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Valthungian: Difference between revisions
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<small><sup>1</sup></small>Before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉.<br /> | <small><sup>1</sup></small>Before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉.<br /> | ||
=== | ===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes=== | ||
====Voicing Alternation==== | |||
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between 〈f〉, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and 〈b〉 used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’. Likewise the relationship between 〈þ〉 and〈d〉. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian: | |||
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between 〈f〉 | |||
*v → f | *v → f | ||
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Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic 〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 from earlier 〈h〉 which is ''not'' affected by this rule. | Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic 〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 from earlier 〈h〉 which is ''not'' affected by this rule. | ||
===Palatalisation=== | ====Palatalisation==== | ||
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules: | Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules: | ||
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**t or k + j → č | **t or k + j → č | ||
**s or h + j → š | **s or h + j → š | ||
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of 〈z〉 eventually became 〈ž〉 | **z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of 〈z〉 eventually became 〈ž〉.) | ||
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below. | Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below. | ||
===[b]/[v] Alternation=== | ====[b]/[v] Alternation==== | ||
A less common alternation is that of 〈b〉 and 〈v〉. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of 〈v〉 to 〈b〉; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original 〈j〉 are able to shift from 〈b〉 to 〈v〉 when intervocalic, but those with 〈j〉 are blocked from spirantizing. | A less common alternation is that of 〈b〉 and 〈v〉. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of 〈v〉 to 〈b〉; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original 〈j〉 are able to shift from 〈b〉 to 〈v〉 when intervocalic, but those with 〈j〉 are blocked from spirantizing. | ||
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For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja''). | For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja''). | ||
===Umlaut=== | ====Umlaut==== | ||
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language. | Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words. | ||
*The accusative singular of nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted. | *The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted. | ||
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted | *The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy. | ||
* | *Verbs ending in ''–jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''–in'' in Valthungian. | ||
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word: | Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word: | ||
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin'' | *a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin'' | ||
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ''' | *ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin'' | ||
*ǭ (''Got''. 〈áu〉) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin'' | *ǭ (''Got''. 〈áu〉) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin'' | ||
*o (''Got''. 〈aú〉) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → '' | *o (''Got''. 〈aú〉) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin'' | ||
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin'' | *ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin'' | ||
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin'' | *u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin'' | ||
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NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, front umlaut, or i-mutation. | NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, front umlaut, or i-mutation. | ||
===Coronal Consonant Assimilation=== | ====Coronal Consonant Assimilation==== | ||
This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by 〈t〉 or 〈st〉, the | This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by 〈t〉 or 〈st〉, the former consonant 〈s〉. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''. | ||
===Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking=== | ====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking==== | ||
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like ''bagms'' and ''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ''-an'' to ''-n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, ''*brōþar'' ‘brother’ became '' | Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like ''bagms'' and ''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ''-an'' to ''-n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi ''*brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of 〈a〉after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state. | ||
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that: | The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that: | ||
*Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in 〈–m〉 have the ending of 〈–am〉 rather than 〈–ma〉, e.g. '' | *Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in 〈–m〉 have the ending of 〈–am〉 rather than 〈–ma〉, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''. | ||
*Masculine strong a-stem nouns ending in 〈–n〉 have the the dative plural ending of 〈–am〉 (as above) and the accusative plural ending of 〈–ans〉 rather than 〈–nas〉, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''. | *Masculine strong a-stem nouns ending in 〈–n〉 have the the dative plural ending of 〈–am〉 (as above) and the accusative plural ending of 〈–ans〉 rather than 〈–nas〉, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''. | ||
* | *Strong a-stem adjectives ending in 〈–n〉 have a masculine accusative singular of 〈–an〉 rather than 〈–na〉, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna'' | ||
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''-anþ'' rather than **''naþ''. | *The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''-anþ'' rather than **''naþ''. | ||
===Assimilation of [r] and [s]=== | ====Assimilation of [r] and [s]==== | ||
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms. | Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms. | ||
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Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉 and 〈-s〉 do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.) | Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉 and 〈-s〉 do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.) | ||
===Affix Anaptyxis=== | ====Affix Anaptyxis==== | ||
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. Some of the most frequent are: | When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. Some of the most frequent are: | ||