Linguifex

Valthungian: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Valthungian (view source)

Revision as of 16:11, 12 November 2023

44,310 bytes added ,  12 November 2023
m
→‎Other Determiners
No edit summary
(127 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: A priori]]
[[Category: A_posteriori]]
[[Category: Baraqesh languages]]
[[Category: Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category: Germanic languages]]
[[Category: East Germanic languages]]
[[Category: Valthungian]]


Maltcégj is an a priori, agglutinative, semi-analytic head-initial language created by BenJamin P. Johnson in 2001. It has a strict VSO sentence structure that is modified with large numbers of verbal and nominal particles.
{{construction}}
{{Bpnjohnson.info|Valthungian, the Grey Tongue|Grējutungiška Rasta, So Grējuga Tunga|ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giɕ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ, so̞ ˈgrai̯.ju.ɡɑ ˈtuŋ.gɑ|2010|Europe, vaguely|Indo-European|Indo-European|Germanic|East Germanic|Griutungi|Old Valthungian|Middle Valthungian||qgt|grey}}


{{Infobox language
Valthungian is an [[wiki:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with [[wiki:Gothic_language|Gothic]], though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of [[wiki:Ulfilas|Wulfila]]. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and [[wiki:Old_High_German|Old High German]] – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German.
|name = Maltcégj
|nativename = Maltcégj
|pronunciation = mɑlˈʧɛɡ͡ʒ
|creator = [[User:Bpnjohnson|BenJamin P. Johnson]],<br />
<small>creator of:<br />
<ul>
<li>[[Ox-Yew|Adzaay]]</li>
<li>[[Dlatci]]</li>
<li>[[Grayis]]</li>
<li>[[Maltcégj]]</li>
<li>[[Northeadish]]</li>
<li>[[Valthungian]]</li>
<ul>
<li>''[[Griutungi]]''</li>
<li>''[[Old Valthungian]]''</li>
<li>''[[Middle Valthungian]]''</li>
</ul>
<li>[[Gothic Romance]]</li>
<ul>
<li>''[[Latina Ignōbilis]]''</li>
<li>''[[Old Valthungian]]''</li>
<li>''[[Italian Gothic]]''</li>
<li>''[[Bad Romance]]''</li>
</ul>
</ul>
curator of:<br />
<ul>
<li>[[Brooding]]</li>
<li>[[Nymeran]]</li>
</ul>
</small>
|created = 2001
|setting =
|familycolor = Conlang
|fam1 = Baraqesh
|scripts = * [[#Alphabet_and_Pronunciation|Maltcégj Alphabet]]
* [[w:Latin script|Latin script]] (transliteration)
|brcl = mltj
}}


==Alphabet and Pronunciation==
While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to [[wiki:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[wiki:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic languages]], it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalisation, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to [[Middle Valthungian]] (spoken from around 1200‒1600ᴀᴅ) through [[Old Valthungian]] (800‒1200ᴀᴅ) and ultimately to [[Griutungi]], which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800ᴀᴅ).


{| class="wikitable"
The name “Valthungian” comes from the name ''Valthungi'' – a Latin term likely derived from a pre-Old Valthungian name *''Walþungae'' – meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely a branch of or related to the [[w: Thervingi|Thervingians]] (''idem''), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungišk]]''''', which is probably from an earlier ''[[w: Greuthungi|Griutuggs]]'' (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungiška]] [[Contionary: rasta#Valthungian|Rasta]]''''' ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just '''''[[Contionary: so#Valthungian|So]] [[Contionary: grējus#Valthungian|Grējuga]] [[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|Tunga]]''''' ‘the Grey Tongue’.
 
==Writing System==
===Alphabet & Pronunciation===
Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the romanisation I use for them in the second row. This romanisation is otherwise used throughout this article.
 
{| style="border:0px; background:none;"
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aska.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|A a
|width=50|[ɑ]
||''[[Contionary:aska|aska]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ash’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aejus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǣ ǣ
|width=50|[e̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǣjus|ǣjus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘horse’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-breka.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|B b
|width=50|[b]
||''[[Contionary:breka|breka]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘birch’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-giva.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|G g
|width=50|[ɡ]
||''[[Contionary:giva|giva]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘gift’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-djus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǧ ǧ
|width=50|[ʤ]
||''[[Contionary:ǧus|ǧus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘beast’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-dagz.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|D d
|width=50|[d]
||''[[Contionary:daǧ|daǧ]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘day’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aedhi.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ð ð
|width=50|[ð]
||''[[Contionary:ǣði|ǣði]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘mother’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-egja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|E e
|width=50|[e̞]
||''[[Contionary:eǧa|eǧa]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘blade’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-akuzje.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ž ž
|width=50|[ʒ]
||''[[Contionary:akuže|akuže]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘axe’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-hagla.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|H h
|width=50|[h~x]
||''[[Contionary:hagla|hagla]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hail’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-thronus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Þ þ
|width=50|[θ]
||''[[Contionary:þronus|þronus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘thorn’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-igil.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|I i
|width=50|[i]
||''[[Contionary:igil|igil]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hedgehog’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-jeer.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|J j
|width=50|[j]
||''[[Contionary:jēr|jēr]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘year’
|}
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kune.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|K k
|width=50|[k~kʰ]
||''[[Contionary:kune|kune]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘family’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-lagus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|L l
|width=50|[l]
||''[[Contionary:lagus|lagus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘lake’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-matna.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|M m
|width=50|[m]
||''[[Contionary:matna|matna]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘person’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-naoths.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|N n
|width=50|[n]
||''[[Contionary:nǭþs|nǭþs]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘need’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ore.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|O o
|width=50|[o̞]
||''[[Contionary:ore|ore]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘riverbank’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-predhra.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|P p
|width=50|[p~pʰ]
||''[[Contionary:preðra|preðra]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘chance’
|-
|-
| '''a'''
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-redha.png]]
| '''b'''
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|R r
| '''c'''
|width=50|[r]
| '''d'''
||''[[Contionary:reða|reða]]''
| '''ð'''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘earth’
| '''e'''
| '''f'''
| '''g'''
| '''ǧ'''  
| '''h'''
| '''i'''
|-
|-
| /ɑ/
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-soogila.png]]
| /b/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|S s
| /ʃ/
|width=50|[s]
| /d/
||''[[Contionary:sōgila|sōgila]]''
| /ð/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘sun’
| /ɛ/
| /f/
| /g/
| /γ/
| /h/
| /i/
|-
|-
| '''j'''
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-sjuge.png]]
| '''k'''
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Š š
| '''l'''
|width=50|[ʃ]
| '''ɮ'''
||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''
| '''ʌ'''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour’
| '''m'''
| '''n'''
| '''o'''
| '''ǫ'''  
| '''p'''
| '''r'''
|-
|-
| /ʒ/
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]]
| /k/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|T t
| /l/
|width=50|[t~tʰ]
| /ɮ/
||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''
| /ɫ̩/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu’
| /m/
| /n/
| /o/
| /ɔ/
| /p/
| /ɾ/
|-
|-
| '''ʀ'''
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]]
| '''s'''
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Č č
| '''t'''
|width=50|[ʧ]
| '''þ'''
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]''
| '''u'''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘choice’
| '''v'''
| '''w'''
| '''x'''
| '''y'''  
| '''ẏ'''
| '''z'''
|-
|-
| /ɹ̩/
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]]
| /s/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|U u
| /t/
|width=50|[u]
| /θ/
||''[[Contionary:ungula|ungula]]''
| /u/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘owl’
| /v/
| /w/
| /x/
| /ɪ/
| /j/
| /z/
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ivra.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|V v
|width=50|[v]
||''[[Contionary:ivra|ivra]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘boar’
|}
|}
 
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
===Orthography===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
 
!'''&nbsp;'''
* Primary stress is indicated in words of more than one syllable with an acute accent over the primary vowel. In diphthongs, the accent is placed on the first vowel.
!'''&nbsp;'''
* Where two vowels appear together but are ''not'' a diphthong, the second vowel is marked with a diæresis if it is a front vowel, or with a single dot if a back vowel (i.e. ï, ÿ, ë, ȧ, ǫ̇, ȯ, u̇), e.g. oï.
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
**Even if this would not result in a standard diphthong, this convention is still followed any time there are two disyllabic pertingent vowels, e.g. ''[[Contionary: kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]]'' ‘all’, ''[[Contionary: itáliȧ#Maltcégj|itáliȧ]]'' ‘Italy’.  
!'''Name'''
**If the second vowel is stressed, however, the first vowel is marked instead, e.g. italiáno → ''[[Contionary: italïáno#Maltcégj| italïáno]]'' ‘Italian’.
!'''Name Meaning'''
**(NB: This stylistic rule is followed rather loosely, and often only applies to the letters 〈ë〉 and 〈ï〉.)
|-
* No capital letters are used.
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-faejo.png]]
 
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|F f
===Native Writing System===
|width=50|[f]
 
||''[[Contionary:fǣjo|fǣjo]]''
Maltcégj is also written using a featural alphabet which treats the vowels as diacritics, and also uses diacritics to describe manner of articulation and consonant clusters. In all there are only seven “letters”; all other phonetic functions are filled by diacritics or modifications of these seven characters. (Actually, there are really only four: the labial, dental, palatal, and glottal forms are just directional variations of the same character, and the rhotic is just a turned lambdic.)
|style="text-align:left;"|‘cattle’
 
|-
The default characters are the voiced continuants. (NB: The default form is used by /h/ because there is no unvoiced equivalent.)
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-wynia.png]]
 
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|W w
{| class="wikitable"
|width=50|[w]
!width=160px|
||''[[Contionary:wynia|wynia]]''
!width=100px| Labial
|style="text-align:left;"|‘joy’
!width=100px| Dental
|-
!width=100px| Coronal
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-roetja.png]]
!width=100px| Palatal
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ œ
!width=100px| Velar
|width=50|[ø̞̞]
!width=100px| Glottal
||''[[Contionary:rœča|rœča]]''
!width=300px| Description
|style="text-align:left;"|‘farmer’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ynkja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Y y
|width=50|[y]
||''[[Contionary:ynča|ynča]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ounce’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aosus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǭ ǭ
|width=50|[o̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǭsus|ǭsus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ox’
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:14pt;"|'''''Non-Alphabetic Variants'''''
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"| Continuant (Voiced)
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aade.png]]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-v.gif]]<br />'''v''' /v/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ā ā
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-ð.gif]]<br />'''ð''' /ð/
|width=50|[ɑː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-z.gif]]<br />'''z''' /z/
||''[[Contionary:āde|āde]]''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-j.gif]]<br />'''j''' /ʒ/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘egg’
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-gh.gif]]<br />'''ǧ''' /γ/
|
| These are the default forms of all the obstruents.
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"| Coninuant (Unvoiced)
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-eemate.png]]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-f.gif]]<br />'''f''' /f/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ē ē
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-þ.gif]]<br />'''þ''' /θ/
|width=50|[ɑi̯]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-s.gif]]<br />'''s''' /s/
||''[[Contionary:ēmate|ēmate]]''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-c.gif]]<br />'''c''' /ʃ/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ant’
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-x.gif]]<br />'''x''' /x/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-h.gif]]<br />'''h''' /h/
| For devoicing, an extra stroke is added to the body of the character. (There is not an extra stroke in 〈h〉, because since there is no voiced equivalent, it is simpler to leave it in default form.)
|-
|-
!
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-iis.png]]
!colspan=2| Labial
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ī ī
!colspan=2| Alveolar
|width=50|[iː]
!colspan=2| Vela
||''[[Contionary:īs|īs]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ice’
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"| Stops
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-oodhla.png]]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-b.gif]]<br />'''b''' /b/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ō ō
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-p.gif]]<br />'''p''' /p/
|width=50|[ɑu̯]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-d.gif]]<br />'''d''' /d/
||''[[Contionary:ōðla|ōðla]]''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-t.gif]]<br />'''t''' /t/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘inheritance’
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-g.gif]]<br />'''g''' /g/
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-k.gif]]<br />'''k''' /k/
| Stops are indicated by a diacritic: [[File:Maltcégj-plosive.gif]]
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"| Nasal
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-uurus.png]]
|colspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-m.gif]]<br />'''m''' /m/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ū ū
|colspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-n.gif]]<br />'''n''' /n/
|width=50|[uː]
|  
||''[[Contionary:ūrus|ūrus]]''
|
|style="text-align:left;"|‘aurochs’
| A different diacritic is used for nasals: [[File:Maltcégj-nasal.gif]]
|-
|-
! &nbsp;
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ooezja.png]]
!colspan=3| Lambdic
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ̄ œ̄
!colspan=3| Rhotic
|width=50|[ø̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:œ̄ža|œ̄ža]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘fortune’
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"| Liquids
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-yyfti.png]]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-l.gif]]<br />'''l''' /l/
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ȳ ȳ
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-lh.gif]]<br />'''ʌ''' /ɫ̩/
|width=50|[yː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-l-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''l'''
||''[[Contionary:ȳfti|ȳfti]]''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-r.gif]]<br />'''r''' /ɾ/
|style="text-align:left;"|‘custom’
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-rh.gif]]<br />'''ʀ''' /ɹ̩/
|}
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|[[File:Maltcégj-r-diac.gif]] diacritic&nbsp;'''r''' 
| 〈r〉 and 〈l〉 only appear in default form when they stand on their own; whenever either appears as a part of a consonant cluster, they are written as a diacritic.
|}
|}


===Phonology===
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, ⟨ā⟩ is equivalent to ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ē⟩ to ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ī⟩ to ⟨ii⟩, and so on. (The long vowels ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)
====Consonants====
 
{| class="wikitable"
(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin‑ and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.)
!width=160px| &nbsp;
 
!width=100px| Labial
===Orthography & Allophony===
!width=100px| Dental
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:
!width=100px| Coronal
 
!width=100px| Palatal
* The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
!width=100px| Velar
** In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
!width=100px| Glottal
* In the combinations ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨hl⟩, and ⟨hr⟩,⟨h⟩ is realised as [x].
* The sequence ⟨lju⟩ is realised as [ljɛu̯] (rather than the expected [lju]). (E.g. ''ljuga'' [ljɛu̯.ɡa] ‘lion’.)
* The sequence ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
* The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''þreugi'' [θrɛu̯.ɡi] ‘wrath’.)
* The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
* Medial ⟨dl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) is realised as [dɮ]. (E.g. ''hadla'' [ha.dɮa] ‘mansion’.)
* For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s].
* Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.)
** This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''.
 
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if:
* The stress is ''not'' on the first syllable.
** (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.)
* The stressed vowel is short.
** (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.)
* The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩.
** (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i‑umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)
 
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’.
 
===Orthographic Variants===
There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic.  This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:
** ''ǧukospríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''ǧùkospringna'' or ''ǧùkospríngna''
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis''
** ''miðlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìðlǣði'' or ''mìðlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìðlǽði'')
* ⟨w⟩ may be used in place of word-initial ⟨v⟩ or pre-vocalic ⟨u⟩ to represent /w/ as a more direct transliteration of the letter ''vynia''. There is no logical or efficient reason for this transliteration to be split up the way it is in the standard language: Its existence is purely aesthetic, and many people are not as interested in aesthetics as efficiency.
* Conversely, there are some who romanise ''jēr'' as ⟨i⟩ rather than as ⟨j⟩, likely out of spite towards those who use ⟨w⟩ as above.
 
==Phonology==
===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
! width=100px rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2"| '''Short Vowels'''
! rowspan="5"|
! colspan="2"| '''Long Vowels'''
! width=100px rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2"| '''Diphthongs'''
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Plosive
! width=65px| '''Front'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|p · b
! width=65px| '''Back'''
|
! width=65px| '''Front'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|t · d
! width=65px| '''Back'''
|
! width=65px| '''Front'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|k · g
! width=65px| '''Back'''
|
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Affricate
!'''Closed'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|pf · bv
|'''i · y'''<br />[i · y]
|
|'''u'''<br />[u]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|ts · dz
|'''ī · ȳ'''<br />[iː · yː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|tc · dj
|'''ū'''<br />[uː]
!'''Closed-to-'''
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Fricative
!'''Mid'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|f · v
|'''e · œ'''<br />[e̞ · ø̞]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|þ · ð
|'''o'''<br />[o̞]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|s · z
|'''ǣ · œ̄'''<br />[e̞ː · ø̞ː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|c · j
|'''ǭ'''<br />[o̞ː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|x · ǧ
!'''Mid-to-'''
|rowspan=2 style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|h ·
|'''œu'''<br />[œy̑]
|'''eu'''<br />[ɛu̯]
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Approximant
!'''Open'''
|
|
|'''a'''<br />[ɑ]
|
|
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ʀ<ref>〈ʀ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.</ref>
|'''ā'''<br />[ɑː]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ẏ
!'''Open-to-'''
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · w
|'''ē'''<br />[ai̯]
|'''ō''', '''au'''<br />[au̯]
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Nasal
|}
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · m
 
|
===Consonants===
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · n
''(Pardon the compactified consonant table. I know it doesn't quite all line up “properly,” but it does make more sense this way as regards the Valthungian language. If in doubt, rely on the transcription and not the row or column.)''
|
 
|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|
!width=100px|
!width=65px|'''Labial'''
!width=65px|'''Dental'''
!width=65px|'''Alveolar'''
!width=65px|'''Palatal'''
!width=65px|'''Dorsal'''
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Tap / Flap
!'''Plosive'''
|
|'''p · b'''<br />[p~pʰ · b]
|
|'''t · d'''<br />[t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · r
|
|
|
|
|'''č · ǧ'''<br />[ʨ · ʥ]
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · ɡ]
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Affricate
!'''Nasal'''
|
|''' · m'''<br />[m]
|
|''' · n'''<br />[n̪]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"|tɮ · dɮ
|
|
|
|
|
|''' · n'''<ref>Before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩.</ref><br />[ŋ]
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Fricative
!'''Fricative'''
|
|'''f · v'''<br />[f · v]
|
|'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ɮ
|'''s ·'''<br />[s]
|
|'''š · ž'''<br />[ɕ · ʑ]
|
|'''h ·'''<br />[h~x]
|
|-
|-
!style="text-align: right"|Lateral Approximant
!'''Approximant'''
|
|''' · w/u'''<br />[w~v]
|
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · l
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
|
|''' · j'''<br />[j]
|style="font-size:large;text-align:center"| · ʌ<ref>〈ʀ〉 only occurs as a syllabic; it is treated as a vowel.</ref>
|
|
|}
|}


=====Stops=====
===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes===
====Voicing Alternation====
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ⟨f⟩, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ⟨b⟩ used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’.  Likewise the relationship between ⟨þ⟩ and⟨d⟩. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:
 
*v → f
*ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant.
*ž → s
 
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:
 
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*⟨f⟩ occurs when word-final or before ⟨t⟩ in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*⟨þ⟩ also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ⟨s⟩ before ⟨t⟩ in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first‑ and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*The implications for ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ž⟩ can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ⟨s⟩ throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.
 
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ from earlier ⟨h⟩ which is ''not'' affected by this rule.
 
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:
 
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ⟨d⟩ or ⟨g⟩ become palatalised before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of a‑, i‑, and u‑stems (but not feminine ō‑stems).  E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''graǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ⟨j⟩, e.g. strong masculine ja‑stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
**d or g + j → ǧ
**t or k + j → č
**s or h + j → š
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ⟨z⟩ eventually became ⟨ž⟩.)
 
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.
 
====[b]/[v] Alternation====
A less common alternation is that of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of ⟨v⟩ to ⟨b⟩; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ⟨j⟩ are able to shift from ⟨b⟩ to ⟨v⟩ when intervocalic, but those with ⟨j⟩ are blocked from spirantizing.
 
For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja'').
 
====Umlaut====
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words.
 
*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted.
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
*Verbs ending in ''‑jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''‑in'' in Valthungian.
 
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
 
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. ⟨áu⟩) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*o (''Got''. ⟨aú⟩) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin''
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin''
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''
 
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j‑umlaut, u/w‑umlaut, and a‑umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j‑umlaut, also known as i‑umlaut, front umlaut, or i‑mutation.
 
====Coronal Consonant Assimilation====
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨st⟩, the former consonant ⟨s⟩. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.
 
====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking====
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *''bagms'' and *''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending ''‑an'' to ''‑n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *''brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of ⟨a⟩after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.
 
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:
 
*Dative plural a‑stem nouns whose roots end in ⟨‑m⟩ have the ending of ⟨‑am⟩ rather than ⟨‑ma⟩, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''.
*Masculine strong a‑stem nouns ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have the the dative plural ending of ⟨‑am⟩ (as above) and the accusative plural ending of ⟨‑ans⟩ rather than ⟨‑nas⟩, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''.
*Strong a‑stem adjectives ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have a masculine accusative singular of ⟨‑an⟩ rather than ⟨‑na⟩, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna''
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''‑anþ'' rather than **''‑naþ''.
 
====Assimilation of [r] and [s]====
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.
 
The change initially applies to “light”‑syllable nouns with stems ending in ⟨‑s⟩ or ⟨‑r⟩ in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ⟨‑z⟩ in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s‑Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus'').
 
Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ⟨‑r⟩do not take an (additional) ⟨‑s⟩ in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r‑rule (instead of the s‑rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)
 
====Affix Anaptyxis====
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. This is just part of a larger change in the general structure of the language in which many unstressed syllables appeared unbidden in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian causing the language to be almost entirely iambic. In Modern Valthungian all stressed syllables (primary and secondary) must de separated by an unstressed syllable.
 
Some of the most frequent are:
*af+f: Griutungi ''*affilhan'' → ''af'''a'''flījan'' ‘to hide away’
*fer+r: Griutungi ''*ferrinnan'' → ''fer'''a'''rítnan'' ‘to attain’
*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’
 
However, the prefix ''us‑'' becomes ''ut‑'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’
 
==Pronouns==
===Personal Pronouns===
The genitive pronouns form the base of the possessive determiners, but the third person non-reflexive genitives are never inflected. The third person singular and plural reflexive pronouns are identical. The non-singular pronouns may also take a reciprocal particle ''mīsa'', roughly equivalent to ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
|-
!colspan=3| Voiced
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
|-
!1sg
| ik || mīn || mis || mik ||align="left"| ''I, my, (to) me, me''
|-
!2sg
| þū || þīn || þis || þik ||align="left"| ''thou, thy, (to) thee, thee''
|-
!3sg.masc
| is ||rowspan=2| is ||rowspan=2| itma || in ||align="left"| ''he, his, (to) him, him''
|-
!3sg.neu
| it || it||align="left"| ''it, its, (to) it, it''
|-
!3sg.fem
| sī || ižis || iža || ī, iža ||align="left"| ''she, her, (to) her, her''
|-
!1du
| wit || unkra || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
|-
!2du
| ǧut || inkur || inkus || inko ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
|-
!1pl
| wīs || unstra || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
|-
!2pl
| jūs || ižur ||colspan=2| ižus ||align="left"| ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
!valign="top"| p
!3pl.masc
|valign="top"| /p/
| īs ||rowspan=3| iža ||rowspan=3| im || ins ||align="left" rowspan=3| ''they, their, (to) them, them''
| as in '''p'''ut<br />[[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|'''''p'''ul'']] [pʰul] ‘he’
!valign="top"| b
|valign="top"| /b/
| as in '''b'''at<br />[[Contionary: badj#Maltcégj|'''''b'''adj'']] [bʰaʤ] ‘to have’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| t
!3pl.neu
|valign="top"| /t/
| ī, iža || ī, iža
| as in '''t'''op<br />[[Contionary: talp#Maltcégj|'''''t'''alp'']] [tʰɑlp] ‘head’
!valign="top"| d
|valign="top"| /d/
| as in '''d'''og<br />[[Contionary: dið#Maltcégj|'''''d'''ið'']] [dʰið] ‘beautiful’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| k
!3pl.fem
|valign="top"| /k/
| ižas || ižas
| as in '''k'''eep<br />[[Contionary: kat#Maltcégj|'''''k'''at'']] [kʰɑt] ‘dry’
!valign="top"| g
|valign="top"| /g/
| as in '''g'''et<br />[[Contionary: gelk#Maltcégj|'''''g'''elk'']] [gʰɛlk] ‘to give’
|}
|}


Initial stops have a tendency to be aspirated.
===Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns===
The third person reflexive pronouns are inherited from Indo-European. The other pronouns form their reflexives from a compound with the third person form. The accusative and dative for most forms are merged.


=====Affricates=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
 
|-
{| class="wikitable"
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
|-
!colspan=3| Voiced
!1sg
| misīn ||colspan=2| mišk ||align="left"| ''myself''
|-
!2sg
| þisīn ||colspan=2| þišk ||align="left"| ''thyself''
|-
!3sg
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''himself, herself, itself, &c''
|-
!1du
| unkra sīn ||colspan=2|  unkišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
|-
|-
!valign="top"| pf
!2du
|valign="top"| /p͡f/
| inkur sīn ||colspan=2| inkusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
| as in German '''''Pf'''erd''<br />[[Contionary: pfatɮ#Maltcégj|'''''pf'''atɮ'']] [p͡fɑt͡ɬ] ‘spit’
!valign="top"| bv
|valign="top"| /b͡v/
| as in o'''bv'''ious <br />[[Contionary: bvrac#Maltcégj|'''''bv'''rac'']] [bvɾɑʃ] ‘sparrow’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ts
!1pl
|valign="top"| /ʦ/
| unstra sīn ||colspan=2| unsišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
| as in ge'''ts'''<br />[[Contionary: frants#Maltcégj|''fran'''ts''''']] [fɾɑnʦ] ‘France’
!valign="top"| dz
|valign="top"| /ʣ/
| as in a'''dz'''e<br />[[Contionary: xandz#Maltcégj|''xan'''dz''''']] [xɑnʣ] ‘Chinese character’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| tc
!2pl
|valign="top"| /ʧ/
| ižur sīn ||colspan=2| ižusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
| as in '''ch'''ur'''ch'''<br />[[Contionary: tcitsíc#Maltcégj|'''''tc'''itsíc'']] [ʧi’ʦiʃ] ‘to sneeze’
!valign="top"| dj
|valign="top"| /ʤ/
| as in '''j'''u'''dge'''<br />[[Contionary: djáska#Maltcégj|'''''dj'''áska'']] [‘ʤɑskɑ] ‘cinnamon’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| tɮ
!3pl
|valign="top"| /ƛ (t͡ɬ)/
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''themselves''
| as 〈ll〉 in Icelandic ''a'''ll'''a''<br />[[Contionary: txatɮ#Maltcégj|''txa'''tɮ''''']] [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’
!valign="top"| dɮ
|valign="top"| /λ (d͡ɮ)/
| as in Xhosa ''in'''dl'''ovu''<br />[[Contionary: ódɮo#Maltcégj|''ó'''dɮ'''o'']] [‘o.d͡ɮo] ‘mouth’
|}
|}


There are eight “pure” affricates in Maltcégj, though none are represented by their own unique character. For more information, see [[#Consonant Clusters|Consonant Clusters]], below.
The reciprocal is formed with the particle '''''mīsa'''''. It does not inflect.


=====Fricatives=====
===Indefinite Pronouns===
The interrogative and negative pronouns can take the adverbial complement ''hun'', which gives them the sense of ‘any’. Additionally, the interrogative pronouns may double as elective pronouns. For example, ''huat'' ‘what’ or ‘something’; ''huat hun'' ‘anything’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!colspan=3| Unvoiced
|-
!colspan=3| Voiced
!width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !!
|-
!inter.masc
| huas ||rowspan=2| huis ||rowspan=2| huatma || huan ||align="left"| ''who, whose, to whom, whom''
|-
!inter.neu
| huat || huat ||align="left"| ''what, &c''
|-
!inter.fem
| huō || huižis || huiža || huō ||align="left"| ''who, &c''
|-
|-
!valign="top"| f
!expl.
|valign="top"| /f/
| im || - || - || (im) ||align="left"| ''it, there''
| as in '''f'''oot<br />[[Contionary: faurx#Maltcégj|'''''f'''aurx'']] [fau̯ɾx] ‘heat’
!valign="top"| v
|valign="top"| /v/
| as in '''v'''ery<br />[[Contionary: víktro#Maltcégj|'''''v'''íktro]] [‘vik.tɾo] ‘tree’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| þ
!univ.masc
|valign="top"| /θ/
| huažuþ ||rowspan=3| huižuþ ||rowspan=2| huatmaþ || huanaþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
| as 〈th〉 in '''th'''ing<br />[[Contionary: þad#Maltcégj|'''''þ'''ad]] [θɑd] ‘man’
!valign="top"| ð
|valign="top"| /ð/
| as 〈th〉 in '''th'''en<br />[[Contionary: ðak#Maltcégj|'''''ð'''ak]] [ðɑk] ‘to say’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| s
!univ.neu
|valign="top"| /s/
| huāþ || huāþ ||align="left"| ''everything, everything’s, &c''
| as in '''s'''ing<br />[[Contionary: salméilo#Maltcégj|'''''s'''alméilo'']] [sɑl’mɛi̯.lo] ‘apple’
!valign="top"| z
|valign="top"| /z/
| as in '''z'''oo<br />[[Contionary: zendj#Maltcégj|'''''z'''endj'']] [zɛnʤ] ‘paint’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| c
!univ.fem
|valign="top"| /ʃ/
| huōþ || huižaþ || huōþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
| as 〈sh〉 in '''sh'''oe<br />[[Contionary: cul#Maltcégj|'''''c'''ul'']] [ʃul] ‘prophesy’
!valign="top"| j
|valign="top"| /ʒ/
| as in French '''''j'''amais''<br />[[Contionary: jadíȯ#Maltcégj|'''''j'''adíȯ'']] [ʒɑ’di.o] ‘sun’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| x
!neg.masc
|valign="top"| /x/
| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījutma || nījun ||align="left"| ''noöne, noöne’s, &c''
| as 〈ch〉 in German ''Ba'''ch'''''<br />[[Contionary: xac#Maltcégj|'''''x'''ac'']] [xɑʃ] ‘difficult’
|valign="top"| ǧ
!valign="top"| /γ/
| as 〈g〉 in Spanish ''ami'''g'''o''<br />[[Contionary: ǧénba#Maltcégj|'''''ǧ'''énba'']] [‘γɛn.bɑ] ‘apricot’
|-
|-
!valign="top"| h
!neg.neu
|valign="top"| /h/
| nījut || nījut ||align="left"| ''nothing, nothing’s, &c''
| as in '''h'''ello<br />[[Contionary: hanák#Maltcégj|'''''h'''anák'']] [hɑ’nɑk] ‘person, human’
|}
|}


=====Nasals=====
===Distributive Pronouns===
The distributive pronouns are non-singular pronouns formed when the personal pronouns were fused with the distributive particles ''huaðru'' ‘each of two’ and ''huerižu'' ‘each of many’. In most forms they have now become inseparable from their root components; e.g. compare the dual genitive second person ''inkur'' and distributive ''huaðrižu'', but the distributive pronoun ''inkuáðrižu''. While the distributives as determiners, by definition, take a singular verb, the distributive pronouns take the non-singular verb of their respective pronouns, e.g. ''Aplas huerižu gatiða itnas'' ‘Each apple was eaten’, but ''Īshuerižu gatiðun itna'' ‘Each of them was eaten’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!valign="top"| m
|-
|valign="top"| /m/
!width=100px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !!
| as in '''m'''an<br />[[Contionary: márga#Maltcégj|'''''m'''árga'']] [‘mɑɾ.ga] ‘house’
|-
!1du
| withuáðruþ || unkuáðrižuþ || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us''
|-
!2du
| ǧuthuaðruþ || inkuaðrižuþ || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you''
|-
!1pl
| wīshuerižuþ || unshuerižuþ || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of us''
|-
!2pl
| jūshuerižuþ || ižuhuerižuþ || ižushueritmaþ || ižushuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of you''
|-
!3pl.masc
| īshuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| ižahuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| imhueritmaþ || inshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
!3pl.neu
| ižahuerituþ || ižahuerituþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
|-
!valign="top"| n
!3pl.fem
|valign="top"| /n/
| ižashueriþ || ižashueriþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
| as in '''n'''ose<br />[[Contionary: nyj#Maltcégj|'''''n'''yj'']]  [nɪʒ] ‘grain’
|}
|}


NB: There is no realization of a nasal as /ŋ/, even before a velar obstruent. In many cases, an epenthetic 〈e〉 may intervene between 〈n〉 and a velar (e.g. ''[[Contionary: hánek#Maltcégj|hánek]]'' ‘grandfather’, from ''Hank''), but even when it does not, the letters are pronounced independently (e.g. ''[[Contionary: gýnko#Maltcégj|gýnko]]'' /'gɪn.ko/ ‘ginko’, not **/'gɪŋ.ko/).
==Determiners==
===Demonstratives===


=====Liquids=====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
 
! &nbsp;
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
!valign="top"| l
! &nbsp;
|valign="top"| /l/
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
| as in '''l'''amb<br />[[Contionary: lexét#Maltcégj|'''''l'''exét'']] [lɛ’xɛt] ‘much, many’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Distal (“yonder”)
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
!valign="top"| r
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|valign="top"| /ɾ/
| his
| as in Spanish ''pe'''r'''o''<br />[[Contionary: ráta#Maltcégj|'''''r'''áta]] [‘ɾɑ.tɑ] ‘child’
|rowspan=2| his
|rowspan=2| hitma
| hin
| sā
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þatma
| þan
| jǣns
| rowspan=2| jǣnis
| rowspan=2| jǣnatma
| jǣnan
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ɮ
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|valign="top"| /ɮ,ɬ/<ref>〈ɮ〉 becomes devoiced to /ɬ/ when it occurs adjacent to an unvoiced obstruent (most frequently in the clusters 〈pɮ〉, 〈tɮ〉, and 〈kɮ〉), e.g. [[Contionary: txatɮ#Maltcégj|''txa'''tɮ''''']] [txɑt͡ɬ] ‘slap’.</ref>
| hit
| as in Zulu ''in'''dl'''ala<br />[[Contionary: ɮat#Maltcégj|'''''ɮ'''at'']] [ɮɑt] ‘tooth’
| hit
| þat
| þat
| jǣn
| jǣn
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hī, hiža
| hižis
| hiža
| hī, hiža
| sō
| þižis
| þiža
| þō
|rowspan=3| jǣna
| jǣnižis
|colspan=2| jǣna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| hīs
|rowspan=3| hiža
|rowspan=3| him
| hins
| þǣ
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|rowspan=3| jǣniža
|rowspan=3| jǣnam
| jǣnans
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ʌ
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| /ɫ̩/
| hī, hiža
|rowspan=2|<ref>While technically liquids, 〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 never occur non-syllabically, and are better treated as vowels.</ref>
| hī, hiža
| þō
| þō
| jǣna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hižis
| hižis
| þōs
| þōs
| jǣnas
| jǣnas
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ʀ
| /ɹ̩/
|}
|}


=====Glides=====
===Articles===
Valthungian has two definite articles, '''''he''''' and '''''sa''''', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘this’ and ‘that’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sa'' is usually preferred. These are simply unstressed equivalents of the demonstratives ''his'' (proximal) and ''sā'' (medial). The distal demonstrative, ''jǣns'', is never used as an article.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
!valign="top"| w
! &nbsp;
|valign="top"| /w/
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
| as in '''w'''ood<br />[[Contionary: wʌf#Maltcégj|'''''w'''ʌf'']] [wɫ̩f] ‘bone’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ẏ
!width=100px| &nbsp;
|valign="top"| /j/
!width=75px| Nom.
| as 〈y〉 in '''y'''ou<br />[[Contionary: ẏála#Maltcégj|'''''ẏ'''ála'']] [‘jɑ.lɑ] ‘bird’
!width=75px| Gen.
|}
!width=75px| Dat.
 
!width=75px| Acc.  
=====Vowels=====
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
 
!width=75px| Nom.
{| class="wikitable"
!width=75px| Gen.
!colspan=3| Front
!width=75px| Dat.
!colspan=3| Back
!width=75px| Acc.
|-
|-
!valign="top"| i
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| /i/
| he*, his†
| as 〈ee〉 in b'''ee'''t<br />[[Contionary: ílǫx#Maltcégj|'''''í'''lǫx'']] [‘i.lɔx] ‘knee’
|rowspan=2| his
!valign="top"| u
|rowspan=2| him
| /u/
| he*, hin†
| as 〈oo〉 in b'''oo'''t<br />[[Contionary: ucát#Maltcégj|'''''u'''cát'']] [u’ʃɑt] ‘mustard’
| sa*, s·†
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þam
| þa*, þan†
|-
|-
!valign="top"| y
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| /ɪ/
| he*, hit†
| as 〈i〉 in b'''i'''t<br />[[Contionary: ylk#Maltcégj|'''''y'''lk'']] [ɪlk] ‘louse, nit’
| he*, hit†
!valign="top"| o
| þa*, þat†
| /o/
| þa*, þat†
| as 〈oa〉 in b'''oa'''t<br />[[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|''tc'''o'''k'']] [ʧok] ‘to go’
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hi*, hiž·†
| his, hižis
| hiža*, hiž·†
| hi*, hiž·†
| so*, s·†
| þis, þižis
| þiža*, þiž·†
| þo*, þ·†
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| his
|rowspan=3| hiža
|rowspan=3| him
| hins
| þe
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|-
|-
!valign="top"| e
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| /ɛ/
| hi*, hiž·†
| as in b'''e'''t<br />[[Contionary: éjva#Maltcégj|'''''é'''jva'']] [‘ɛʒ.vɑ] ‘mouse’
| hi*, hiž·†
!valign="top"| ǫ
| þo*, þ·†
| /ɔ/
| þo*, þ·†
| as 〈ou〉 in b'''ou'''ght<br />[[Contionary: ǫ́bri#Maltcégj|'''''ǫ́'''bri'']] [‘ɔ.bɾi] ‘niece’
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hižis
| hižis
| þos
| þos
|-
|-
|colspan=3|
!valign="top"| a
| /ɑ/
|as in f'''a'''ther<br />[[Contionary: adína#Maltcégj|'''''a'''dín'''a''''']] [ɑ’di.nɑ] ‘sister’
|}
|}
<small><nowiki>*</nowiki> Form used before a consonant. † Form used before a vowel.</small>


=====Syllabic Liquids=====
There are complex rules around how and when to use the elided forms of the articles. For simplicity’s sake it is broken down into forms used before vowels or consonants, though this doesn’t always apply to all vowels or all consonants. Expect a more detailed article on liaison someday maybe.


{| class="wikitable"
There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.
!valign="top"| ʌ
|valign="top"| /ɫ̩/
| as 〈le〉 in midd'''le'''<br />[[Contionary: ʌ́lax#Maltcégj|'''''ʌ́'''nax'']] [‘ɫ̩.nɑx] ‘shopping’
|-
!valign="top"| ʀ
|valign="top"| /ɹ̩/
| as 〈er〉 in bett'''er'''<br />[[Contionary: wʀn#Maltcégj|''w'''ʀ'''n'']] [wɹ̩n] ‘(maternal) grandparent’
|}


〈ʌ〉 and 〈ʀ〉 are considered vowels in Maltcégj and never occur non-syllabically. However, they are not subject to the same diacritic rules for other non-diphthongs as other vowels (though they are still marked when stressed).
===Other Determiners===
The determiners are an important word class in Valthungian because they trigger the choice of whether to use a strong or weak adjective in the noun phrase they introduce. Though most adjectives follow their nouns, determiners precede them. A non-exhaustive list follows:


=====Diphthongs=====
====''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' ‘all’====
This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive /d/ in parts of the inflection due to changes to the geminates in [[Old Valthungian]]. When ''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' is used in conjunction with another determiner, it is declined as a weak adjective and has the meaning of ‘entire’ or ‘complete’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
!colspan=3| Front
! &nbsp;
!colspan=3| Back
!colspan=4| als ‘all’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
!valign="top"| ai
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|valign="top"|  /ɑi̯/
| als
| as '' in h'''i'''gh<br />[[Contionary: skwai#Maltcégj|''skw'''ai''''']] [skwɑi̯] ‘lemon’
|rowspan=2| adlis
!valign="top"| au
|rowspan=2| adlatma
|valign="top"| /au̯/
| adlan
| as in German ''H'''au'''s''<br />[[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|''ml'''au''''']] [mlau̯] ‘what’
|-
|-
!valign="top"|  ei
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg  
|valign="top"|  /ei̯/
| al
| as in w'''ei'''gh<br />[[Contionary: eict#Maltcégj|'''''ei'''ct'']] [ei̯ʃt] ‘game’
| al
!valign="top"| eu
|-
|valign="top"| /ɛu̯/
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg  
| as 〈ew〉 in Welsh '''''ew'''ro''<br />[[Contionary: ðeup#Maltcégj|''ð'''eu'''p'']] [ðɛu̯p] ‘foot’
|rowspan=3| adla
| adlažis
|colspan=2| adla
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| adlaža
|rowspan=3| adlam
| adlans
|-
|-
!valign="top"|  oi
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl  
|valign="top"|  /ɔi̯/
| adla
| as in '''oi'''l<br />[[Contionary: moin#Maltcégj|''m'''oi'''n'']] [mɔi̯n] ‘warmth’
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl  
| adlas
| adlas
|}
|}


==Pronouns==
====''[[Contionary: ǣnagis#Valthungian|ǣnagis]]'' ‘any, whichever’====


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| ǣnagis ‘any’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
! Person
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
! 
| ǣnagis
! 
|rowspan=2| ǣnagis
! Notes
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧitma
! Reflexive
| ǣnaǧin
! Reciprocal
|-
|-
| 1sg
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]''
|rowspan=2| ǣnage
| I
| ǣnage
|   
|-
| ''[[Contionary: jagj#Maltcégj|jagj]]''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg  
|style="background-color: #CCCCCC;" rowspan=7| --
| ǣnaǧižis
|colspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧiža
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧim
| ǣnaǧins
|-
|-
| 2sg
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''
| ǣnaǧa
| you
|-
|
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''
| ǣnaǧis
| ǣnaǧis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: bǣ#Valthungian|bǣ]]'' ‘both’ & [[Contionary: þrǣ#Valthungian|þrǣ]] ‘all three’====
Note that only plural forms of these determiners exist, because it is impossible to have both or all three of a singular noun.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| bǣ ‘both’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| þrǣ ‘all three’
|-
|-
| 2sg
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| you
!width=75px| Gen.
| formal
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 3sg.f.  
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.
| ''[[Contionary: pel#Maltcégj|pel]]''
| bǣ
| she
|rowspan=3| beǧa
| feminine
|rowspan=3| bǣm
|rowspan=4| ''[[Contionary: peibj#Maltcégj|peibj]]''
| bans
| þrǣ
|rowspan=3| þrǣža
|rowspan=3| þrǣm
| þrans
|-
|-
| 3sg.m
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.
| ''[[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|pul]]''  
| bā
| he
| bā
| masculine
| þrā
| þrā
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.
| bōs
| bōs
| þreǧis
| þreǧis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'' ‘other, another’====
''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|Elis]]'' can also be used as an adjective to mean ‘different’, in which case it follows the noun and may have a weak declension.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| elis ‘other’
|-
|-
| 3sg.n
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: paj#Maltcégj|paj]]''
!width=65px| Nom.  
| it
!width=75px| Gen.
| inanimate
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 3sg
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: pʌ#Maltcégj|pʌ]]''
| elis
| “they”
|rowspan=2| elis
| general or non-specific
|rowspan=2| elitma
| elin
|-
|-
| 1pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]''
|rowspan=2| elit
| we
| elit
| inclusive
|-
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: jeltc#Maltcégj|jeltc]]''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: játci#Maltcégj|játci]]''
| eližis
|colspan=2| elia
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| elia
|rowspan=3| eliža
|rowspan=3| elim
| elins
|-
|-
| 1pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]''  
| elia
| we
|-
| general or exclusive
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| elis
| elis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huaðruþ#Valthungian|huaðruþ]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužiþ#Valthungian|hreužiþ]]'' ‘each one’====
Note that only singular forms exist for ''each'' (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ''‑þ'' ending is the result of compounding with earlier ''‑uh''.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huaðruþ ‘each (of two)’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| hreužiþ ‘each (of many)’
|-
|-
| 2pl
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| you
!width=75px| Gen.
|
!width=75px| Dat.
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''
!width=65px| Acc.
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: mládji#Maltcégj|mládji]]''
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 2pl
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]''
|rowspan=3| huaðruþ
| you
|rowspan=3| huaðrižuþ
| formal
|rowspan=2| huaðratmaþ
| huaðranaþ
|rowspan=3 colspan=2| hreužiþ
|rowspan=2| hreužitmaþ
| hreužinaþ
|-
|-
| 3pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg
| ''[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]]''
|rowspan=2| hwaðraþ
| they
|rowspan=2| hreužiþ
| general
|-
| ''[[Contionary: pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]''
| huaðraþ
| hreužiþ
|}
|}


Some of the most basic elements of language, pronouns will take the place of the subject in most sentences. Maltcégj pronoun structure does not differentiate much from that of English with the exception of a formal and informal second person, and the formal is very infrequently used, but there are “optional” pronouns which may offer more clarity. Just remember to use ''[[Contionary: mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]'' when you’re speaking to someone with whom you would use a title in English (e.g. faculty members, judges, business associates, &c). Otherwise, the pronouns above will get you through most situations.
====''[[Contionary: huaðra#Valthungian|huaðra]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužis#Valthungian|hreužis]]'' ‘which’====
The dual form (''huaðra'') only exists in the singular, as there can only be a singular option when choosing between two nouns, but ''hreužis'' can be singular (“which one”) or plural (“which ones”).


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huaðra ‘which (of the two)’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| hreužis ‘which (of many)’
|-
|-
! Person
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!
!width=65px| Nom.
!
!width=75px| Gen.
! Notes
!width=75px| Dat.
! Reflexive
!width=65px| Acc.
! Reciprocal
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 2pl
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: akmélem#Maltcégj|akmélem]]''
|rowspan=3| huaðra
| you (all)
|rowspan=2| huaðris
|
|rowspan=2| huaðratma
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: madj#Maltcégj|madj]]''
| huaðran
|rowspan=2| ''[[Contionary: mládji#Maltcégj|mládji]]''
| hreužis
|rowspan=3| hreužis
|rowspan=2| hreužitma
| hreužin
|-
|-
| 2pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: akmélminei#Maltcégj|akmélminei]]''
|rowspan=2| huaðra
| you (all)
| hreužit
| formal
| hreužit
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| huaðražis
| huaðra
| hreuža
|colspan=2| hreuža
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3 colspan=4| —
|rowspan=2| hreuža
|rowspan=3| hreužiža
|rowspan=3| hreužim
| hreužins
|-
|-
| 3pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: akpél#Maltcégj|akpél]]''
| hreuža
| they
|-
| feminine (=[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|rowspan=4|  ''[[Contionary: pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]''  
| hreužis
|rowspan=4| ''[[Contionary: píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]''
| hreužis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huǣjus#Valthungian|huǣjus]]'' ‘how much, how many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
|-
| 3pl
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: akpúl#Maltcégj|akpúl]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| they
!width=75px| Gen.
| masculine (=[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 3pl
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: akpáj#Maltcégj|akpáj]]''
| huǣjus
| they
|rowspan=2| huǣjugis
| inanimate (=[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]])
|rowspan=2| huǣjugatma
| huǣjugna
|-
|-
| 3pl
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]''
| huǣjo
| they
| huǣjo
| (=[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]], incorrect)
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| huǣjuga
| huǣjugažis
|colspan=2| huǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| huǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| huǣjugam
| huǣjugnas
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| huǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| huǣjgas
| huǣjgas
|}
|}


If you want to be more specific, however, you can use the plural particle ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' with the singular pronouns (with the exception of ''[[Contionary: jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]'') to make them plural. You can optionally add ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' to ''[[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]'' and ''[[Contionary: mélminei#Maltcégj|mélminei]]'' to further explain that you are referring to more than one person.  You can also use ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' with the third person pronouns if you explicitly want to annotate gender. Note, however, that saying ''[[Contionary: akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]'' is technically incorrect: This should more accurately be ''[[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]]'', but ''[[Contionary: akpʌ́#Maltcégj|akpʌ́]]'' is common in speech, just as saying ''they'' in English is common to refer to a singular person whose gender is unknown or unclear (as in “Someone left their notebook here.”)
====''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣžums#Valthungian|mǣžums]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣst#Valthungian|mǣst]]'', ‘much, many, more, most’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
In case you are unfamiliar with the idea of inclusive and exclusive we, only use ''[[Contionary: jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]'' when the person you are addressing is part of the “we” in question, i.e. if you can replace it with “you and I”, or “you and the rest of us”; otherwise, always use ''[[Contionary: jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]''. (''[[Contionary: jalk#Maltcégj|jalk]]'' can be used in an inclusive or exclusive sense if none is specified; ''[[Contionary: jǫ́lmin#Maltcégj|jǫ́lmin]]'' can only be inclusive.)
! &nbsp;
 
!colspan=4| filus ‘much, many’
In fact, pronouns in Maltcégj are even a little simpler than those in English, because there are no cases to decline. Possessives (''my'', ''your'', ''his'', ''our'', &c.) are formed by adding the preposition ''[[Contionary: u-#Maltcégj|u-]]'' to the word being possessed, and the accusative case (''me'', ''him'', ''her'', ''them'', &c.) by adding the postposition ''[[Contionary: -a#Maltcégj|-a]]'' to the pronoun.
! &nbsp;
 
!colspan=4| mǣžums ‘more’
The reflexive pronouns are used when the verb of the sentence is being done ''to'' the subject of the sentence ''by'' the subject of the sentence; that is to say, when we would use the word “-self” in English (e.g. myself, yourself, yourselves, themselves, &c.)
! &nbsp;
 
!colspan=4| mǣst ‘most’
The reciprocal pronouns are similar to the reflexive (and in many languages they are identical), but they apply only to plural subjects when the action of the verb is being done to another member of the same plural group. (In English this is generally translated as “each other.”) Compare, for example:
 
''[[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[Contionary: ðak#Maltcégj|ðák]] [[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]] '''[[Contionary: pyldj#Maltcégj|pyldj]]'''''<br />
‘they are talking to themselves’
 
''[[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[Contionary: ðak#Maltcégj|ðák]] [[Contionary: parþ#Maltcégj|parþ]] '''[[Contionary: píkci#Maltcégj|píkci]]'''''<br />
‘they are talking to each other’
 
==Numbers==
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| 0
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: zo#Maltcégj|zo]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| zero
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 1
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: am#Maltcégj|am]]''
| filus
| one
|rowspan=3| filus
|rowspan=2| filitma
| filin
|rowspan=2| mǣžums
|rowspan=2| mǣžumis
|rowspan=2| mǣžumatma
| mǣžumna
|rowspan=2| mǣst
|rowspan=2| mǣstis
|rowspan=2| mǣstatma
| mǣstna
|-
|-
| 2  
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: dai#Maltcégj|dai]]''
|rowspan=2| filo
| two
| filo
| mǣžum
| mǣst
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|colspan=2| filia
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
| mǣžumažis
|colspan=2| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣsta
| mǣstažis
|colspan=2| mǣsta
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| filia
|rowspan=3| filiža
|rowspan=3| filim
| filins
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣžumam
| mǣžumnas
|rowspan=3| mǣstaža
|rowspan=3| mǣstam
| mǣstnas
|-
|-
| 3
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: tran#Maltcégj|tran]]''  
| filia
| three
| mǣžuma
| mǣsta
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| filis
| filis
| mǣžumas
| mǣžumas
| mǣstas
| mǣstas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: sams#Valthungian|sams]]'' ‘the same’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sams ‘the same’
|-
|-
| 4
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: jamp#Maltcégj|jamp]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| four
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 5
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: frem#Maltcégj|frem]]''
| sams
| five
|rowspan=2| samis
|rowspan=2| samatma
| samna
|-
|-
| 6
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: cei#Maltcégj|cei]]''
| sam
| six
| sam
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| sama
| samažis
|colspan=2| sama
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| samažis
|rowspan=3| samam
| samnas
|-
|-
| 7
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]]''  
| sama
| seven
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| samas
| samas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'' ‘some’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sums ‘some’
|-
|-
| 8
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: relk#Maltcégj|relk]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| eight
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 9
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: nein#Maltcégj|nein]]''
| sums
| nine
|rowspan=2| sumis
|rowspan=2| sumatma
| sumna
|-
|-
| 10
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]''
| sum
| ten
| sum
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| suma
| sumažis
|colspan=2| suma
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| sumažis
|rowspan=3| sumam
| sumnas
|-
|-
| 20
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: daiséþ#Maltcégj|daiséþ]]''  
| suma
| twenty
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| sumas
| sumas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: suǣjus#Valtsungian|suǣjus]]'' ‘so much, so many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| suǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
|-
| 30
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: transéþ#Maltcégj|transéþ]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| thirty
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 40
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: jampséþ#Maltcégj|jampséþ]]''
| suǣjus
| forty
|rowspan=2| suǣjugis
|rowspan=2| suǣjugatma
| suǣjugna
|-
|-
| 50
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: fremséþ#Maltcégj|fremséþ]]''
| suǣjo
| fifty
| suǣjo
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| suǣjuga
| suǣjugažis
|colspan=2| suǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| suǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| suǣjugam
| suǣjugnas
|-
|-
| 60
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: ceiséþ#Maltcégj|ceiséþ]]''  
| suǣjuga
| sixty
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| suǣjgas
| suǣjgas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnums#Valthungian|mitnums]]'', ''[[Contionary: faugist#Valthungian|faugist]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]]'', ‘few, little, fewer, less, fewest, least’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| fǭs ‘little, few’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mitnums ‘less, fewer’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=9| faugist, mitnist ‘least, fewest’<ref>[[faugist#Valthungian|faugist]] and [[mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]] are used interchangeably.</ref>
|-
|-
| 70
!width=65px| &nbsp;
| ''[[Contionary: danséþ#Maltcégj|danséþ]]''
!width=65px| Nom.
| seventy
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 80
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: relkséþ#Maltcégj|relkséþ]]''
| fǭs
| eighty
|rowspan=2| faugis
|rowspan=2| faugatma
| faugna
| mitnums
|rowspan=2| mitnumis
|rowspan=2| mitnumatma
| mitnumna
|rowspan=2| faugist
|rowspan=2| faugistis
|rowspan=2| faugistatma
| faugistna
|rowspan=2| mitnist
|rowspan=2| mitnistis
|rowspan=2| mitnistatma
| mitnistna
|-
|-
| 90
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: neinséþ#Maltcégj|neinséþ]]''
| fǭ
| ninety
| fǭ
| mitnum
| mitnum
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| fauga
| faugažis
|colspan=2| fauga
|rowspan=3| mitnuma
| mitnumažis
|colspan=2| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugista
| faugistažis
|colspan=2| faugista
|rowspan=3| mitnista
| mitnistažis
|colspan=2| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| faugaža
|rowspan=3| faugam
| faugnas
|rowspan=3| mitnumaža
|rowspan=3| mitnumam
| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugistaža
|rowspan=3| faugistam
| faugistnas
|rowspan=3| mitnistaža
|rowspan=3| mistnistam
| mitnistnas
|-
|-
| 100
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''
| fauga
| hundred
| mitnuma
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| faugas
| faugas
| mitnumas
| mitnumas
| faugistas
| faugistas
| mitnistas
| mitnistas
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
And finally all possessive adjectives ''can'' be used as determiners. (See below.)
 
===Possessives===
All possessives can be used as determiners; when used alone, it is more common to for possessive phrases using a definite article (''sa'' or ''he'') followed by the noun, followed in turn by the possessive declined as a weak adjective. For example, ‘my house’ may be rendered as ''mīn hūs'' or ''þa hūs mīna''. The <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Poss > Noun</span> format is required when the noun is modified by an adjective, e.g. ‘my red house’ is nearly always ''mīn hūs rǭða.''
 
The third person non-reflexive pronouns ''do not decline'', and they may precede or follow the noun without an article, and any adjective that accompanies the noun phrase is declined as strong.
 
The possessives are:
 
====''[[Contionary: mīns#Valthungian| mīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: þīns#Valthungian|þīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: sīns#Valthungian|sīns]]'' ‘my, your, his<ref>This is a 3rd person reflexive possessive, used when the noun is possessed by the subject of the clause.</ref>’====
The singular possessives differ only by the first letter.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mīns ‘my’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| þīns ‘your’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sīns ‘his, her, its (own)’
|-
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=100px| Acc.
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| mīns
|rowspan=2| mīnis
|rowspan=2| mīnatma
| mīnan
| þīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| þīnatma
| þīnan
| sīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| sīnatma
| sīnan
|-
|-
| 100
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''
| mīn
| hundred
| mīn
| þīn
| þīn
| sīn
| sīn
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| mīna
| mīnažis
|colspan=2| mīna
|rowspan=3| þīna
| þīnažis
|colspan=2| þīna
|rowspan=3| sīna
| sīnažis
|colspan=2| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| mīnaža
|rowspan=3| mīnam
| mīnans
|rowspan=3| þīnaža
|rowspan=3| þīnam
| þīnans
|rowspan=3| sīnaža
|rowspan=3| sīnam
| sīnans
|-
|-
| 1,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''
| mīna
| thousand (=ten hundreds)
| þīna
| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| mīnas
| mīnas
| þīnas
| þīnas
| sīnas
| sīnas
|-
|-
| 10,000
! '''''Weak'''''
| ''[[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''
! Nom.
| ten thousand
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
|-
| 100,000
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''
| sa … mīna
| hundred thousand (=ten ten-thousands)
|rowspan=2| þis … mīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … mīnin
| þa … mīnan
| sa … þīna
|rowspan=2| þis … þīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … þīnin
| þa … þīnan
| sa … sīna
|rowspan=2| þis … sīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … sīnin
| þan … sīnan
|-
|-
| 1,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''
| þa … mīna
| million (=hundred ten-thousands)
| þa … mīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … sīna
| þa … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … mīna
| þižis … mīnans
| þiža … mīnan
| þo … mīna
| so … þīna
| þižis … þīnans
| þiža … þīnan
| þo … þīna
| so … sīna
| þižis … sīnans
| þiža … sīnan
| þo … sīna
|-
|-
| 10,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]''
| þe … mīnans
| ten million (=ten hundred ten-thousands)
|rowspan=3| þiža … mīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … mīnam
| þans … mīnans
| þe … þīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … þīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … þīnam
| þans … þīnans
| þe … sīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … sīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … sīnam
| þans … sīnans
|-
|-
| 100,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
| þo … mīna
| hundred million
| þo … mīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … sīna
| þo … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … mīnans
| þos … mīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … sīnans
| þos … sīnans
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: unkra#Valthungian|unkra]]'', ''[[Contionary: unstra#Valthungian|unstra]]'' ‘both of our, all of our’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unkra ‘(both of) our’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unstra ‘(all of) our’
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
!width=100px| Nom.
| milliard/billion (=ten hundred-millions)
!width=100px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
|rowspan=5| unkra
| ten milliard/billion (=hundred hundred-millions)
|rowspan=2| unkris
|rowspan=2| unkratma
| unkran
|rowspan=5| unstra
|rowspan=2| unstris
|rowspan=2| unstratma
| unstran
|-
|-
| 100,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
|rowspan=2| unkra
| hundred milliard/billion (=ten hundred hundred-millions)
|rowspan=2| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| unkražis
| unkra
| unstražis
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| unkraža
|rowspan=3| unkram
| unkrans
|rowspan=3| unstraža
|rowspan=3| unstram
| unstrans
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
| unkra
| billion/trillion (=ten thousand hundred-millions)
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| unkras
| unkras
| unstras
| unstras
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000,000
! '''''Weak'''''  
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''  
! Nom.
| ten billion/trillion (=ten ten-thousand hundred-millions)
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
|-
| 100,000,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
| sa … unkra
| hundred billion/trillion (=hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
|rowspan=2| þis … unkrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unkrin
| þa … unkran
| sa … unstra
|rowspan=2| þis … unstrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unstrin
| þa … unstran
|-
|-
| 1,000,000,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]] [[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''
| þa … unkra
| billiard/quadrillion (=ten hundred ten-thousand hundred-millions)
| þa … unkra
| þa … unstra
| þa … unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … unkra
| þižis … unkrans
| þiža … unkran
| þo … unkran
| so … unstra
| þižis … unstrans
| þiža … unstran
| þo … unstra
|-
|-
| 10,000,000,000,000,000
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| ''[[Contionary: gwil#Maltcégj|gwil]]''
| þe … unkrans
| ten billiard/quadrillion
|rowspan=3| þiža … unkraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unkram
| þans … unkrans
| þe … unstrans
|rowspan=3| þiža … unstraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unstram
| þans … unstrans
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| þo … unkra
| þo … unkra
| þo … unstra
| þo … unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unstrans
| þos … unstrans
|}
|}


Maltcégj numbers are base-10 (decimal), but they increase incrementally instead of in the more regular groups of three or six.  Therefore, numbers through 999 are enumerated just as they are in English, but the number 1,000 is considered “ten hundred,” or ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''. Thereafter, 10,000 is ''[[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'', 100,000 ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘ten ten-thousands’, 1,000,000 is ''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘one hundred ten-thousands’, 10,000,000 is ''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]] [[Contionary: cep#Maltcégj|cep]]'' ‘ten hundred ten-thousands’, and 100,000,000 is ''[[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]''. The next increment after ''[[Contionary: jak#Maltcégj|jak]]'' is ''[[Contionary: gwil#Maltcégj|gwil]]'', which has a value of ten quadrillion (or ten billiard if you’re from some parts of Europe), followed by ''[[Contionary: ǧan#Maltcégj|ǧan]]'', which is a number large enough that you shouldn’t ever need it unless you’re counting individual atoms, but it’s something like one hundred nonillion (10³²).
====''[[Contionary: inkur#Valthungian|inkur]]'', ''[[Contionary: ižur#Valthungian|ižur]]'' ‘both of your, all of your’====


Compound numbers are spoken as they are written in English, from left to right, (optionally) inserting indicators for tens, hundreds, thousands, &c., so “twenty-nine” is ''[[Contionary: daiséþ#Maltcégj|daiséþ]] [[Contionary: nein#Maltcégj|nein]]'' ‘two tens nine’, while 3,587 is ''[[Contionary: transéþ#Maltcégj|transéþ]] [[Contionary: fremsám#Maltcégj|fremsám]] [[Contionary: relkséþ#Maltcégj|relkséþ]] [[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]]'' ‘three tens five hundreds eight tens seven, or thirty-five hundred eighty-seven’. Easier still, and less subject to misinterpretation, the numbers can simply be read from left to right, as in ''[[Contionary: tran#Maltcégj|tran]] [[Contionary: frem#Maltcégj|frem]] [[Contionary: relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]]'' ‘three five eight seven’. These are all correct, just as it’s correct in English to say “three thousand five hundred eighty-seven,” “thirty-five hundred and eighty-seven,” “thirty-five eighty-seven,” or even (somewhat less correctly) “three five eight seven.” 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
 
! &nbsp;
The number “zero” should always be read as ''[[Contionary: zo#Maltcégj|zo]]'', not ''[[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]'', though the two words are interchangeable in some circumstances. When the last digit is zero, however, it should be read as “''[[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]'',” or “''[[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]''“ if two zeros… It may sound a little strange, but we do the same thing in English. For example, 780 should be read ''[[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[Contionary: relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]]'' ‘seven eighty’; 7,800, ''[[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[Contionary: relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]'' ‘seventy-eight hundred’; 78,000, ''[[Contionary: dan#Maltcégj|dan]] [[Contionary: relk#Maltcégj|relk]] [[Contionary: seþ#Maltcégj|seþ]] [[Contionary: sam#Maltcégj|sam]]'', ‘seventy-eight thousand, &c.
!colspan=4| inkur ‘(both of) your’
 
! &nbsp;
With the exception of the number ‘one’, the particle ''[[Contionary: gji#Maltcégj|gji]]'' indicates ordinality, much like the suffix ''-th'' for numbers 4 – 10 in English. Any number ending in ‘one’ takes the ordinal ''[[Contionary: adám#Maltcégj|adám]]'', just as we say first and second in English rather than ''**oneth'' or ''**twoth''.
!colspan=4| ižur ‘(all of) your’
 
Maltcégj uses the particle ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'' before a noun to indicate that it is plural, but this particle is not used when a number is present.  For example, ‘book’ is ''[[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klag]]'', ‘books’ is ''[[Contionary: aklág#Maltcégj|aklág]]'', but ‘two books’ is ''[[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klag]] [[Contionary: dai#Maltcégj|dai]]'' (no ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]''). (See '''[[#Nouns|Nouns]]''' for more on the use of the plural.)
 
If using decimals in numbers, the word ''[[Contionary: dat#Maltcégj|dat]]'' is used to mean ‘point’ or ‘dot’, though it literally means ‘seed’ or ‘egg’.
 
== Articles & Determiners ==
 
Maltcégj has no definite article, and the indefinite article
''[[Contionary: am#Maltcégj|am]]'' is only used to specifically represent the number ‘one’. Its use of articles in this respect is very similar to Latin or Russian; definiteness is only expressed using the terms
''[[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]]'' ‘this’,
''[[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]]'' ‘that’, and
''[[Contionary: úlot#Maltcégj|úlot]]'', ‘that (other) yonder’ (or, respectively, the proximal, medial, and distal deixes). There are additional deixes which are used úlot for discussing time (see Pro-Forms).
 
=== Correlatives and Pro-Forms ===
 
Most of the pro-forms in Maltcégj stem from combinations of common words, such as ‘this’ + ‘time’, meaning ‘now’, or ‘that’ + ‘thing’ meaning ‘that’. However, it is important to note some historical changes to the language to fully understand how the current forms came to be as they are.
 
Maltcégj is a head-initial language, like modern Japanese, but the language family from which it is descended, Baraqesh, was head-final, like most modern Indo-European languages. That is to say that forms like ‘who’ (‘which person’) were originally in the order in which we use them in English today, but eventually reversed in the grammar (‘person which’). However, before this reversal occurred, many forms were contracted, particularly those with
''[[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]]'' ‘what’, so there is a duality of some seemingly unrelated forms. For example, ‘when’ (‘what’ + ‘time’) can be both
''[[Contionary: ðláimlau#Maltcégj|ðláimlau]]'' (literally ‘time-what’) and 
''[[Contionary: mlai#Maltcégj|mlai]]'', a contraction of an earlier
''*mlauðlai''.
 
The deixes
''[[Contionary: ja#Maltcégj|ja]]'',
''[[Contionary: la#Maltcégj|la]]'', and
''[[Contionary: þa#Maltcégj|þa]]'' always precede the noun they modify, even when they are used independently. (For more information on these, see Measurement of Time.)
 
Still other forms have no relation to the base form, but are listed here for convenience.
 
The most common correlatives can be found below.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Interrogative !! Relative !! Negative
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
|-
| Base forms:
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| <center>''[[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]]'' (‘what’)</center>
|rowspan=2| inkur
| <center>''[[Contionary: kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘that, which’)</center>
|rowspan=2| inkuris
| <center>''[[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]'' (‘no’)</center>
|rowspan=2| inkuratma
| inkurna
|rowspan=2| ižur
|rowspan=2| ižuris
|rowspan=2| ižuratma
| ižurna
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]]''''' (‘person’)
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlað#Maltcégj|mlað]]'' (‘who’)
|rowspan=2| inkur
| ''[[Contionary: klað#Maltcégj|klað]], [[Contionary: kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘who’)
|rowspan=2| ižur
| ''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blað#Maltcégj|blað]]'' (‘no one’)
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| inkura
| inkuražis
| inkura
|rowspan=3| ižura
| ižuražis
| ižura
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]]''''' (‘agent’)
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| ''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlak#Maltcégj|mlak]]'' (‘what’)
|rowspan=3| inkuraža
| ''[[Contionary: klak#Maltcégj|klak]], [[Contionary: kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘that’)
|rowspan=3| inkuram
| ''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blak#Maltcégj|blak]]'' (‘nothing’)
| inkurnas
|rowspan=3| ižuraža
|rowspan=3| ižuram
| ižurnas
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]''''' (‘thing’)
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlax#Maltcégj|mlax]]'' (‘what’)
| inkura
| ''[[Contionary: klax#Maltcégj|klax]], [[Contionary: kalk#Maltcégj|kalk]]'' (‘which’)
| ižura
| ''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blax#Maltcégj|blax]]'' (‘nothing’)
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| inkuras
| inkuras
| ižuras
| ižuras
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: arán#Maltcégj|arán]]''''' (‘place’)
! '''''Weak'''''  
| ''[[Contionary: arán#Maltcégj|arán]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlarán#Maltcégj|mlarán]]'' (‘where’)
! Nom.
| ''[[Contionary: klarán#Maltcégj|klarán]]'' (‘where’)
! Gen.
| ''[[Contionary: arán#Maltcégj|arán]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: bláran#Maltcégj|bláran]]'' (‘nowhere’)
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]''''' (‘time’)
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlai#Maltcégj|mlai]]'' (‘when’)
| sa … inkura
| ''[[Contionary: klai#Maltcégj|klai]]'' (‘when’)
|rowspan=2| þis … inkurins
| ''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]]''<ref>While ''[[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]]'' may still be found in some texts, it is not generally used due to its homophonous relationship with the progressive particle (see [[Contionary: #Verbs|Verbs]]).</ref> (‘never’)
|rowspan=2| þam … inkurin
| þa … inkurna
| sa … ižura
|rowspan=2| þis … ižurins
|rowspan=2| þam … ižurin
| þa … ižurna
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]]''''' (‘manner’)
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| ''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlið#Maltcégj|mlið]]'' (‘how’)
| þa … inkura
| ''[[Contionary: klið#Maltcégj|klið]]'' (‘how’)
| þa … inkura
| ''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blið#Maltcégj|blið]]'' (‘no way’)
| þa … ižura
| þa … ižura
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … inkura
| þižis … inkurans
| þiža … inkuran
| þo … inkuran
| so … ižura
| þižis … ižurans
| þiža … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]]''''' (‘quantity’)
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| ''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[Contionary: mlau#Maltcégj|mlau]], [[Contionary: mlára#Maltcégj|mlára]]'' (‘how much/many’)
| þe … inkurnas
| ''[[Contionary: klára#Maltcégj|klára]]'' (‘how much/many’)
|rowspan=3| þiža … inkurnaro
| ''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]], [[Contionary: blára#Maltcégj|blára]]'' (‘none’)
|rowspan=3| þem … inkurma
| þans … inkurnas
| þe … ižurnas
|rowspan=3| þiža … ižurnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … ižurma
| þans … ižurnas
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]'''''<ref>The word ''[[Contionary: hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]'' (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, ''[[Contionary: frulúþ#Maltcégj|frulúþ]]''.</ref> (‘reason’)
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ''[[Contionary: mlímiem#Maltcégj|mlímiem]]'' (‘why’)
| þo … inkuran
| ''[[Contionary: klímiem#Maltcégj|klímiem]]'' (‘why’)
| þo … inkuran
| ''[[Contionary: blímiem#Maltcégj|blímiem]]'' (‘for no reason’)
| þo … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … inkurans
| þos … inkurans
| þos … ižurans
| þos … ižurans
|}
 
====Indeclinable Possessives====
The following possessives do not decline. When the noun they modify is not accompanied by an adjective, they usually follow the noun; if no adjective is present, they precede the noun, and the adjective takes the strong declension.
* [[Contionary: is#Valthungian|'''''is''''']] ‘his, its’
* [[Contionary: ižis#Valthungian|'''''ižis''''']] ‘her’
* [[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|'''''iža''''']] ‘their’
* [[Contionary: huis#Valthungian|'''''huis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: huižis#Valthungian|'''''huižis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: nījus#Valthungian|'''''nījus''''']] ‘no one's’
* [[Contionary: huižuþ#Valthungian|'''''huižuþ''''']] ‘everyone's’
 
==Numbers==
===Declinable Numerals===
====Singular (‘one’)====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
!  !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal
!width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| Base forms:
!masc.
| <center>''[[Contionary: jála#Maltcégj|jála]], [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]]'' (‘this’)</center>
| ǣns ||rowspan=2| ǣnis ||rowspan=2| ǣnatma || ǣnan
| <center>''[[Contionary: ðóra#Maltcégj|ðóra]], [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]]'' (‘that’)</center>
| <center>''[[Contionary: þa#Maltcégj|þa]], [[Contionary: ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]]'' (‘yonder’)</center>
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]]''''' (‘person’)  
!neu.
| ''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[Contionary: jlað#Maltcégj|jlað]]'' (‘this person’)
| ǣn(at) || ǣn(at)  
| ''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[Contionary: ðrað#Maltcégj|ðrað]]'' (‘that person’)  
|-
| ''[[Contionary: lað#Maltcégj|lað]] [[Contionary: ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[Contionary: þlað#Maltcégj|þlað]]'' (‘the other person’)
!fem.
| ǣna || ǣnažis || ǣna || ǣna
|-
|}
 
====Dual (‘two, both’)====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]]''''' (‘agent’)
!width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
| ''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[Contionary: jlak#Maltcégj|jlak]]'' (‘this thing’)
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|  
| ''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[Contionary: ðrak#Maltcégj|ðrak]]'' (‘that thing’)
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
| ''[[Contionary: lak#Maltcégj|lak]] [[Contionary: ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[Contionary: þlak#Maltcégj|þlak]]'' (‘the other thing’)
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]''''' (‘thing’)
! masc.
| ''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[Contionary: jlax#Maltcégj|jlax]]'' (‘this’)
| tuǣ ||rowspan=3| tuǣǧa ||rowspan=3| tuǣm || tuans
| ''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]]'' (‘that’)
| bǣ ||rowspan=3| bǣǧa ||rowspan=3| bǣm || bans
| ''[[Contionary: ðrax#Maltcégj|ðrax]] [[Contionary: ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]], [[Contionary: þlax#Maltcégj|þlax]]'' (‘that (other)’)
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: arán#Maltcégj|arán]]''''' (‘place’)
! neu.
| ''[[Contionary: jarán#Maltcégj|jarán]], [[Contionary: jlarán#Maltcégj|jlarán]]''<ref>''[[Contionary: jláran#Maltcégj|jláran]]'' is gradually becoming obsolete and has been broadly replaced by ''[[Contionary: járan#Maltcégj|járan]]''.</ref> (‘here’)
| tuā || tuā
| ''[[Contionary: larán#Maltcégj|larán]], [[Contionary: ðrarán#Maltcégj|ðrarán]]'' (‘there’)
| bā || bā
| ''[[Contionary: þarán#Maltcégj|þarán]]'' (‘up there, ahead’), '' [[Contionary: þrarán#Maltcégj|þrarán]]'' (‘elsewhere’)
|-
! fem.  
| tuōs || tuōs
| bōs || bōs
|}
 
====Trial (‘three, all three’) ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]''''' (‘time’)
!width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
| ''[[Contionary: jaðlai#Maltcégj|jaðlai]], [[Contionary: jlai#Maltcégj|jlai]], [[Contionary: nak#Maltcégj|nak]]'' (‘now’)
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|
| ''[[Contionary: laðlai#Maltcégj|laðlai]], [[Contionary: ðraðlai#Maltcégj|ðraðlai]], [[Contionary: nos#Maltcégj|nos]]'' (‘then’)
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
| ''[[Contionary: þaðlai#Maltcégj|þaðlai]]'' (‘in the future’), ''[[Contionary: þraðlái#Maltcégj|þraðlái]]'' (‘some other time’)
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]]''''' (‘manner’)
! masc.
| ''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[Contionary: jlið#Maltcégj|jlið]]'' (‘like this’)
| þrīs ||rowspan=3| þriža ||rowspan=3| þrim || þrins
| ''[[Contionary: kþið#Maltcégj|kþið]] [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[Contionary: ðrið#Maltcégj|ðrið]]'' (‘like that’)
| þrǣ ||rowspan=3| þrǣža ||rowspan=3| þrǣm || þrans
| ''[[Contionary: þkíð#Maltcégj|þkíð]]'' (‘some other way’)
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]]''''' (‘quantity’)
! neu.
| ''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára [[Contionary: úli#Maltcégj|úli]], [[Contionary: márað#Maltcégj|márað]]'' (‘this much’)
| þrī, þriža || þrī, þriža
| ''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]]]] [[Contionary: úla#Maltcégj|úla]], [[Contionary: márað#Maltcégj|márað]]'' (‘that much’)
| þrā || þrā
| ''[[Contionary: mára#Maltcégj|mára]] [[Contionary: ulót#Maltcégj|ulót]]'' (‘that other amount’)
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]<ref>The word ''[[Contionary: hímiem#Maltcégj|hímiem]]'' (‘reason’) is no longer used, but lives on in the pro-form contractions, where it is used exclusively over its nominal replacement, ''[[Contionary: frulúþ#Maltcégj|frulúþ]]''.</ref>''''' (‘reason’)
! fem.  
|colspan=2| ''[[Contionary: ðrímiem#Maltcégj|ðrímiem]]'' (‘because’)
| þrīs || þrins
| ''[[Contionary: þrímiem#Maltcégj|þrímiem]]'' (‘for that reason’)
| þreǧis || þreǧis
|-
|-
|}
|}


== Nouns ==
===Undeclinable Numerals===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
Maltcégj nouns are relatively straight-forward.  They do not inflect for case or number. Nouns are always the first word in a noun phrase (that is, they precede adjectives and adpositions), though genitive constructions may be constructed in ways that may seem contrary to this assertion (more on the genitive under [[#Adpositions|Adpositions]]).
|-
 
! !!width=100px| # !!width=150px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000
Nouns with two syllables which may double as verbs tend to have initial stress while the verb form has final stress, but this tendency is by no means a rule.
|-
 
!  0
=== Indicating Plurality ===
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣ tiǧis|| ''tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''‑ljǭn''
 
While there is no specific plural form of nouns, there is a plural particle, ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak-]]'', which can be optionally prefixed to the noun stem to specify plurality. ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak-]]'' is never used when a number is present or any other indicator that would already imply a plural.
 
For example:
 
''[[Contionary: téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]]'' ‘table’<br />
'''''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]]'''[[Contionary: téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]]'' ‘tables’<br />
''[[Contionary: téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]] [[Contionary: jamp#Maltcégj|jamp]]'' ‘four tables’<br />
''[[Contionary: téfʌðu#Maltcégj|téfʌðu]] [[Contionary: lexét#Maltcégj|lexét]]'' ‘many tables’
 
== Adpositions ==
 
Adpositions in Maltcégj are generally suffixed to the nouns they modify. They undergo very little inflection (so it is not considered a case system per se), but there is some variation in some nouns which end in vowels, as shown below. (Nouns can only end in the vowels 〈i〉, 〈a〉, 〈ǫ〉, 〈o〉, and 〈u〉. Nouns cannot end in 〈e〉 or 〈y〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʌ〉 take regular consonant endings except before ''-ʌ'' and ''-ʌk'', where the final 〈ʌ〉 of the noun becomes 〈l〉. Nouns ending in 〈ʀ〉 take regular consonant endings except before ''[[Contionary: -ʀ#Maltcégj|-ʀ]]'', which becomes ''-hʀ''. Most changes, however, simply involve adding an epenthetic 〈h〉 before the prefix or adding a diæresis or dot to the vowel of the adposition.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! C#-
! 1
! [i]#-
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣndlif || tuǣ tiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn
! [a,ǫ]#-
! [o,u]#-
! Example
! Preposition Type
! Eng.  
! Ger.  
! Lat.  
! Esp.  
! Notes
|-
|-
| '''''-'''''
!  2
| ''-i- ''
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || tuǣ tiǧi tuǣ|| tuǣ tiǧis || tuā hunda || tuōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn
| ''-a-''
| ''-o- ''
| ''[[ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klag]] [[Contionary: gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]].''<br />The book is green.’
| Nominative
| -
| (''Nom.'')
| (''Nom.'')
| -
| Subject.
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -a#Maltcégj|a]]'''''
!  3
| ''-iȧ ''
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrigatǣn (þrižatǣn), ig || tuǣ tiǧi þrīs|| þrīs tiǧis || þrī hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn
| ''-aha''
| ''-oȧ ''
| ''[[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[Contionary: kulóm#Maltcégj|kulóm]] [[Contionary: jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]] [[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klág]]'''[[Contionary: -a#Maltcégj|a]]'''.''<br />‘I saw '''the book'''.’
| Accusative
| -
| (''Acc.'')
| (''Acc.'')
| -n
| Direct object.
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -að#Maltcégj|að]]'''''
!  4
| ''-iȧð ''
| fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fiður|| fiðra tiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || fiðriljǭn
| ''-ahað''
| ''-oȧð ''
| ‘to the book’
| Dative
| to
| zu (+ ''Dat.'')
| ad
| al
| Indirect object.
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ai#Maltcégj|ai]]'''''
!  5
| ''-iȧi ''
| fim || fimfatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fim|| fim tiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn
| ''-ahai''
| ''-oȧi ''
| ‘through (the middle of) the book’
| Perlative
| through
| durch (+ ''Acc.'')
| per
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -aj#Maltcégj|aj]]'''''
!  6
| ''-iȧj ''
| sǣs || sǣstatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sǣs|| sǣs tiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn
| ''-ahaj''
| ''-oȧj ''
| ‘during/throughout the book’
| Temporal Durative
| during
| während (+ ''Gen.'')
|  
| dum
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ala#Maltcégj|ala]]'''''
!  7
| ''-iȧla ''
| sivun (sivna) || sivuntǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sivun|| sivun tiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn
| ''-ahala''
| ''-oȧla ''
| ‘between the books’
| Intrative
| between, among
| zwischen, unter (+ ''Dat.'')
| inter
|  
| Automatically implies plural.
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -am#Maltcégj|alm]]'''''
!  8
| ''-iȧlm ''
| āta (āt) || ātatǣn || tuǣ tiǧis āta|| āta tiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn
| ''-ahalm''
| ''-oȧlm ''
| ‘without the book’
| Abesso-caritive
| without
| ohne (+ ''Acc.'')
| sine
| sen
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -alx#Maltcégj|alx]]'''''
!  9
| ''-iȧlx ''
| njun || niðatǣn, iþ || tuǣ tiǧi njun|| njun tiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn
| ''-ahalx''
| ''-oȧlx ''
| ‘on (the side of) the book’
| Adessive
| on
| an (+ ''Dat.'')
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ap#Maltcégj|ap]]'''''  
|}
| ''-iȧp ''  
 
| ''-ahap''  
The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities.  Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by analogy with the dual (''bǣ'' ‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.
| ''-oȧp ''  
 
| ‘on (top of) the book’
The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.)
| Superessive
 
| on
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, common in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.
| auf (+ ''Dat.'')  
 
|  
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīs tiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''‑i‑'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn‑'' and ''āta''.
| sur
 
|
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''.
 
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[wiki:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘‑ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -arak#Maltcégj|arak]]'''''
! N⁰ !! Numerals !!width=100px| Valthungian !!width=130px| Short !!width=130px| Hybrid !!width=130px| Long !!width=100px| Metric
| ''-iȧrak ''
| ''-aharak''
| ''-oȧrak''
| ‘(leaning) against the book’
| Revertive
| against
| gegen (+ ''Acc.'')
| versus
| kontraux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -av#Maltcégj|av]]'''''
!  10³ 
| ''-iȧv ''  
|align="right"| 1,000 || þūsunde ||colspan=3 align="center"| thousand || '''k'''''ilo''
| ''-ahav''
| ''-oȧv ''  
| ‘after the book’
| Postessive
| following
| folgend, zunächst
| post
| post
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -eð#Maltcégj|eð]]'''''
!  10⁶ 
| ''-iëð ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000 || miljǭn ||colspan=3 align="center"| million || '''M'''''ega''
| ''-aheð''
| ''-oëð ''  
| ‘around the book’
| Circumessive
| around
| um (+ ''Acc.'')
| circum
| cxirkaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -eki#Maltcégj|eki]]'''''
!  10⁹ 
| ''-iëki ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000  || biljǭn || billion || milliard || thousand million || '''G'''''iga''
| ''-aheki''  
| ''-oëki ''  
| ‘up to/until the book’
| Allato-terminative
| until
| bis (+ ''Acc.'')
|
|
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -eloï#Maltcégj|eloï]]'''''
!  10¹²
| ''-iëloï ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000  || þriljǭn || trillion || billion || billion || '''T'''''era''
| ''-aheloï''  
| ''-oëloï''  
| ‘about/concerning the book’
|
| about
| über (+ ''Dat.'')
|
| pri
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -em#Maltcégj|em]]'''''
!  10¹⁵
| ''-iëm ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000  || fiðriljǭn || quadrillion || billiard || thousand billion || '''P'''''eta''
| ''-ahem''  
| ''-oëm ''  
| ‘over/above the book’
|
| over
| über (+ ''Dat.'')
| supra
| super
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ei#Maltcégj|ei]]'''''
!  10¹⁸
| ''-iëi ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000  || fimfiljǭn || quintillion || trillion || trillion || '''E'''''xa''
| ''-ahei''  
| ''-oëi ''  
| ‘in the book’
| Inessive
| in
| in (+ ''Dat.'')
| in(tra)
| en
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -fra#Maltcégj|fra]]'''''
!  10²¹
| ''-ifra ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sǣsiljǭn || sextillion || trilliard || thousand trillion || '''Z'''''etta''
| ''-afra''  
| ''-ofra ''  
| ‘with books’ (as in ‘strewn’)
|
| with
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')
|
| kun
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -i#Maltcégj|i]]'''''
!  10²⁴
| ''-ihi ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sivniljǭn || septillion || quadrillion || quadrillion || '''Y'''''otta''
| ''-ahi''  
| ''-oï ''  
| ‘for the book’
| Benefactive
| for
| für (+ ''Acc.'')
|
| por
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ið#Maltcégj|ið]]'''''
!  10²⁷
| ''-ihið ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || ātatiljǭn || octillion || quadrilliard || thousand quadrillion || -
| ''-ahið''
| ''-oïð ''
| ‘before/prior to the book’
| Temporal
| before
| bevor (+ ''Dat.'')
| ante
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ij#Maltcégj|ij]]'''''
!  10³⁰
| ''-ihij ''
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || njuniljǭn || nonillion || quintillion || quintillion || -
| ''-ahij''
| ''-oïj ''
| ‘after the books’
| Temporal
| after, according to
| nach (+ ''Dat.'')
| secundum
| laux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ili#Maltcégj|ili]]'''''  
|}
| ''-ihili ''  
 
| ''-ahili''  
===Ordinal Numbers and Other Number Forms===
| ''-oïli''  
Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English). In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second took only the weak declension, but all ordinals now take both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules of adjectives.
| ‘next to/beside/near the book’
 
| Apudessive
The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tvaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''.
| next to  
 
| neben (+ ''Dat.'')  
Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''‑tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''‑tel'' being a direct cognate to ''dǣl''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''‑a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.
| prope
 
| apud
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -im#Maltcégj|im]]'''''
!rowspan=2| &nbsp;
| ''-ihim ''
!colspan=3| Ordinal
| ''-ahim''
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Multiplicative
| ''-oïm ''
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Fractional
| ‘along(side) the books’
| Vialis
| along
| (''Dat.''+) entlang
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -is#Maltcégj|is]]'''''
! (Strong)
| ''-ihis ''
! (Weak)
| ''-ahis''
! &nbsp;
| ''-oïs ''
| ‘instead of the book’
| Excambiative
| instead of
| statt (+ ''Gen.'')  
|
| anstataux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -it#Maltcégj|it]]'''''
! 1
| ''-ihit ''
| frumist, frums
| ''-ahit''
| frumista, fruma
| ''-oït ''
| first
| ‘behind the book’
| ǣniþis
|  
| once, one time
| behind
|colspan=2| --
| hinter (+ ''Dat.'')
| pone, post
| malantaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -iþ#Maltcégj|iþ]]'''''
! 2
| ''-ihiþ ''
|colspan=2| anðra
| ''-ahiþ''
| second
| ''-oïþ ''
| tuaþis
| ‘under the book’
| twice, two times
| Subessive
| hlafs, tuǣǧa dǣlaro
| under
| half
| unter (+ ''Dat.'')
| subter
| sub
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -lef#Maltcégj|lef]]'''''
! 3
| ''-ilef ''
| þrīǧis
| ''-alef''
| þrīǧa
| ''-olef ''
| third
| ‘like the books’
| þriþis
| Comparative
| thrice, three times
| like
| þriža dǣlaro
| wie (+ ''Nom.'')
| third
|  
| kiel
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ʌ#Maltcégj|ʌ]]'''''
! 4
| ''-il ''
| fiðraþs
| ''-al''
| fiðraða
| ''-ol ''
| fourth
| ‘by the book’
| fiðurþis
| Agentive
| four times
| by
| fiðra dǣlaro
| von (+ ''Dat.'')
| quarter/fourth
|  
| per
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ʌk#Maltcégj|ʌk]]'''''
! 5
| ''-ilk ''
| fimft
| ''-alk''
| fimfta
| ''-olk ''
| fifth
| ‘by means of the book’
| fimftis
| Instrumental
| five times
| with
| fimfa dǣlaro
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')
| fifth
| cum
| per
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -o#Maltcégj|o]]'''''
! 6
| ''-iȯ ''
| sǣst
| ''-aho''
| sǣsta
| ''-oho ''
| sixth
| ‘from the book’
| sǣstis
| Delative
| six times
| from
| sǣsa dǣlaro
| von (+ ''Dat.'')
| sixth
|  
| de
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -oc#Maltcégj|oc]]'''''
! 7
| ''-iȯc ''
| sivunþs
| ''-ahoc''
| sivunþa
| ''-ohoc ''
| seventh
| ‘at the time of the book’
| sivunþis
| Temporal
| seven times
| at the time of
| sivun dǣlaro
| an (+ ''Acc.'')
| seventh
|  
| cxe
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ok#Maltcégj|ok]]'''''
! 8
| ''-iȯk ''
| ātuþs
| ''-ahok''
| ātuða
| ''-ohȯk ''
| eighth
| ‘with the book’
| ātuðis
| Commitative
| eight times
| with
| āta dǣlaro
| mit (+ ''Dat.'')
| eighth
| simul
|-
| kun
! 9
|
| njunþs
| njunþa
| ninth
| njunþis
| nine times
| njuna dǣlaro
| ninth
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ol#Maltcégj|ol]]'''''
! 10
| ''-iȯl ''
| tǣjunþs
| ''-ahol''
| tǣjunþa
| ''-ohȯl ''
| tenth
| ‘except for the book’
| tǣjunþis
| Exclusive
| ten times
| except for
| tǣjun dǣlaro
| außer (+ ''Dat.'')
| tenth
|  
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -om#Maltcégj|om]]'''''
! 11
| ''-iȯm ''
| ǣndlift
| ''-ahom''
| ǣndlifta
| ''-ohȯm ''
| eleventh
| ‘in front of the book’
| ǣndliftis
|  
| eleven times
| in front of
| ǣndliva dǣlaro
| vor (+ ''Dat.'')
| eleventh
| prae
| antaux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ǫg#Maltcégj|ǫg]]'''''
! 12
| ''-iǫ̇g ''
| tuālift
| ''-ahǫg''
| tuālifta
| ''-ohǫ̇g ''
| twelfth
| ‘anti-book’
| tuāliftis
| Contrative
| twelve times
| against, anti
| tuāliva dǣlaro
| wider (+ ''Acc.''), -feindlich
| twelfth
| contra
| kontraux
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ʀ#Maltcégj|ʀ]]'''''
! 13
| ''-ihʀ ''
| þrigatǣnþs
| ''-ahʀ''
| þrigatǣnþa
| ''-ohʀ ''
| thirteenth
| ‘pro-book’
| þrigatǣnþis
|  
| thirteen times
| for, pro
| þrigatǣjun dǣlaro
| pro- (+ ''Acc.''), -freundlich
| thirteenth
| pro
|  
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ul#Maltcégj|ul]]'''''
! 20
| ''-iu̇l ''
| tuǣ tiǧist
| ''-ahul''
| tuǣ tiǧista
| ''-ou̇l ''
| twentieth
| ‘(made) of books’
| tuǣ tiǧistis
| Exessive
| twenty times
| made from
| tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro
| aus (+ ''Dat.'')
| twentieth
| ex
| el
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -ut#Maltcégj|ut]]'''''
! 100
| ''-iu̇t ''
| hundaþs
| ''-ahut''
| hundaða
| ''-ou̇t ''
| hundredth
| ‘out of the book’
| hundaðis
| Elative
| a hundred times
| out of
| hunda dǣlaro
| aus (+ ''Dat.'')
| hundredth
| ex
| el
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: -vul#Maltcégj|vul]]'''''
! 1,000
| ''-ivul ''
| þūsundiþs
| ''-avul''
| þūsundiða
| ''-ovul ''
| thousandth
| ‘because of the book’
| þūsundiðis
| Causal
| a thousand times
| because of
| þūsunǧa dǣlaro
| wegen (+ ''Gen.'')
| thousandth
| propter
| pro
|
|-
|-
| '''''[[Contionary: u-#Maltcégj|u]]'''''
! 1,000,000
| ''uï-''
| miljǭnþs
| ''uȧ-''
| miljǭnþa
| ''uȯ- ''
| millionth
| ‘-’s book, the book belonging to’
| miljǭnþis
| Possessed
| a million times
| ‘s, of
| miljǭna dǣlaro
| (''Gen.''), von
| millionth
| (''Gen.'')
| de
|
|-
|-
|}
|}


== Adjectives ==
===Alternative Numbers===
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form.  Primary among these numbers were ‘13’ and ‘19’, which were written in Gothic as ''·ig·'' and ''·iþ·'', respectively.  This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (''rig''), ‘119’ (''riþ''), ‘213’ (''sig''), ‘219’ (''siþ''), ‘313’ (''tig''), ‘319’ (''tiþ''), ‘413’ (''wig''), ‘419’ (''wiþ''), ‘513’ (''fig''), and ‘519’ (''fiþ''). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)
 
Though this seems like a modern form of word-play, it is actually quite ancient. The rendering of ‘19’ as ''iþ'' exerted enough influence on the numeric form from early days that the modern form became ''niðatǣn'' rather than the expected **''njunatǣn''. Similarly, the standard form of ‘13’ is ''þrigatǣn'', though the expected ''þrižatǣn'' is still an accepted alternative.
 
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat niðatǣn'' referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (''fiður-ig''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' (‘road’).
 
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.
 
==A Note on Terminology: “Strong” vs. “Weak”==
In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.”
In verbs, these denote two of the many categories into which verbs may be broken, “strong” verbs being those that form the preterit by means of ablaut, and “weak” being those that form the preterit with a suffix containing some manner of dental consonant. There are further classifications of preterit-present, aorist-present, subjunctive-present, and anomalous, and many of them overlap with the simplistic “strong” and “weak” descriptors. (See [[#Verbs|Verbs]] for more information.)
 
This usage is completely unrelated to strong and weak nouns and adjectives, in which “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending.
 
And even though the meaning of strong and weak in nouns and adjectives are historically related, their usage is not: In nouns, like the verbs, this is merely a convenient way of categorising certain types of nouns which take certain endings. In adjectives, however, the use of a strong or weak adjective depends on whether other determiners are present in the same noun phrase; most adjectives have both a strong and a weak declension.
 
For the purposes of this text, I dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various stem classes into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction. I maintain the use of the terms for verbs and adjectives, though, to be honest, their usage with verbs could easily be similarly eschewed; the only area  where these distinctions are really functionally important is in the discussion of adjectives.
 
==Nouns==
Main article: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]
 
Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).
 
Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of ‑s or ‑a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by ‑is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes ‑a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
 
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take ‑as as an ending; neuter takes ‑a. The genitive plural takes ‑aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes ‑am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it ‑ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually ‑ans, but again may metathesise to ‑nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take ‑a.
 
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See [[#Phonology|Phonology]]). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
 
Details about the inflections of individual noun classes and their variants can be found here: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]
 
==Verbs==
===Inversion===
A peculiar feature about Valthungian verbs is that every finite verb has a “Standard” and “Inverted” form. This arose historically because of the increasing strictness of the V2 environment, causing shifts in voicing and sandhi between the verb and subject pronoun. Inverted pronouns are generally appended to the inverted verb (with no apostrophes!), and the plural pronouns have particularly different forms which may merge some pronouns (the third person plural forms, for example, are all identical).
 
===Strong Verbs===
Strong verbs are those verbs in Germanic which form the preterit and past participles through a process of ablaut; that is, by changing the stressed vowel. This is analogous to those verbs in English such as ''drive – drove – driven'' (class I), or ''drink – drank – drunk'' (class III). These are traditionally divided into four “Principal Parts”: The first is the base of the infinitive, present participle, present indicative and subjunctive tenses, and the imperatives. The second principal part is used to form the preterit singular. The third is the preterit plural and all of the subjunctive. (This is usually umlauted in the subjunctive.) Finally the fourth principal part is the root of the past participle.
 
====Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.1p|seize|grī|grǣ|gri|gri|gri}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2p|strju|strǭ|stru|stry}}
 
Because of the shift of the vowel from '''iu''' to '''ju''', when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalisation, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}
 
Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *‑euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class III (i – a – u – u)====
 
Class III strong verbs are those verbs with /i/ (historically /e/) as the root vowel which is followed by a sonorant (r, l, m, n) and an obstruent (p, t, k, b, d, g, f, þ, s, h), or, rarely, two obstruents (e.g. /hs/, /gd/). Ablaut causes the second principle part to shift to /a/, and the third and fourth to /u/.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3nd|bi|ba|ba|bu|by}}
 
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3rg|be|ba|ba|bo|bœ}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kui|kua|kuē|kū}}
 
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4r|b}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kui|kua|kuē|kui}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6g|dra|drō|drœu|dra}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by ⟨e⟩, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
Verbs beginning with ⟨s⟩ followed by a stop (i.e. ⟨sp⟩, ⟨st⟩, or ⟨sk⟩), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
<!--<small>Verbs with ⟨ē⟩ as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to ⟨ō⟩ in the past (and subsequently umlaut to ⟨œ̄⟩ in the past subjunctive).</small>-->
 
===Weak Verbs===
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (‑janą)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (‑ijaną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class II (‑ōną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class III (‑āną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (‑naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (‑ną)====
 
===Preterit-Present Verbs===
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}}
 
Finally, '''wilin''' is not actually a preterit-present verb, but a subjunctive-present verb. However, it seems to fit best here amongst its other quasi-anomalous quasi-auxiliary brethren.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.wilin|}}
 
===Anomalous Verbs===
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/‑reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ‑'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj‑'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''stǣn/standna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. Though it acts like a Class VI verb in how it ablauts in the past, there is also a parallel form with reduplication, indicating Class VII.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}
 
''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis‑'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i‑'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i‑'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
 
===Compound Tenses===
====Forming the Perfect====
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga‑'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.
 
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
 
Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|wisna]]'' and the past participle.
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''vroðna'''.''
**‘She has become a doctor.’
*''Is '''was''' hǣma '''gangna'''.''
**‘He had gone home.’


Adjectives in Maltcégj generally follow the noun they modify.  
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga‑'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
**‘She had given it to him.’
*''Ik þik '''sǣjua gā'''.''
**‘I have seen you.’
 
====Forming the Future====
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages).
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þo hroþ '''lūkna'''.''
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’
*''Ik ni '''gangiða''' nījo '''ligna''' þo livran af hǣða hun.''
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’
 
====Forming the Passive====
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| [[Contionary: wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]]
! &nbsp;
| [[Contionary: calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]
! Patient:<br />Deliberate
! Patient:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|-
|-
| sky
! Agent:<br />Deliberate
| blue
|| ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’
|| ''gitna'' ‘to get’<ref>The present tense of ''gitna'' is often reduced, particularly in the third person, when used as a passive auxiliary; i.e. ''gitiþ'' → ''giþ'', ''gitnaþ'' → ''ginþ''. </ref><br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’
|-
|-
|colspan=2| ‘blue sky’
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br />&nbsp;
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skǣšin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''vreðna'' ‘to become’
|}
|}
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forða vork '''fraglíðiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis broðaþjugis '''ganōguþ'''.
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’
'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.
*''Ik '''gat''' þis weris '''slagun'''.''
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’
*''S·wagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþ'''.''
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’
'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižis fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiž·intǣkninis) toðiža miðéndina '''tugun'''.''
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’
'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’
*''Þe lǭvas '''skāguðun''' þižis rynins '''avbrón'''.''
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’
====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future====
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.''
**‘I had '''just''' eaten.’
*''Is '''straks''' gangiþ hǣma.''
**‘He is '''about to''' go home.’
''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.''
====Forming the Progressive====
The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense.
The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb ''sitna'' ‘to sit’ and the preposition ''bī'' ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter ''sitna bi'' followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as ''Ik sita bi vrǣtina'' rather than the expected ''Ik sita bi vrǣčin''.
*''Ū '''sitistu''' njužis '''bi drinkna''' gā?''
**‘Have you '''been drinking''' again?’
*''Ik '''sita bi skrīvna''' þo bisāt mīna. Raniso '''sitik bi drinkna''' gā.''
**‘'''I’m writing''' my dissertation. Of course I’ve '''been drinking'''.’
==Adjectives==
In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a [[#Determiners|determiner]] (article, possessive<ref>Only when a possessive is used without an article; otherwise the possessive itself is also declined as weak.</ref>, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong.
Predicative adjectives do not decline; they usually take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify.
Legend: <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">Predicative</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">Strong</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">Weak</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FF99;">Determiner</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">Non-declining Genitive</span>
When a noun is modified by an adjective alone (with no determiner present), the adjective takes the strong declension.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘a red house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘sparkling mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘forbidden knowledge’
When paired with a third person possessive (is, ižis, or iža), an adjective also takes the strong declension:
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘his red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘her sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘their forbidden knowledge’
When one of the above possessives is used without an adjective, they follow the noun.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ‘his house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> ‘her mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> ‘their knowledge’
When a determiner is present, the adjective takes a weak declension.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">hreužitaþ</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">rǭða</span>'' ‘every red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'' ‘my sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘the forbidden knowledge’
When a possessive is used with an adjective (as in ''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'', above), the possessive precedes the noun and takes a strong declension while the adjective takes the weak; however, when no adjective is present, a definite article precedes the noun, and the weak-declined possessive follows it.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span>'' ‘my house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span>'' ‘your mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span>'' ‘our knowledge’
When an adjective is used as a predicate, it takes the predicative form (not really a declension, because there is only one).
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">rǭþ</span>.''  ‘my house is red’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">glitnaþ</span>.'' ‘your mead is sparkling’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">frobúðna</span>.'' ‘our knowledge is forbidden’
===Comparison===
To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ''‑ums'' (which declines as an a‑stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ''‑ims''. E.g.:
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilums''''' ‘bigger’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunims''''' ‘greener’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''aglums''''' ‘more difficult’
The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition ''than'':
* ''Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum.'' ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to‑the brother of‑himself taller.”)
To form the superlative, most adjectives add ''‑ist'' to the stem.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilist''''' ‘biggest’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunist''''' ‘greenest’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''eglist''''' ‘most difficult’


However, when an adjective is used as a copula, it may stand on its own as a predicate to ''ek'' (‘to be’), or be treated as a verb in its own right.
The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:
* ''Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist.'' ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of‑the brothers of‑himself the tallest.”)


===Adverbialization===
Historically, adverbs are formed from adjectives in a variety of ways. The most common, however, is to add the suffix '''''‑so''''' (often written as '''''‑sua''''' in older texts) after the stem vowel.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilaso''''' ‘largely’
* '''''synikus''''' ‘honest’ → '''''synikuso''''' ‘honestly’
* '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’ → '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’
===Irregular and Suppletive Forms===
There are a number of irregular and suppletive forms of adjectives.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
! Adverbial
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]]''  
| '''''tils~þjuþs''''' ‘good’
| ''[[Contionary: gnída#Maltcégj|gnída]]''  
| '''''batums''''' ‘better’
| ''[[Contionary: gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]]''  
| '''''batist''''' ‘best’
|rowspan=2| (or)
| '''''tila''''' ‘well’
| ''[[Contionary: gnir#Maltcégj|gnir]]''  
| ''[[Contionary: gnída#Maltcégj|gnída]]''
|-
|-
| is
| '''''līts'''''~'''''lītils'''''~'''''lītlas''''' ‘little, small’
| grass
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘smaller’
| green
| '''''mitnist''''' ‘smallest’
| is-green
| —
| grass
|-
| '''''uvils~balus''''' ‘bad’
| '''''vresums''''' ‘worse’
| '''''vresist''''' ‘worst’
| '''''balo''''' ‘badly, poorly’
|-
| '''''fǭs''''' ‘little, few’
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘less, fewer’
| '''''mitnist'''''~'''''faugist''''' ‘least, fewest’
| —
|-
|-
|colspan=6| ‘The grass is green.’
| '''''filus''''' ‘much, many’
| '''''mǣžums''''' ‘more’
| '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’
| '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’
|}
|}


=== Comparison, Superference, and Equation ===
==Vocabulary==
 
'''[[:Category: Valthungian words|Valthungian Words on Contionary]]'''
In English there are two distinct ways to create the comparative and superlative when talking about adjectives: By adding the words “more” and “most” to adjectives of Latin derivation, and by adding the suffixes “-er” and “-est” to those of Germanic origin. (Granted, this is a little bit simplified, but that’s the general idea.) Maltcégj only has one word for each of these types of comparative and superlative, but there are a few other ways that we cheat our way around in English. I also include here the equative phrase “as … as” and the negative comparative and superlative “less” and “least.”


===Swadesh List===
''For those of you who like this sort of thing!''
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: narán#Maltcégj|narán]]''  
! &nbsp;
| most, -est
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
|-
! 001
| '''[[Contionary: ik#Valthungian|ik]]'''
| I
! 070
| '''[[Contionary: fiðra#Valthungian|fiðra]]''' (''n'')
| feather
! 139
| '''[[Contionary: reþin#Valthungian|reþin]]'''
| to count
|-
! 002
| '''[[Contionary: þū#Valthungian|þū]]'''
| you
! 071
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þlāta#Valthungian|þlāta]]'''  (''f''), '''[[Contionary: skuft#Valthungian|skuft]]''' (''n'')
| hair (''on head'')
! 140
| '''[[Contionary: kwiðna#Valthungian|kuiðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: rœuǧin#Valthungian|rœuǧin]]'''
| to say
|-
! 003
| '''[[Contionary: is#Valthungian|is]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sī#Valthungian|sī]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: it#Valthungian|it]]''' (''n'')
| he, she, it
! 072
| '''[[Contionary: hǭviþ#Valthungian|hǭviþ]]''' (''n'')
| head
! 141
| '''[[Contionary: singun#Valthungian|singun]]''',  '''[[Contionary: hežin#Valthungian|hežin]]'''
| to sing
|-
! 004
| '''[[Contionary: wit#Valthungian|vit]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: wīs#Valthungian|vīs]]''' (''pl'')
| we
! 073
| '''[[Contionary: hǭsa#Valthungian|hǭsa]]''' (''n'')
| ear
! 142
| '''[[Contionary: lǣkna#Valthungian|lǣkna]]'''
| to play
|-
! 005
| '''[[Contionary: ǧut#Valthungian|ǧut]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: jūs#Valthungian|jūs]]''' (''pl'')
| you
! 074
| '''[[Contionary: ǭga#Valthungian|ǭga]]''' (''n'')
| eye
! 143
| '''[[Contionary: þljutna#Valthungian|þljutna]]'''
| to float
|-
! 006
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ižas#Valthungian|ižas]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|iža]]''' (''n'')
| they
! 075
| '''[[Contionary: nasa#Valthungian|nasa]]''' (''n'')
| nose
! 144
| '''[[Contionary: ǧusna#Valthungian|ǧusna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: þreǧin#Valthungian|þreǧin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: ritnan#Valthungian|ritnan]]'''
| to flow
|-
! 007
| '''[[Contionary: his#Valthungian|his]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hiža#Valthungian|hiža]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: hī#Valthungian|hī]]''' (''n'')
| this
! 076
| '''[[Contionary: munþs#Valthungian|munþs]]''' (''m'')
| mouth
! 145
| '''[[Contionary: frjusna#Valthungian|frjusna]]'''
| to freeze
|-
! 008
| '''[[Contionary: sā#Valthungian|sā]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sō#Valthungian|sō]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: þat#Valthungian|þat]]''' (''n'')
| that
! 077
| '''[[Contionary: tanþus#Valthungian|tanþus]]''' (''m'')
| tooth
! 146
| '''[[Contionary: ljuðna#Valthungian|ljuðna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: wǣšin#Valthungian|vǣšin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: bligna#Valthungian|bligna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: suitlan#Valthungian|suitlan]]'''
| to swell
|-
! 009
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]'''
| here
! 078
| '''[[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|tunga]]''' (''f'')
| tongue
! 147
| '''[[Contionary: sōgila#Valthungian|sōgila]]''' (''f'')
| sun
|-
! 010
| '''[[Contionary: þar#Valthungian|þar]]'''
| there
! 079
| '''[[Contionary: nagla#Valthungian|nagla]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: klauga#Valthungian|klauga]]''' (''f'')
| fingernail
! 148
| '''[[Contionary: mēna#Valthungian|mēna]]''' (''m'')
| moon
|-
! 011
| '''[[Contionary: hwas#Valthungian|huas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hwōs#Valthungian|huōs]]''' (''f'')
| who
! 080
| '''[[Contionary: fōts#Valthungian|fōts]]''' (''f'')
| foot
! 149
| '''[[Contionary: strena#Valthungian|strena]]''' (''f'')
| star
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nan#Maltcégj|nan]]''  
! 012
| more, -er
| '''[[Contionary: hwat#Valthungian|huat]]''' (''n'')
| what
! 081
| '''[[Contionary: anke#Valthungian|anke]]''' (''f'')
| leg
! 150
| '''[[Contionary: watra#Valthungian|vatra]]''' (''n'')
| water
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: amán#Maltcégj|amán]]''  
! 013
| as…as, as much, equally
| '''[[Contionary: hwar#Valthungian|huar]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: hweri#Valthungian|hueri]]''' (''rel'')
| where
! 082
| '''[[Contionary: knio#Valthungian|knio]]''' (''n'')
| knee
! 151
| '''[[Contionary: rigna#Valthungian|rigna]]''' (''n'')
| rain
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: pan#Maltcégj|pan]]''  
! 014
| less
| '''[[Contionary: hwan#Valthungian|huan]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: þeni#Valthungian|þeni ]]''' (''rel'')
| when
! 083
| '''[[Contionary: handus#Valthungian|handus]]''' (''f'')
| hand
! 152
| '''[[Contionary: þlōðus#Valthungian|þlōðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: flūma#Valthungian|flūma]]''' (''f'')
| river
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: palán#Maltcégj|palán]]''  
! 015
| least
| '''[[Contionary: hwē#Valthungian|huē]]'''
| how
! 084
| '''[[Contionary: þljuðre#Valthungian|þljuðre]]''' (''n'')
| wing
! 153
| '''[[Contionary: lagus#Valthungian|lagus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: mare#Valthungian|mare]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: marisǣjus#Valthungian|marisǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| lake
|-
|-
|}
! 016
 
| '''[[Contionary: ni#Valthungian|ni]]'''
All of these words precede the adjectives they modify, unless the adjective is used explicitly as a verb, and therefore the subject of the sentence. It is not uncommon or incorrect in this case to use ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]]'' as the verb and to treat the adjective as the object. When comparing the qualities of a specific noun, the postposition ''[[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|að]]'' is used as we would use “than” in English (or “as” when used with ''[[Contionary: amán#Maltcégj|amán]]'').
| not
 
! 085
When any of these are used in combination with an adjective that begins with /b/ or /p/, the final /n/ changes to /m/, e.g. ''[[Contionary: pan#Maltcégj|pan]]''+''[[Contionary: bjólet#Maltcégj|bjólet]]''=''[[Contionary: pambjólet#Maltcégj|pambjólet]]'' ‘worse’. If the adjective begins with /m/, /n/ is elided entirely, e.g. ''[[Contionary: nan#Maltcégj|nan]]''+''[[Contionary: mot#Maltcégj|mot]]''=''[[Contionary: namót#Maltcégj|namót]]'' ‘emptier’. (See Phonology.)
| '''[[Contionary: wamba#Valthungian|vamba]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: būks#Valthungian|būks]]''' (''m'')
 
| belly, abdomen
{| class="wikitable"
! 154
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjus#Valthungian|sǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| sea
|-
|-
! Predicative
! 017
! Verbal
| '''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'''
!  
| all
! 086
| '''[[Contionary: hreðra#Valthungian|hreðra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: instra#Valthungian|instra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: þrams#Valthungian|þrams]]''' (''m'')
| guts, entrails
! 155
| '''[[Contionary: slat*#Valthungian|slat*]]''' (''n'')
| salt
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: pel#Maltcégj|pel]] [[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]][[Contionary: adína#Maltcégj|adína]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|hað]] [[Contionary: mes#Maltcégj|mes]] [[Contionary: kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]] '''[[Contionary: narandíð#Maltcégj|narandíð]]'''''<br /> (is she PL-sister-than her-own all most-beautiful)  
! 018
| '''''[[Contionary: dið#Maltcégj|dið]]''' [[Contionary: pel#Maltcégj|pel]] '''[[Contionary: narán#Maltcégj|narán]]''' [[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]][[Contionary: adína#Maltcégj|adína]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|hað]] [[Contionary: mes#Maltcégj|mes]] [[Contionary: kúluï#Maltcégj|kúluï]]''<br /> (is-beautiful she most PL-sister-than her-own all)  
| '''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'''
| ‘She is the most beautiful of all her sisters.’
| many
! 087
| '''[[Contionary: hlas#Valthungian|hlas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þnāka#Valthungian|þnāka]]''' (''m'')
| neck
! 156
| '''[[Contionary: stǣns#Valthungian|stǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hadlus#Valthungian|hadlus]]''' (''m'')
| stone
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[Contionary: janád#Maltcégj|janád]] '''[[Contionary: nambjólet#Maltcégj|nambjólet]]'''''<br /> (is he today more-good)  
! 019
| '''''[[Contionary: bjólet#Maltcégj|bjólet]]''' [[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[Contionary: janád#Maltcégj|janád]] '''[[Contionary: nan#Maltcégj|nan]]'''''<br /> (is-good he today more)  
| '''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'''
| ‘He is better today.’
| some
! 088
| '''[[Contionary: þryǧis#Valthungian|þryǧis]]''' (''m'')
| back
! 157
| '''[[Contionary: blama#Valthungian|blama]]''' (''m'')
| sand
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[Contionary: wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[Contionary: amán#Maltcégj|aman]][[Contionary: calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]'''''<br /> (is it sky-as as-much-blue)  
! 020
| '''''[[Contionary: calíc#Maltcégj|calíc]]''' [[Contionary: paj#Maltcégj|paj]] '''[[Contionary: amán#Maltcégj|amán]]''' [[Contionary: wíðoc#Maltcégj|wíðoc]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|að]]''<br /> (is-blue it as-much as-sky)  
| '''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'''
| ‘It’s as blue as the sky.’
| few
! 089
| '''[[Contionary: bōsmas#Valthungian|bōsmas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tīča#Valthungian|tīča]]''' (''f'')
| breast
! 158
| '''[[Contionary: pulus#Valthungian|pulus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stybis#Valthungian|stybis]]''' (''m'')
| dust
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[Contionary: vlág#Maltcégj|vlág]][[Contionary: aran#Maltcégj|aran]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[Contionary: pan#Maltcégj|pan]][[Contionary: xac#Maltcégj|xac]]'''''<br /> (is it school-than less-difficult)
! 021
| '''''[[Contionary: xac#Maltcégj|xac]]''' [[Contionary: paj#Maltcégj|paj]] [[Contionary: vlág#Maltcégj|vlág]][[Contionary: aran#Maltcégj|aran]][[Contionary: að#Maltcégj|að]] '''[[Contionary: pan#Maltcégj|pan]]'''''<br /> (is-difficult it school-than less)  
| '''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'''
| It’s less difficult than school.
| other
! 090
| '''[[Contionary: hreta#Valthungian|hreta]]''' (''n'')
| heart
! 159
| '''[[Contionary: reða#Valthungian|reða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: bluða#Valthungian|bluða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lia#Valthungian|sœ̄lia]]''' (''f'')
| earth, soil, dirt
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]] [[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klag]] '''[[Contionary: palambokúra#Maltcégj|palambokúra]]'''''<br /> (is book least-favorite)  
! 022
| '''''[[Contionary: bokúra#Maltcégj|bokúra]]''' [[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klag]] '''[[Contionary: palán#Maltcégj|palán]]'''''<br /> (is-favorite book least)  
| '''[[Contionary: ǣns#Valthungian|ǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ǣna#Valthungian|ǣna]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣn#Valthungian|ǣn]]''' (''n'')
| It’s (my) least favorite book.
| one
! 091
| '''[[Contionary: ǧikur#Valthungian|ǧikur]]''' (''n'')
| liver
! 160
| '''[[Contionary: blīma#Valthungian|blīma]]''' (''m'')
| cloud
|-
|-
|}
! 023
 
| '''[[Contionary: twǣ#Valthungian|tuǣ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: twōs#Valthungian|tuōs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: twā#Valthungian|tuā]]''' (''n'')
==Verbs==
| two
 
! 092
As Maltcégj is a “VSO” language, most sentences begin with a verb. Verbs can only be preceded by conjunctions and particles (most of which are prefixed to the verb).
| '''[[Contionary: drinkna#Valthungian|drinkna]]'''
 
| to drink
There is no inflection on verbs; all tenses, moods, aspects, voices, and modalities are conveyed by particles, which operate much like they do in Mandarin Chinese. (The equivalent Mandarin particles are included in the table below for further clarity.)
! 161
 
| '''[[Contionary: nivula#Valthungian|nivula]]''' (''f'')
{| class="wikitable"
| fog, mist
|-
|-
! Particle !! !! TAMV !! E.g.
! 024
| '''[[Contionary: þrīs#Valthungian|þrīs]]''' (''m, f''), '''[[Contionary: þriža#Valthungian|þriža]]''' (''n'')
| three
! 093
| '''[[Contionary: itna#Valthungian|itna]]'''
| to eat
! 162
| '''[[Contionary: himins#Valthungian|himins]]''' (''m'')
| sky
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]]''  
! 025
| 吧
| '''[[Contionary: fiður#Valthungian|fiður]]'''
| Imperative
| four
| ''[[Contionary: vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]]!'' Go!
! 094
| '''[[Contionary: bītna#Valthungian|bītna]]'''
| to bite
! 163
| '''[[Contionary: winǧ#Valthungian|vinǧ]]''' (''m'')
| wind
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: men-#Maltcégj|men]]''  
! 026
| 吧,請
| '''[[Contionary: fim#Valthungian|fim]]'''
| Jussive
| five
| ''[[Contionary: men#Maltcégj|men]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]].'' Please go.
! 095
| '''[[Contionary: sūgna#Valthungian|sūgna]]'''
| to suck
! 164
| '''[[Contionary: snǣjus#Valthungian|snǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| snow
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]''  
! 027
| 嗎
| '''[[Contionary: grǭts#Valthungian|grǭts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lǭþs#Valthungian|lǭþs]]'''
| Interrogative
| big, large
| ''[[Contionary: cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]] [[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcok]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]]?''<ref>Unlike other particles, ''[[Contionary: cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]'' does not combine with the verb; it stands on its own as an individual word.</ref> Are you going?
! 096
| '''[[Contionary: spījugna#Valthungian|spījugna]]'''
| to spit
! 165
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''n'')
| ice
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]]''  
! 028
| 不,沒
| '''[[Contionary: lengis#Valthungian|lengis]]'''
| Negative
| long
| ''[[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You’re not going.
! 097
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukurépna#Valthungian|ǧukurépna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kesčin#Valthungian|kesčin]]'''
| to vomit
! 166
| '''[[Contionary: rǭks#Valthungian|rǭks]]''' (''m'')
| smoke
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]]''  
! 029
| -
| '''[[Contionary: brǣþs#Valthungian|brǣþs]]'''
| Subjunctive
| wide, broad
| ''[[Contionary: lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[Contionary: kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[Contionary: lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It is important that you go.
! 098
| '''[[Contionary: wǣžin#Valthungian|vǣžin]]'''
| to blow
! 167
| '''[[Contionary: fōr#Valthungian|fōr]]''' (''n'')
| fire
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]]''  
! 030
| 了
| '''[[Contionary: þikus#Valthungian|þikus]]'''
| Past
| thick
| ''[[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You went.
! 099
| '''[[Contionary: anan#Valthungian|anan]]'''
| to breathe
! 168
| '''[[Contionary: aska#Valthungian|aska]]''' (''f'')
| ash, ashes
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nag#Maltcégj|nag]]''  
! 031
| 要
| '''[[Contionary: korus#Valthungian|korus]]'''
| Future
| heavy
| ''[[Contionary: nag#Maltcégj|nag]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will go.
! 100
| '''[[Contionary: þlǣšin#Valthungian|þlǣšin]]'''
| to laugh
! 169
| '''[[Contionary: britnan#Valthungian|britnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: bretnin#Valthungian|bretnin]]'''
| burn
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dla#Maltcégj|dla]]''  
! 032
| 就,剛
| '''[[Contionary: līts#Valthungian|līts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lītils#Valthungian|lītils]]'''
| Immediacy
| small, little
| ''(always combined with other particles – see below)''
! 101
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjun#Valthungian|sǣjun]]''', '''[[Contionary: wlītna#Valthungian|vlītna]]'''
| to see
! 170
| '''[[Contionary: stǣga#Valthungian|stǣga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: gatua#Valthungian|gatua]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: pleča#Valthungian|pleča]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: wiǧ#Valthungian|viǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: 413#Valthungian|413]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: fordore#Valthungian|fordore]]''' (''n'')
| path, road, trail
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]]''  
! 033
| 過
| '''[[Contionary: skrots#Valthungian|skrots]]'''
| Perfect
| short
| ''[[Contionary: kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have gone.
! 102
| '''[[Contionary: hœ̄šin#Valthungian|hœ̄šin]]''', '''[[Contionary: anhœ̄šin#Valthungian|anhœ̄šin]]'''
| to hear
! 171
| '''[[Contionary: breǧ#Valthungian|breǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fregune#Valthungian|fregune]]''' (''n'')
| mountain
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]]''  
! 034
| 正在
| '''[[Contionary: angus#Valthungian|angus]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣns#Valthungian|þrǣns]]'''
| Progressive
| narrow
| ''[[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are (in the process of) going.
! 103
| '''[[Contionary: witna#Valthungian|vitna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kutnan#Valthungian|kutnan]]'''
| to know
! 172
| '''[[Contionary: rōþs#Valthungian|rōþs]]'''
| red
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: kan#Maltcégj|kan]]''  
! 035
| 還
| '''[[Contionary: þutnus#Valthungian|þutnus]]'''
| Continuative
| thin
| ''[[Contionary: kan#Maltcégj|kan]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are still going.
! 104
| '''[[Contionary: hyǧin#Valthungian|hyǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: þenčin#Valthungian|þenčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: mitan#Valthungian|mitan]]''', '''[[Contionary: munan#Valthungian|munan]]'''
| to think
! 173
| '''[[Contionary: grœunis#Valthungian|grœunis]]'''
| green
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: gak#Maltcégj|gak]]''  
! 036
| -
| '''[[Contionary: kwina#Valthungian|kuina]]''' (''f'')
| Habitual
| woman
| ''[[Contionary: gak#Maltcégj|gak]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You (often/regularly) go.
! 105
| '''[[Contionary: dœ̄nin#Valthungian|dœ̄nin]]''' (''trs''), '''[[Contionary: stinkun#Valthungian|stinkun]]''' (''intr'')
| to smell
! 174
| '''[[Contionary: gilus#Valthungian|gilus]]'''
| yellow
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: kla#Maltcégj|kla]]''  
! 037
| -
| '''[[Contionary: wer#Valthungian|ver]]''' (''m'')
| Terminative
| man
| ''[[Contionary: kla#Maltcégj|kla]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have stopped going.
! 106
| '''[[Contionary: frœ̄čin#Valthungian|frœ̄čin]]''', '''[[Contionary: ōgna#Valthungian|ōgna]]'''
| to fear
! 175
| '''[[Contionary: hwīts#Valthungian|huīts]]'''
| white
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: guc#Maltcégj|guc]]''  
! 038
| -
| '''[[Contionary: guma#Valthungian|guma]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: matna#Valthungian|matna]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ljuþs#Valthungian|ljuþs]]''' (''f'')
| Inceptive
| person
| ''[[Contionary: guc#Maltcégj|guc]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You have started to go.
! 107
| '''[[Contionary: kuižin#Valthungian|kuižin]]''', '''[[Contionary: livna#Valthungian|livna]]'''
| to sleep
! 176
| '''[[Contionary: strauks#Valthungian|strauks]]'''
| black
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: rak#Maltcégj|rak]]''  
! 039
| 被
| '''[[Contionary: bran#Valthungian|bran]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: kliþ#Valthungian|kliþ]]''' (''n'')
| Passive
| child
| ''[[Contionary: rak#Maltcégj|rak]][[Contionary: kulóm#Maltcégj|ulóm]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are seen.
! 108
| '''[[Contionary: slēpna#Valthungian|slēpna]]'''
| to live
! 177
| '''[[Contionary: nāts#Valthungian|nāts]]''' (''f'')
| night
|-
|-
|}
! 040
 
| '''[[Contionary: kwēns#Valthungian|kuēns]]''' (''f'')
The particles can be used in many combinations to create new tenses, moods, and aspects, but they must always be used in the very specific order above. Some of these combinations have undergone epenthesis, creating seemingly unique particles.  Some examples:
| wife
 
! 109
{| class="wikitable"
| '''[[Contionary: ǧugna#Valthungian|ǧugna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dǭðnan#Valthungian|dǭðnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: sljutna#Valthungian|sljutna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strevna#Valthungian|strevna]]'''
| to die
! 178
| '''[[Contionary: daǧ#Valthungian|daǧ]]''' (''m'')
| day
|-
|-
! Particle !! TAMV !! E.g.
! 041
| '''[[Contionary: ava#Valthungian|ava]]''' (''m'')
| husband
! 110
| '''[[Contionary: avdœ̄þin#Valthungian|(av)]][[Contionary: dœ̄þin#Valthungian|dœ̄þin]]''', '''[[Contionary: afslagun#Valthungian|afslagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: uskwímna#Valthungian|uskuímna]]'''
| to kill
! 179
| '''[[Contionary: jēr#Valthungian|jēr]]''' (''n'')
| year
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nakwarþ#Maltcégj|nakwarþ]] ([[Contionary: nag#Maltcégj|nag]] + [[Contionary: kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]])''  
! 042
| Future Perfect
| '''[[Contionary: mōðra#Valthungian|mōðra]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣði#Valthungian|ǣði]]''' (''f'')
| ''[[Contionary: nakwarþ#Maltcégj|nakwarþ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will have gone.
| mother
! 111
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukna#Valthungian|ǧukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: anþawīstna#Valthungian|(anþa)]][[Contionary: vīstna#Valthungian|vīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: fǣtna#Valthungian|fǣtna]]'''
| to fight
! 180
| '''[[Contionary: wrams#Valthungian|vrams]]''', '''[[Contionary: hīts#Valthungian|hīts]]'''
| hot (''weather'')
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nagblai#Maltcégj|nagblai]]''  
! 043
| Future progressive
| '''[[Contionary: faðra#Valthungian|faðra]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: āta#Valthungian|āta]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: nagblai#Maltcégj|nagblai]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You will be going.
| father
! 112
| '''[[Contionary: jagan#Valthungian|jagan]]''', '''[[Contionary: frelǣsčin#Valthungian|frelǣsčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: vǣþin#Valthungian|vǣþin]]'''
| to hunt
! 181
| '''[[Contionary: klaþs#Valthungian|klaþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: kōls#Valthungian|kōls]]'''
| cold (''weather'')
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: naglǫ#Maltcégj|naglǫ]]''  
! 044
| Future subjunctive
| '''[[Contionary: ǧus#Valthungian|ǧus]]''' (''n'')
| ''[[Contionary: lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[Contionary: kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[Contionary: naglǫ#Maltcégj|naglǫ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It is important that you would go.
| animal
! 113
| '''[[Contionary: slagun#Valthungian|slagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǭtna#Valthungian|stǭtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þningun#Valthungian|þningun]]'''
| to hit
! 182
| '''[[Contionary: fuls#Valthungian|fuls]]'''
| full
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydnag#Maltcégj|dydnag]]''  
! 045
| Conditional
| '''[[Contionary: fišk#Valthungian|fišk]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dydnag#Maltcégj|dydnag]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You would go.
| fish
! 114
| '''[[Contionary: mǣtna#Valthungian|mǣtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skǣðna#Valthungian|skǣðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skrežin#Valthungian|skrežin]]''', '''[[Contionary: snīðna#Valthungian|snīðna]]'''
| to cut
! 183
| '''[[Contionary: njužis#Valthungian|njužis]]'''
| new
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dygwarþ#Maltcégj|dygwarþ]] ([[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] + [[Contionary: kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]])''  
! 046
| Pluperfect
| '''[[Contionary: fuglas#Valthungian|fuglas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fǭls#Valthungian|fǭls]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dygwarþ#Maltcégj|dygwarþ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You had gone.
| bird
! 115
| '''[[Contionary: slīvna#Valthungian|slīvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kljuvna#Valthungian|kljuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: splītna#Valthungian|splītna]]'''
| to split
! 184
| '''[[Contionary: grīsis#Valthungian|grīsis]]''', '''[[Contionary: leðis#Valthungian|leðis]]''', '''[[Contionary: frenis#Valthungian|frenis]]'''
| old
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydblai#Maltcégj|dydblai]]''  
! 047
| Imperfect
| '''[[Contionary: hunǧ#Valthungian|hunǧ]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dydblai#Maltcégj|dydblai]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You were going.
| dog
! 116
| '''[[Contionary: þrǣšin#Valthungian|þrǣšin]]''', '''[[Contionary: stynǧin#Valthungian|stynǧin]]'''
| to stab, to pierce
! 185
| '''[[Contionary: gōþs#Valthungian|gōþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: tils#Valthungian|tils]]''', '''[[Contionary: sēls#Valthungian|sēls]]''', '''[[Contionary: fagra#Valthungian|fagra]]'''
| good
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydlǫ#Maltcégj|dydlǫ]]''  
! 048
| Past subjunctive
| '''[[Contionary: lūs#Valthungian|lūs]]''' (''f'')
| ''[[Contionary: lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[Contionary: kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[Contionary: dydlǫ#Maltcégj|dydlǫ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' It was important that you went.
| louse
! 117
| '''[[Contionary: krātan#Valthungian|krātan]]'''
| to scratch
! 186
| '''[[Contionary: uvils#Valthungian|uvils]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| bad
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydnakwarþ#Maltcégj|dydnakwarþ]]''  
! 049
| Conditional perfect
| '''[[Contionary: wroms#Valthungian|vroms]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: naðra#Valthungian|naðra]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dydnakwarþ#Maltcégj|dydnakwarþ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You would have gone.
| snake
! 118
| '''[[Contionary: gravna#Valthungian|gravna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dlivna#Valthungian|dlivna]]'''
| to dig
! 187
| '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| rotten
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydla#Maltcégj|dydla]] ([[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] + [[Contionary: dla#Maltcégj|dla]])''  
! 050
| Immediate past
| '''[[Contionary: maða#Valthungian|maða]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dydla#Maltcégj|dydla]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You just went.
| worm
! 119
| '''[[Contionary: suitman#Valthungian|suitman]]'''
| to swim
! 188
| '''[[Contionary: unþrǣns#Valthungian|unþrǣns]]''', '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lins#Valthungian|sœ̄lins]]''', '''[[Contionary: sǭliþs#Valthungian|sǭliþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]'''
| dirty
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nagdla#Maltcégj|nagdla]]''  
! 051
| Immediate future
| '''[[Contionary: bagmas#Valthungian|bagmas]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: nagdla#Maltcégj|nagdla]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You are about to go.
| tree
! 120
| '''[[Contionary: þljugna#Valthungian|þljugna]]'''
| to fly
! 189
| '''[[Contionary: drǣts#Valthungian|drǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: rǣts#Valthungian|rǣts]]'''
| straight
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dydnagdla#Maltcégj|dydnagdla]]''  
! 052
| Immediate future II
| '''[[Contionary: wlaðus#Valthungian|vlaðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: braus#Valthungian|braus]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: dydnagdla#Maltcégj|dydnagdla]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You were about to go.
| forest, woods
! 121
| '''[[Contionary: gangna#Valthungian|gangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gǣn#Valthungian|gǣn]]''', '''[[Contionary: traþningun#Valthungian|traþningun]]'''
| to walk
! 190
| '''[[Contionary: hlaufs#Valthungian|hlaufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: hljufs#Valthungian|hljufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: krītus#Valthungian|krītus]]'''
| round
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: cleglǫ#Maltcégj|cleglǫ]]''<ref>''[[Contionary: cléglǫ#Maltcégj|cléglǫ]]'' is a contraction of ''[[Contionary: lǫtcég#Maltcégj|lǫtcég]] [[Contionary: kleg#Maltcégj|kleg]] [[Contionary: lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]]'' ‘it is important that’.</ref>
! 053
| Cohortative
| '''[[Contionary: þrunga#Valthungian|þrunga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: staka#Valthungian|staka]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stanga#Valthungian|stanga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: stika#Valthungian|stika]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tǣns#Valthungian|tǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: walus#Valthungian|valus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: wandus#Valthungian|vandus]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: cleglǫ#Maltcégj|cleglǫ]][[Contionary: tcok#Maltcégj|tcók]] [[Contionary: mélem#Maltcégj|mélem]].'' You’d better go.
| stick
! 122
| '''[[Contionary: ankwímna#Valthungian|(an)]][[Contionary: kwimna#Valthungian|kuímna]]'''
| come
! 191
| '''[[Contionary: huās#Valthungian|huās]]'''
| sharp
|-
|-
|}
! 054
 
| '''[[Contionary: akran#Valthungian|akran]]''' (''n'')
There are more, but one step at a time. You can plug many of these together, but be certain to retain the strict order:
| fruit
 
! 123
<center>'''[[Contionary: vrei#Maltcégj|vrei]] – [[Contionary: men#Maltcégj|men]] – [[Contionary: cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]] – [[Contionary: bleg#Maltcégj|bleg]] – [[Contionary: cleg#Maltcégj|cleg]] – [[Contionary: lǫ#Maltcégj|lǫ]] – [[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]] – [[Contionary: nag#Maltcégj|nag]] – [[Contionary: dla#Maltcégj|dla]] – [[Contionary: kwarþ#Maltcégj|kwarþ]] – [[Contionary: blai#Maltcégj|blai]] – [[Contionary: kan#Maltcégj|kan]] – [[Contionary: gak#Maltcégj|gak]] – [[Contionary: kla#Maltcégj|kla]] – [[Contionary: guc#Maltcégj|guc]] – [[Contionary: rak#Maltcégj|rak]]'''</center>
| '''[[Contionary: ligna#Valthungian|ligna]]'''
 
| to lie (''down'')
==Adverbs==
! 192
 
| '''[[Contionary: slējus#Valthungian|slējus]]'''
Adverbs in Maltcégj normally immediately follow the finite verb. (The exception are adverbial phrases and temporal adverbs, which immediately follow the subject.)
| dull
 
In order to create adverbs from adjectives, the particle ''[[Contionary: lef#Maltcégj|lef-]]'' is prefixed (much as one would add ''–ly'' in English or ''–ment(e)'' in the Romance languages).
 
===Measurement of Time===
 
As discussed briefly in the section on Correlatives and Pro-Forms, time words can be modified with three particles: '''''[[Contionary: la#Maltcégj|la-]]''''' (‘past’), '''''[[Contionary: ja#Maltcégj|ja-]]''''' (‘present’), or '''''[[Contionary: þa#Maltcégj|þa-]]''''' (‘future’). When combined with a noun that begins with a vowel, the ''a-'' of each prefix is dropped. 
 
''[[Contionary: ja#Maltcégj|ja-]]'' is a contraction of the older (now obsolete) proximal deixis ''[[Contionary: jála#Maltcégj|jála]]'', which is also contracted to ''[[Contionary: jla#Maltcégj|jla-]]'' in some of the other [[Contionary: #Correlatives|Correlatives (see)]].  Similarly, ''[[Contionary: þa#Maltcégj|þa-]]'' is a contraction of the distal deixis ''[[Contionary: þúla#Maltcégj|þúla]]'', which also contracts to ''[[Contionary: þla#Maltcégj|þla-]]'' or ''[[Contionary: þra#Maltcégj|þra-]]''. (The older medial deixis was ''[[Contionary: ðóra#Maltcégj|ðóra]]'', which is unrelated to ''[[Contionary: la#Maltcégj|la-]]'', but still used as contracted ''[[Contionary: ðra#Maltcégj|ðra-]]'' in other Correlatives.)
 
Some of the most common constructions are listed below:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' ‘time’
! 055
| ''[[Contionary: laðlai#Maltcégj|'''la'''ðlai]]'' ‘then, back then’
| '''[[Contionary: frǣjo#Valthungian|frǣjo]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: sēþs#Valthungian|sēþs]]''' (''f'')
| ''[[Contionary: jaðlai#Maltcégj|'''ja'''ðlai]]'' ‘now’
| seed
| ''[[Contionary: þaðlai#Maltcégj|'''þa'''ðlai]]'' ‘in the future’
! 124
| '''[[Contionary: sičin#Valthungian|sičin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: sitna#Valthungian|sitna]]'''
| to sit
! 193
| '''[[Contionary: slǣts#Valthungian|slǣts]]'''
| smooth
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: nad#Maltcégj|nad]]'' ‘day’
! 056
| ''[[Contionary: lanad#Maltcégj|'''la'''nad]]'' ‘yesterday’
| '''[[Contionary: blaþ#Valthungian|blaþ]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: lǭfs#Valthungian|lǭfs]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: janad#Maltcégj|'''ja'''nad]]'' ‘today’
| leaf
| ''[[Contionary: þanad#Maltcégj|'''þa'''nad]]'' ‘tomorrow’
! 125
| '''[[Contionary: standna#Valthungian|standna]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǣn#Valthungian|stǣn]]'''
| to stand
! 194
| '''[[Contionary: nats#Valthungian|nats]]'''
| wet
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: temét#Maltcégj|temét]]'' ‘morning’
! 057
| ''[[Contionary: latemét#Maltcégj|'''la'''temét]]'' ‘yesterday morning’
| '''[[Contionary: vrōts#Valthungian|vrōts]]''' (''f'')
| ''[[Contionary: jatemét#Maltcégj|'''ja'''temét]]'' ‘this morning’
| root
| ''[[Contionary: þatemét#Maltcégj|'''þa'''temét]]'' ‘tomorrow morning’
! 126
| '''[[Contionary: wenǧin#Valthungian|venǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīðna#Valthungian|vrīðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: hreuvna#Valthungian|hreuvna]]'''
| to turn
! 195
| '''[[Contionary: þrosus#Valthungian|þrosus]]'''
| dry
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: bará#Maltcégj|bará]]'' ‘afternoon’
! 058
| ''[[Contionary: labará#Maltcégj|'''la'''bará]]'' ‘yesterday afternoon’
| '''[[Contionary: brakus#Valthungian|brakus]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: jabará#Maltcégj|'''ja'''bará]]'' ‘this afternoon’
| bark (''of tree'')
| ''[[Contionary: þabará#Maltcégj|'''þa'''bará]]'' ‘tomorrow afternoon’
! 127
| '''[[Contionary: drjusna#Valthungian|drjusna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dūkna#Valthungian|dūkna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kringna#Valthungian|kringna]]'''
| to fall
! 196
| '''[[Contionary: garǣts#Valthungian|garǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: undrǣžis#Valthungian|undrǣžis]]''', '''[[Contionary: wēris#Valthungian|vēris]]'''
| correct, right
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: ápten#Maltcégj|ápten]]'' ‘evening’
! 059
| ''[[Contionary: lápten#Maltcégj|'''l'''ápten]]'' ‘yesterday evening’
| '''[[Contionary: blōma#Valthungian|blōma]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: jápten#Maltcégj|'''j'''ápten]]'' ‘this evening’
| flower
| ''[[Contionary: þápten#Maltcégj|'''þ'''ápten]]'' ‘tomorrow evening’
! 128
| '''[[Contionary: givna#Valthungian|givna]]'''
| to give
! 197
| '''[[Contionary: nēfus#Valthungian|nēfus]]'''
| near
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: beríc#Maltcégj|beríc]]'' ‘night’
! 060
| ''[[Contionary: laberíc#Maltcégj|'''la'''beríc]]'' ‘last night’
| '''[[Contionary: hauge#Valthungian|hauge]]''' (''n'')
| ''[[Contionary: jaberíc#Maltcégj|'''ja'''beríc]]'' ‘tonight’
| grass
| ''[[Contionary: þaberíc#Maltcégj|'''þa'''beríc]]'' ‘tomorrow night’
! 129
| '''[[Contionary: hlaðna#Valthungian|hlaðna]]'''
| to hold
! 198
| '''[[Contionary: vīþs#Valthungian|vīþs]]'''
| far
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: danjád#Maltcégj|danjád]]'' ‘week’
! 061
| ''[[Contionary: ladanjád#Maltcégj|'''la'''danjád]]'' ‘last week’
| '''[[Contionary: rǣp#Valthungian|rǣp]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: wiða#Valthungian|viða]]''' (''f'')
| ''[[Contionary: jadanjád#Maltcégj|'''ja'''danjád]]'' ‘this week’
| rope
| ''[[Contionary: þadanjád#Maltcégj|'''þa'''danjád]]'' ‘next week’
! 130
| '''[[Contionary: þrīstna#Valthungian|þrīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gaprángna#Valthungian|gaprángna]]'''
| to squeeze
! 199
| '''[[Contionary: tǣsus#Valthungian|tǣsus]]'''
| right (''hand'')
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: rúma#Maltcégj|rúma]]'' ‘month’
! 062
| ''[[Contionary: larúma#Maltcégj|'''la'''rúma]]'' ‘last month’
| '''[[Contionary: hūþs#Valthungian|hūþs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: fil#Valthungian|fil]]''' (''n'')
| ''[[Contionary: jarúma#Maltcégj|'''ja'''rúma]]'' ‘this month’
| skin
| ''[[Contionary: þarúma#Maltcégj|'''þa'''rúma]]'' ‘next month’
! 131
| '''[[Contionary: bingun#Valthungian|bingun]]''', '''[[Contionary: strjukna#Valthungian|strjukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strǣkan#Valthungian|strǣkan]]'''
| to rub
! 200
| '''[[Contionary: þlīðums#Valthungian|þlīðums]]'''
| left (''hand'')
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: avíl#Maltcégj|avíl]]'' ‘year’
! 063
| ''[[Contionary: lavíl#Maltcégj|'''l'''avíl]]'' ‘last year’
| '''[[Contionary: mims#Valthungian|mims]]''' (''m'')
| ''[[Contionary: javíl#Maltcégj|'''j'''avíl]]'' ‘this year’
| flesh, meat
| ''[[Contionary: þavíl#Maltcégj|'''þ'''avíl]]'' ‘next year’
! 132
| '''[[Contionary: þwagun#Valthungian|þuagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣnin#Valthungian|þrǣnin]]'''
| to wash
! 201
| '''[[Contionary: at#Valthungian|at]]''', '''[[Contionary: tō#Valthungian|tō]]''', (''dative'')
| at
|-
|-
|}
! 064
 
| '''[[Contionary: blōþ#Valthungian|blōþ]]''' (''n'')
These prefixes can also be used in with the word ''[[Contionary: ðlai#Maltcégj|ðlai]]'' (above) to form adjectives meaning ‘past’, ‘present’, and ‘future’, respectively, as well as ''[[Contionary: arán#Maltcégj|arán]]'' ‘place’, (which has some specific connotations depending on how it’s used).
| blood
 
! 133
==Sentence Structure==
| '''[[Contionary: bistreuvna#Valthungian|(bi)]][[Contionary: streuvna#Valthungian|streuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīvna#Valthungian|vrīvna]]'''
 
| to wipe
The word order in Maltcégj is very strict. Because all aspects of the language are indicated by particles, there is no need to change the word order.  Sentences are formed using a VSO structure; that is, verb – subject – object.  This is the basis of every sentence, but there can be more to a sentence than just these components.  Other components of a sentence are treated just as rigidly. Every clause will flow in the same order, even if it does not contain all of these elements:
! 202
 
| '''[[Contionary: in#Valthungian|in]]'''
<center>Conjunction – Verbal Particle – Primary Verb – Adverb – Secondary Verb – Subject – Direct Object – Temporal Clause – Spatial Clause – Indirect Object</center>
| in
 
Some examples:
 
''I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.''
 
'''I''' [subject] '''nicely''' [adverb, i.e. how the action is taking place] '''gave''' [verb, past tense] '''the book''' [direct object, i.e. what is being given] '''to the man''' [indirect object] '''at his house''' [spatial clause, i.e. where the action is taking place] '''this morning''' [temporal clause, i.e. when the action is taking place].
 
If you rearrange these into the prescribed word order above, you get:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan=7| ''I nicely gave the book to the man at his house this morning.''
! 065
| '''[[Contionary: bǣn#Valthungian|bǣn]]''' (''n'')
| bone
! 134
| '''[[Contionary: þinsna#Valthungian|þinsna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dragna#Valthungian|dragna]]''', '''[[Contionary: čugun#Valthungian|čugun]]'''
| to pull
! 203
| '''[[Contionary: miþ#Valthungian|miþ]]'''
| with
|-
|-
| gave
! 066
| nicely
| '''[[Contionary: simbréðra#Valthungian|simbréðra]]''' (''n'')
| I
| fat
| the book
! 135
| this morning
| '''[[Contionary: þnītna#Valthungian|þnītna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrindna#Valthungian|þrindna]]''', '''[[Contionary: prangna#Valthungian|prangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: šuvna#Valthungian|šuvna]]'''
| at his house
| to push
| to the man
! 204
| '''[[Contionary: jā#Valthungian|jā]]''', '''[[Contionary: ǭk#Valthungian|ǭk]]''', '''[[Contionary: -u#Valthungian|-u]]'''
| and
|-
|-
| ''[[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]]-[[Contionary: gelk#Maltcégj|gélk]]''  
! 067
| ''[[Contionary: lef#Maltcégj|lef]]-[[Contionary: breuð#Maltcégj|breuð]]''  
| '''[[Contionary: āde#Valthungian|āde]]''' (''n'')
| ''[[Contionary: jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]]''  
| egg
| ''[[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klág]]-[[Contionary: -a#Maltcégj|a]]''  
! 136
| ''[[Contionary: ja#Maltcégj|ja]]-[[Contionary: temét#Maltcégj|temét]]''  
| '''[[Contionary: wrepna#Valthungian|vrepna]]''', '''[[Contionary: smītna#Valthungian|smītna]]'''
| ''[[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[Contionary: u-#Maltcégj|u]]-[[Contionary: márga#Maltcégj|márga]]-h-[[Contionary: -íli#Maltcégj|íli]]''  
| to throw
| ''[[Contionary: þad#Maltcégj|þád]]-[[Contionary: -að#Maltcégj|að]]''
! 205
| '''[[Contionary: java#Valthungian|java]]''', '''[[Contionary: iva#Valthungian|iva]]'''
| if
|-
|-
| PST-give
! 068
| ADV-nice
| '''[[Contionary: hron#Valthungian|hron]]''' (''n'')
| 1sg
| horn
| book-ACC
! 137
| PROX-morning
| '''[[Contionary: bindna#Valthungian|bindna]]'''
| he POSS-house-[ligature]-APUD
| to tie, bind
| man-DAT
! 206
| '''[[Contionary: inþis#Valthungian|inþis]]''', '''[[Contionary: unta#Valthungian|unta]]''', '''[[Contionary: nū#Valthungian|nū]]''', '''[[Contionary: þī#Valthungian|þī]]''', '''[[Contionary: inþížas ī wǣtis#Valthungian|inþížas ī vǣtis]]'''
| because
|-
|-
|colspan=7| ''[[Contionary: dyd#Maltcégj|dyd]][[Contionary: gelk#Maltcégj|gélk]] [[Contionary: lef#Maltcégj|lef]][[Contionary: breuð#Maltcégj|bréuð]] [[Contionary: jǫg#Maltcégj|jǫg]] [[Contionary: klag#Maltcégj|klága]] [[Contionary: jatemét#Maltcégj|jatemét]] [[Contionary: pul#Maltcégj|pul]] [[Contionary: márga#Maltcégj|umárga]][[Contionary: -íli#Maltcégj|híli]] [[Contionary: þad#Maltcégj|þádað]]''
! 069
| '''[[Contionary: tagla#Valthungian|tagla]]''' (''n'')
| tail
! 138
| '''[[Contionary: šužin#Valthungian|šužin]]'''
| to sew
! 207
| '''[[Contionary: nama#Valthungian|nama]]''' (''n'')
| name
|}
|}
You need never deviate from this word order. To make an indicative statement into a question (whereby in English we would reverse the subject and the verb), simply add the particle ''[[Contionary: cʌþ#Maltcégj|cʌþ]]'' before the verb.
Aside from these sentence elements, there are a few other word order concerns to note:
* Adjectives always follow the nouns they modify (as in romance languages).
* Numbers also follow the nouns they modify.
* Adpositions always follow the nouns they modify (except ''[[Contionary: u-#Maltcégj|u-]]'').
* Phrases are “left-headed,” including numbers, possessives, genitives, adjectives, and others.
* When an adjective is used as the predicate of a sentence, it can be treated as a verb; however, you can also use the verb ''[[Contionary: ek#Maltcégj|ek]]'' (‘to be’).
==Easter Eggs==
Just some fun coincidences, borrowings, and malamanteaux that I’ve collected here:
* '''''[[Contionary: ároc víktro#Maltcégj|ároc víktro]]''''' ‘leaf’ – literally “tree feather.” The word ''[[Contionary: ároc#Maltcégj|ároc]]'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''[[Contionary: bévlo#Maltcégj|bévlo]]''''' ‘particle, grain, atom’ - from Bevlo Particles, cf. IV.
* '''''[[Contionary: bjályt éþryl#Maltcégj|bjályt éþryl]]''''' ‘hyrax, ''Hyracoidea'' species.’ - literally, “rock rabbit.”
* '''''[[Contionary: bláka ẏála#Maltcégj|bláka ẏála]]''''' ‘feather’ – literally “bird leaf.” The word ''[[Contionary: bláka#Maltcégj|bláka]]'' is no longer used in any other context.
* '''''[[Contionary: dat#Maltcégj|dat]]''''' ‘seed’ – from ‘dot’.
* '''''[[Contionary: edvín#Maltcégj|edvín]]''''' ‘to rage’ – from Edvin S.
* '''''[[Contionary: éþryl ulát#Maltcégj|éþryl ulát]]''''' ‘tar, petroleum, asphalt’ - literally, “rock lard.”
* '''''[[Contionary: fýcnet#Maltcégj|fýcnet]]''''' ‘cishet’ - Auto-correct, man...
* '''''[[Contionary: ik vloj#Maltcégj|ik vloj]]''''' ‘chin’ - literally, “face corner.”
* '''''[[Contionary: máru kraul#Maltcégj|máru kraul]]''''' ‘artichoke’ - literally, “fingernail flower.”
* '''''[[Contionary: méilat#Maltcégj|méilat]]''''' ‘cat, ''Felis domesticus''’ - from Melate T.
* '''''[[Contionary: núton#Maltcégj|núton]]''''' ‘target, goal, aim’ - from ''[[Contionary: núton salméilo#Maltcégj|núton salméilo]]'' ‘Isaac Newton’ - literally, “apple target.”
* '''''[[Contionary: salgebúra#Maltcégj|salgebúra]]''''' ‘shock or revulsion over something stupid and offensive’ – a malamanteau of Hebrew ''גבורה'' and S.L.G.B.R. which stands for something else stupid and offensive which I’ll keep to myself.
* '''''[[Contionary: salméilo wʌf akɮát#Maltcégj|salméilo wʌf akɮát]]''''' ‘''bon appétit''’, which is an eggcorn for ''[[Contionary: salméilo#Maltcégj|salméilo]][[Contionary: -ʌ#Maltcégj|l]] [[Contionary: fak#Maltcégj|fak]] [[Contionary: ɮat#Maltcégj|ɮat]]'', ‘may the apple be tempting to the tooth’ but has now become standardized. It literally means ‘bone apple teeth’, itself an English eggcorn for ''bon appétit''.
* '''''[[Contionary: tcápa#Maltcégj|tcápa]]''''' ‘ring, circle’ – Goa’uld ''chappa-ai''. (Originally that meaning was further extended by the postposition ''[[Contionary: -ai#Maltcégj|ai]]'', wherein ''tcápaai'' meant ‘through the ring,’ but this was later broken by a phonological rule which rendered it ''[[Contionary: tcápa#Maltcégj|tcápa]]h[[Contionary: -ai#Maltcégj|ai]]''.
* '''''[[Contionary: tcélo#Maltcégj|tcélo]]''''' ‘lavender, light purple’ - from ''cello'', which is not quite a ''viola'', like how ''violet'' also isn't.
* Most kinship terms are names for members of my direct family or words that describe them. Just a few examples are:
** '''''[[Contionary: adína#Maltcégj|adína]]''''' ‘sister’ - This is the name of my sister, Adina.
** '''''[[Contionary: katír#Maltcégj|katír]]''''' ‘parternal grandparents’ - The plural form, ''[[Contionary: ak#Maltcégj|ak]][[Contionary: katír#Maltcégj|atír]]'' is from my home town’s old High School basketball team, the Halcotteers, which later came to be used locally to refer to any old folks from that town (i.e. from the era when we still had a High School). (The High School was actually in Fleischmanns, not Halcott, but that’s another story.)
** '''''[[Contionary: ǫ́bri#Maltcégj|ǫ́bri]]''''' ‘niece’ – the name of my niece, Aubrey.
** '''''[[Contionary: zadjámindz#Maltcégj|zadjámindz]]''''' ‘great grandparents, mother’s father’s parents’ – Because my Bavarian great-grandparents, Katherine and Heinrich were “ze Germans.”
<br /><br />
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/239705...329310"