*ȝalē = on


===Conjunctions===
===Conjunctions===
*xa- = and ('like' > 'and')
*xa- = and ('like' > 'and')
*ya3n = because
*ja3n = because
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Ancient Cubrite syntax is similar to Bibical Hebrew, but more systematic and streamlined from an IE perspective. Basic word order was retained as VSO under the influence of Celtic (unlike in spoken Biblical Hebrew).
Ancient Knench syntax is similar to Bibical Hebrew but appears more streamlined from an IE perspective. Basic word order was retained as VSO (unlike in spoken Biblical Hebrew).


===Tense constructions===
===Tense constructions===
Ancient Cubrite preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
Ancient Knench preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.
*Pluperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' + perfect
*Pluperfect: ''hajō'' or ''wajjê'' + perfect
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
*Past imperfect: ''hayā'' or ''wayyê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Past imperfect: ''hajō'' or ''wajjê'' ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative
*Present: imperfect or waw-stative  
*Future imperfective: ''yî'' or ''wāyā'' + imperfect  
**Jussive uses the present dependent
*Future perfective: ''wāyā'' + perfect (~ BH ''*wahayā'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*Future imperfective: ''jî'' or ''wājō'' + imperfect  
*Future perfective: ''wājō'' + perfect (~ BH ''*wahajō'', waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
*As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use ''hal'' + 2nd person present dependent.
*As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use ''hal'' + 2nd person present dependent.


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#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
#ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
#more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": ''lō jōʕīl hiwwasivō laθ-θessuᴋā'' = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'
#more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": ''lū jūʕīl hiwwasivū laθ-θessuᴋō'' = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'


===Narratives===
===Narratives===
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Hypothetical example:  
Hypothetical example:  
:'''''wayyê vaȝm waθθê lāħamā, pōdīγā smâ. waθθê ȝazzaδ θessuᴋā, hinni hajāδā rō-ħōljaδ hābā.'''''  
:'''''wajjê faȝm wattê lāħamō, būdīkō smô. wattê ȝazzat tessuᴋō, hinni hajōt rū-ħūljat hābō.'''''  
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''
:''Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.''


===Wishes===
===Wishes===
Wishes and prayers use a form of ''ħajh'' 'alive' + subject + ''wa'' + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'I swear by X'.
Wishes and prayers use a form of ''ħajj'' 'alive' + subject + ''wa'' + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ''ħayy X...'' 'I swear by X'.
:'''''ħajjōδ hā-hasirōδ wa jagallū niᴛavōδ ham-mumallihōδ bā-harc xullâ wa baθ-θōruκā bâ.'''''
:'''''ħajjūt hō-hasirūt wa jagallū niᴛafūt ham-mumallihūt bō-harc kullô wa bat-tūruκō bô.'''''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''
:''May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.''


A somewhat less common option is to use ''mī jeθθin wa'' + present dependent (lit. who will give that...).
A somewhat less common option is to use ''mī jeθθin wa'' + present dependent (lit. who will give that...).
One can also simply use the present dependent.


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Ancient Cubrite vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with some Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.
Ancient Knench vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with many Azalic loans and a few Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.
===Derivation===
===Derivation===
====Mishkalim====
====Mishkalim====
*ᴋaᴛāl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛōl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*ᴋaᴛōl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛūl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
*ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
*ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
*ᴋaᴛīlā = noun pattern
*ᴋaᴛīlō = noun pattern
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīm (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīn (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlā, ᴋiᴛlā, ᴋuᴛlā, pl. ᴋVᴛalōδ
*feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlō, ᴋiᴛlō, ᴋuᴛlō, pl. ᴋVᴛalūδ
*ᴋaᴛalā (''paraγā'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*ᴋaᴛalō (''paraγō'' 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
*ᴋaᴛilā
*ᴋaᴛilō
*ᴋaᴛulā (''kadulā'' 'magnificence', ''zaruħā'' 'radiance')
*ᴋaᴛulō (''kadulō'' 'magnificence', ''zaruħō'' 'radiance')
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ā) = diminutive
*ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ō) = diminutive
*meᴋᴛal(ā) = often place
*meᴋᴛal(ō) = often place
*maᴋᴛel(ā) = instrument
*maᴋᴛel(ō) = instrument
*meᴋᴛōl
*meᴋᴛūl
*meᴋᴛul(ā)
*meᴋᴛul(ō)
*θaᴋᴛilā, θeᴋᴛulā
*θaᴋᴛilō, θeᴋᴛulō
*ᴋaᴛlōn
*ᴋaᴛlūn
*ᴋiᴛᴛalōn
*ᴋiᴛᴛalūn
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ā) = agentive
*ᴋaᴛᴛal(ō) = agentive
*ᴋaᴛᴛelā = disease
*ᴋaᴛᴛelō = disease
*ᴋaᴛᴛulā
*ᴋaᴛᴛulō
*θaᴋᴛelā
*θaᴋᴛelō
*θeᴋᴛulā = system of, art of, study of
*θeᴋᴛulō = system of, art of, study of


====Affixes====
====Affixes====
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyā''): adjective-forming affix
*''-î'' (feminine ''-īyō''): adjective-forming affix
*''-ūδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''-ȳδ'': abstract noun suffix
*''hī-'': un-, non-
*''hī-'': un-, non-


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==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
===An incantation===
===An incantation===
The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Cubrite poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):
The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Knench poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):


[...]
[...]
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===A ritual===
===A ritual===
===An excerpt===
===An excerpt===
==Modern uses==
=== Ha'azinu ===
Modern adaptations of Proto-Azalic and Ancient Cubrite are used in certain New Age spiritual communities in Lõis, with ad hoc and often divergent pronunciation systems, as modern Levantine sprachbund languages do not have the phonation distinctions of the ancient languages.
TODO: weight sensitive stress after stress shift to penultimate and final vowel loss; verbs have earlier stress than nouns
 
<poem>
hāzī́nū, has-samḗm, bi-dábbirī; súmȝī, hā-harc, jūt millū́lē fî.
tésᴛuf líᴋħī dum lam-maᴛár, tézzal hímratī dum laᴛ-ᴛal,
dum la-natz ȝálē dās, ka dum la-rubb-neᴛī́fō ȝálē ȝiśb.
</poem>


==Lexicon==
==Lexicon==
===h===
===h===
*''hā́bā'' = love
*''hōbō'' = love
*''hilô'' (pl. ''hilṓhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hilû'' (pl. ''hiūhīm'') = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese ''kami''
*''hasírā'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hasírō'' = the spirit of a tree
*''hinni'' = but
*''hinni'' = but


===p===
===b===
*''pēδ'' = house
*''bēt'' = house


===k===
===g===
===t===
===d===
===w===
===w===
===z===
===z===
*''zadā'' = defect, crookedness (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zadō'' = injustice, wrong (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
*''zīdā'' = wrongness, injustice
*''zaruħō'' = radiance
*''zaruħā'' = radiance
 
===ħ===
===ħ===
*''ħabab'' = to love (stative)
*''ħabab'' = to love (stative)
*''ħabaK'' = to hug, to embrace
*''ħabaᴋ'' = to hug, to embrace
*''ħawō'' = to live
** ''ħawe!'' = hail! (u > a after a guttural first consonant) (Source of Latin ''ave'' in Irta)


===ᴛ===
===ᴛ===
===j===
===j===
===x===
===k===
*x-p-t
*k-b-d
**''xabed'' 'liver'
**''kabed'' 'liver'
**''xabid'' 'heavy'
**''kabid'' 'heavy'
**''xabōd'' 'honor'
**''kabūd'' 'honor'
**''xippid'' 'to honor'
**''kibbid'' 'to honor'
**''xabudā'' 'esteemed position'  
**''kabudō'' 'esteemed position'  
***''hax-xabudā'' 'sir, ma'am'
***''hak-kabudō'' 'sir, ma'am'
**''maxped'' 'scale, balance'
**''makped'' 'scale, balance'
*''xin'' 'and'
*''kin, ka-'' 'and'


===l===
===l===
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===n===
===n===
*n-ᴛ-f
*n-ᴛ-f
**''níᴛfā'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
**''níᴛfō'' = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)
===s===
===s===
===ȝ===
===ȝ===
*''ȝarábā'' = willow
*''ȝarábō'' = willow
===f===
===p===
*''fárrā'' = cow
*''párrō'' = cow


===c===
===c===
===ᴋ===
===ᴋ===
===r===
===r===
*''rimmṓn'' = pomegranate
*''rimmūn'' = pomegranate
===θ===
 
===t===
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]

Latest revision as of 01:46, 5 March 2024

Ancient Knench
*hak-kana3nījō
Created byIlL
SettingVerse:Irta
Afro-Asiatic
  • Semitic
    • Central Semitic
      • Canaanite
        • Ancient Knench

Ancient Knench, also called "Punic" in Irta (natively *hal-lasūn hak-kana3nījō 'the Canaanite language') is the earliest attested stage of Knench, first attested in the era of Biblical Hebrew. Post-Christianity it underwent drastic changes in mere centuries, thus ushering in the era of modern Knench. Ancient Knench was spoken in Iberia. Its premise is "Phoenician or Punic but a bit more Proto-Germanic".

Ancient Knench developed in isolation from Hebrew and was influenced by Azalic languages and Latin. It is a separate lineage from the dialect of Canaanite that eventually gave rise to Tiberian Hebrew and the modern Jewish Hebrew reading traditions in Irta.

Ancient Knench speakers were mostly Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. As such their religion differed markedly from ancient Hebrew polytheism (and seems to have adopted Semitic religious terms for concepts that were very different).

Surviving literature in Ancient Knench are attested in the Phoenician alphabet and in transcriptions into Greek or Latin. It includes a portion of the epic *Tabarē [?] (Tales of [?]) and some incantations.

(Grimm should happen during Old Knench stage)

Todo

  • When should matres lectionis be used?
  • some a-priori roots
  • Vowel reduction:
    • final originally unstressed long > short

Phonology

Orthography

Ancient Knench was written in an abjad descended from the Proto-Hebrew script, and sometimed used a native invented vocalization system. Incantations were completely vocalized, other religious texts less so.

Since Ancient Knench merged /ʔ/ and /h/ completely, the letters aleph (half) and he (hê) are confused in earlier texts. Eventually the letter he was only used for a few function words and particles such as the definite article haC-.

Consonants

Out of the 25 consonants of Proto-Canaanite, Ancient Knench merged:

  • /x/ with /ħ/ into /ħ/
  • /ʕ/ and /ɣ/ into /ɣ̃/
  • /h/ and /ʔ/ into /ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ([h] was an allophone used for emphasis.)
  • /s/ and /š/ into /s/

/m p b n t d t(phar) ts s(retracted) ts(phar) ɬ (Philly L) ħ k g q l w j r ʔ~ɦ~h~Ø/ ⟨m p b n t d ᴛ z s c ś ȝ ħ k g ᴋ l w y r h⟩

Vowels

Ancient Knench retained Proto-Canaanite vowel length and developed overlong vowels. It had the chain shift ā > ō > ū, similar to our timeline's Punic and Irta's Tsarfati Hebrew, and developed a new ā from compensatory lengthening.

a e i u ā ē ī ō ū ê î ô û /a ɛ~e ɪ~ɨ ʊ~o aː ɛː iː ɔː uː ɛːː iːː ɔːː uːː/

Minimal pairs and triples for overlong vowels in Ancient Knench:

  • malkō 'a queen', malkô 'her king'
  • suprī 'count! (f.sg.)', suprî 'literary, written'
  • harbi! 'do something a lot! (m.sg.)' harbī! 'ibid., f.sg.' harbî 'numerous'
  • dammim 'bleed!', dammīm 'bloodshed', dammîm 'bloody, of or like blood (masculine plural)'
  • bētū 'his house', bētû 'his houses'
  • rū3ē 'the evils of', rū3ê 'the friends of'

Many instances of long and overlong vowels resulted from dropped aleph and he and instances of lost gemination in grammatical affixes. For example: pû 'come! (m.sg.)' (from *būʔ < *buʔ, Tiberian Hebrew /bo:/)

Prosody

Stress

Morphophonology

Morphology

Pronouns

Independent

  • 1sg: hani, ni
  • 2sg: hatta, ta (m); hatte, te (f)
  • 3sg: hū (m); hī (f)
  • 1pl: haħnu
  • 2pl: hattemma, temma (m); hattenna, tenna (f)
  • 3pl: hemma (m), henna (f)

Nouns

Inflection

The definite article was ʔaC- (~ Biblical Hebrew *haC-). It caused gemination of the following consonant; if the following consonant was a guttural and thus could not geminate, it was lengthened to ʔō-.

Unstressed -ō corresponds to the Biblical feminine singular ending *-ā. -t was a much less common ending than in Biblical Hebrew. Eventually stress shifted away from gender/number suffixes across the board: The regular masculine and feminine plural endings were unstressed -īn and unstressed -ūt, ~ Biblical Hebrew *-ī́m and *-ṓt.

Often -ō is found where Hebrew has -t.

The construct state was much more predictable than in Tiberian Hebrew.

Other inflections

The directive he reflects as -a.

Adjectives

Adjectives are very similar to pre-exilic Biblical Hebrew. Adjectives can be put in construct state: e.g. ħṓli hṓbō 'lovesick (m.sg.)' (ħṓli is the construct of ħṓlē 'sick').

A common way to express 'very, extreme(ly), great(ly)' was to use the clitic rū- (which caused mutation; borrowed from Proto-Celtic *ɸro-; cognate to Irish ró-, Welsh rhy, both 'too, excessively'). At first only adjectives could take this prefix, but later it was also used on nouns to indicate numerousness or intensity (influenced by רוב *rubb 'multitude' used before a noun).

Verbs

todo: get rid of 3fp forms

Ancient Knench used all 7 binyanim of Biblical Hebrew; another stem (the L-stem; TibH פולל polėl and polal) remained fully productive in Ancient Knench.

Verbs inherited the following forms from pre-Biblical Hebrew:

  • preterite independent (~ BH waw-consecutive preterite)
  • present independent (~ BH waw-consecutive imperfect)
  • preterite dependent (~ BH perfect)
  • present dependent (~ BH imperfect)
  • imperative
  • cohortative -a
  • infinitive construct
  • participles

The following verb forms lost their productivity:

  • emphatic m.sg. imperative -a
  • jussive (only survives in hajō 'to be')
  • infinitive absolute

The waw-consecutive came to play a purely syntactic role: The waw-consecutive is used as the default form, and the non-waw forms are used when a pre-verbal particle is attached (such as lū 'not', him 'if; definitely not', ha- 'question particle', kī 'when', (wa)hinni 'but; but then'). This is similar to Old Irish verbal allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.

Independent vs. dependent forms: example
independent dependent
preterite waw-preterite: wayyūγal
'he ate'		 perfect: lū haγal
'he did not eat'
present waw-stative: wōhaγal
'he eats'		 imperfect: lū yūγal
'he does not eat'

Binyan faȝal (paʕal)

samar 'he kept'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wêsmur waθθesmur waθθesmurī wajjesmur waθθesmur wannesmur waθθesmurū waθθesmurna wajjesmurū waθθesmurna
dep. samarθi samarθa samarθe samar samarō samarnu samarθem samarθen samarū
present indep. wassamarθi wassamarθa wassamarθe wassamar wassamarō wassamarnu wassamarθem wassamarθen wassamarū
dep. hesmur θesmur θesmurī jesmur θesmur nesmur θesmurū θesmurna jesmurū θesmurna
imperative - simur! simurī! - - - simurū! simurna! - -
active participle sūmḗr
passive participle samȳ́r
infinitive simṓr

Binyan nivȝal (nifʕal)

nixθab 'it was written'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wêxxaδib waθθixxaδib waθθixxaδibī wajjixxaδib waθθixxaδib wannixxaδib waθθixxaδibū waθθixxaδibna wajjixxaδibū waθθixxaδibna
dep. nixθabθi nixθabθa nixθabθe nixθab nixθabō nixθabnu nixθabθem nixθabθen nixθabū
present indep. wannixθabθi wannixθabθa wannixθabθe wannixθab wannixθabō wannixθabnu wannixθabθem wannixθabθen wannixθabū
dep. hixxaδib θixxaδib θixxaδibī jixxaδib θixxaδib nixxaδib θixxaδibū θixxaδibna jixxaδibū θixxaδibna
imperative - hixxaδib! hixxaδibī! - - - hixxaδibū! hixxaδibna! - -
participle nixθōb
infinitive hixxaδib

Binyan fiȝȝil (piʕʕel)

kittil 'he grew (sth)'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôgattil waθθagattil waθθagattilī wajjagattil waθθagattil wannagattil waθθagattilū waθθagattelna wajjagattilū waθθagattelna
dep. kittelθi kittelθa kittelθe kittil kittilō kittelnu kittelθem kittelθen kittilū
present indep. wakkittelθi wakkittelθa wakkittelθe wakkittil wakkittilō wakkittelnu wakkittelθem wakkittelθen wakkittilū
dep. hagattil θagattil θagattilī jagattil θagattil nagattil θagattilū θagattelna jagattilū θagattelna
imperative - kattil! kattilī! - - - kattilū! kattelna! - -
participle mugattil
infinitive kattil

Binyan fuȝȝal (puʕal)

Binyan hivȝīl (hifʕil)

hibdīl 'he separated'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôbdīl waθθabdīl waθθabdīlī wajjabdīl waθθabdīl wannabdīl waθθabdīlū waθθabdelna wajjabdīlū waθθabdelna
preterite dep. hibdelθi hibdelθa hibdelθe hibdīl hibdīlō hibdelnu hibdelθem hibdelθen hibdīlū
present indep. wêbdelθi wêbdelθa wêbdelθe wêbdel wêbdelō wêbdelnu wêbdelθem wêbdelθen wêbdelū
present dep. habdīl θabdīl θabdīlī jabdīl θabdīl nabdīl θabdīlū θabdelna jabdīlū θabdelna
imperative - habdel! habdelī! - - - habdelū! habdelna! - -
participle mabdīl
infinitive habdīl

Binyan huvȝal (hufʕal)

Binyan hiðvaȝȝil (hithpaʕʕel)

hiθnaᴋᴋim 'he resented'
→ Person
↓ Tense 		1s 2ms 2fs 3ms 3fs 1p 2mp 2fp 3mp 3fp
preterite indep. wôθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋimī wajjiθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋim wanniθnaᴋᴋim waθθiθnaᴋᴋimū waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna wajjiθnaᴋᴋimū waθθiθnaᴋᴋemna
preterite dep. hiθnaᴋᴋemθi hiθnaᴋᴋemθa hiθnaᴋᴋemθe hiθnaᴋᴋim hiθnaᴋᴋimō hiθnaᴋᴋemnu hiθnaᴋᴋemθem hiθnaᴋᴋemθen hiθnaᴋᴋimū
present indep. wêθnaᴋᴋemθi wêθnaᴋᴋemθa wêθnaᴋᴋemθe wêθnaᴋᴋim wêθnaᴋᴋimō wêθnaᴋᴋemθnu wêθnaᴋᴋemθem wêθnaᴋᴋemθem wêθnaᴋᴋimū
present dep. haθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋimī jiθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋim niθnaᴋᴋim θiθnaᴋᴋimū θiθnaᴋᴋemna θiθnaᴋᴋimū θiθnaᴋᴋemna
imperative - hiθnaᴋᴋim! hiθnaᴋᴋimī! - - - hiθnaᴋᴋimū! hiθnaᴋᴋemna! - -
participle muθnaᴋᴋim
infinitive hiθnaᴋᴋim

Object suffixes

  • 1sg: -ni
  • 2sg: -γa (m); -γe (f)
  • 3sg: -w (after most V), -vu (after u or ȳ), -ū (after C) (m); -ô, -hô (f)
  • 1pl: -nu
  • 2pl: -γem (m); -γen (f)
  • 3pl: -hem, -m, -im, -mu, -imu (m); -hen, -n, -in (f)

Gzarot

Main article: Ancient Knench/Gzarot

Prepositions

  • jūδ = direct object marker
  • li- = to, for, of
  • pi- = in, at, by, with (inst.)
  • tum la- = like, as
  • miC- = from
  • ȝim, hiδ = with (comit.)
  • wēn = without
  • jaȝn = because of
  • ȝalē = on

Conjunctions

  • xa- = and ('like' > 'and')
  • ja3n = because

Syntax

Ancient Knench syntax is similar to Bibical Hebrew but appears more streamlined from an IE perspective. Basic word order was retained as VSO (unlike in spoken Biblical Hebrew).

Tense constructions

Ancient Knench preserved Biblical Hebrew-like verb conjugation quite well (even retaining the waw-consecutive), but also innovated tense constructions. This came from the fact that Celtic speakers attempting to use the aspect-based grammar of Canaanite wanted to indicate tense unambiguously. The choice of whether to use the non-waw or the waw forms is purely syntactic; it depends on whether there is a preverb or not.

  • Pluperfect: hajō or wajjê + perfect
  • Preterite: perfect or waw-preterite
  • Past imperfect: hajō or wajjê ('was') + imperfect is used to specifically indicate past imperfect
  • Present: imperfect or waw-stative
    • Jussive uses the present dependent
  • Future imperfective: jî or wājō + imperfect
  • Future perfective: wājō + perfect (~ BH *wahajō, waw-consecutive + suffix conjugation)
  • As in Hebrew, positive imperatives use the imperative but negative imperatives use hal + 2nd person present dependent.

Uses of the infinitive construct

Many of the Biblical or quasi-Biblical uses of the infinitive construct were retained:

  1. la + IC may be used to indicate purpose
  2. there were many verbs after which either la + IC or bare IC were commonly used
  3. ba- or xa- + IC + NOUN = "when possessor VERBs/VERBed..."
  4. more generally clauses with IC serve to point to an action in a tenseless way, like "for NOUN to VERB": lū jūʕīl hiwwasivū laθ-θessuᴋō = 'It is not worth it for him to join the fight'

Narratives

As in Biblical Hebrew, narratives tend to use the waw-preterite. A narrative is commonly introduced by wayyê 'it was' (often to give background info).

Hypothetical example:

wajjê faȝm wattê lāħamō, būdīkō smô. wattê ȝazzat tessuᴋō, hinni hajōt rū-ħūljat hābō.
Once there was a woman of war named Boudica. She was mighty in the art of battle, but she was greatly lovesick.

Wishes

Wishes and prayers use a form of ħajj 'alive' + subject + wa + verb in present dependent (from the jussive). This is an evolution of an oath formula ħayy X... 'I swear by X'.

ħajjūt hō-hasirūt wa jagallū niᴛafūt ham-mumallihūt bō-harc kullô wa bat-tūruκō bô.
May the tree-spirits reveal mystical insights pervading the whole earth and the lush vegetation in it.

A somewhat less common option is to use mī jeθθin wa + present dependent (lit. who will give that...).

One can also simply use the present dependent.

Vocabulary

Ancient Knench vocabulary was mostly Semitic, but with many Azalic loans and a few Celtic loans. The inherited Semitic vocabulary shows some semantic drift relative to Biblical Hebrew, as well as additional coinages.

Derivation

Mishkalim

  • ᴋaᴛōl, ᴋaᴛēl, ᴋaᴛūl = common noun and adjective pattern for basic words
  • ᴋaᴛīl = adjective pattern
  • ᴋaᴛīlō = noun pattern
  • masculine segolates: ᴋaᴛl, ᴋiᴛl, ᴋuᴛl, pl. ᴋVᴛalīn (ᴋuᴛl is often used for nouns of quantity and quality)
  • feminine segolates: ᴋaᴛlō, ᴋiᴛlō, ᴋuᴛlō, pl. ᴋVᴛalūδ
  • ᴋaᴛalō (paraγō 'good fortune, auspiciousness')
  • ᴋaᴛilō
  • ᴋaᴛulō (kadulō 'magnificence', zaruħō 'radiance')
  • ᴋaᴛalᴛal(ō) = diminutive
  • meᴋᴛal(ō) = often place
  • maᴋᴛel(ō) = instrument
  • meᴋᴛūl
  • meᴋᴛul(ō)
  • θaᴋᴛilō, θeᴋᴛulō
  • ᴋaᴛlūn
  • ᴋiᴛᴛalūn
  • ᴋaᴛᴛal(ō) = agentive
  • ᴋaᴛᴛelō = disease
  • ᴋaᴛᴛulō
  • θaᴋᴛelō
  • θeᴋᴛulō = system of, art of, study of

Affixes

  • -î (feminine -īyō): adjective-forming affix
  • -ȳδ: abstract noun suffix
  • hī-: un-, non-

Examples of Celtic vocabulary

Sample texts

An incantation

The following incantation has 4 stressed syllables per line (Prosody in Ancient Knench poetry is based on the number of stressed syllables per line):

[...]

A ritual

An excerpt

Ha'azinu

TODO: weight sensitive stress after stress shift to penultimate and final vowel loss; verbs have earlier stress than nouns

hāzī́nū, has-samḗm, bi-dábbirī; súmȝī, hā-harc, jūt millū́lē fî.
tésᴛuf líᴋħī dum lam-maᴛár, tézzal hímratī dum laᴛ-ᴛal,
dum la-natz ȝálē dās, ka dum la-rubb-neᴛī́fō ȝálē ȝiśb.

Lexicon

h

  • hōbō = love
  • hilû (pl. hiūhīm) = an animistic spirit, like a Japanese kami
  • hasírō = the spirit of a tree
  • hinni = but

b

  • bēt = house

g

d

w

z

  • zadō = injustice, wrong (זדה is a hapax legomena in the Siloam inscription)
  • zaruħō = radiance

ħ

  • ħabab = to love (stative)
  • ħabaᴋ = to hug, to embrace
  • ħawō = to live
    • ħawe! = hail! (u > a after a guttural first consonant) (Source of Latin ave in Irta)

ᴛ

j

k

  • k-b-d
    • kabed 'liver'
    • kabid 'heavy'
    • kabūd 'honor'
    • kibbid 'to honor'
    • kabudō 'esteemed position'
      • hak-kabudō 'sir, ma'am'
    • makped 'scale, balance'
  • kin, ka- 'and'

l

m

n

  • n-ᴛ-f
    • níᴛfō = spiritual intuition or inspiration (from a root meaning 'dropping, prophecy' in BH)

s

ȝ

  • ȝarábō = willow

p

  • párrō = cow

c

ᴋ

r

  • rimmūn = pomegranate

t

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