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[[Category:East_Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: Languages]]
[[Category:Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: Conlangs]]
[[Category: Artlangs]]
[[Category: A_posteriori]]
[[Category: Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category: Germanic languages]]
[[Category: East Germanic languages]]
[[Category: Valthungian]]


Gutish is an East Germanic language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with Gothic, though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of Wulfilas. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Gutish did consider themselves Goths, as reflected in its name. (It is likely similar in development to Modern High German – Deutsch – which is not directly descended from Old High German, but rather a similar dialect spoken by a group who also considered themselves “Diutisk.”) While it shares many of the areal changes of the Northwest Germanic languages, it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalization, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Slavic languages.
{{construction}}
{{Bpnjohnson.info|Valthungian, the Grey Tongue|Grējutungiška Rasta, So Grējuga Tunga|ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giɕ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ, so̞ ˈgrai̯.ju.ɡɑ ˈtuŋ.gɑ|2010|Europe, vaguely|Indo-European|Indo-European|Germanic|East Germanic|Griutungi|Old Valthungian|Middle Valthungian||qgt|grey}}
 
Valthungian is an [[wiki:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with [[wiki:Gothic_language|Gothic]], though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of [[wiki:Ulfilas|Wulfila]]. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and [[wiki:Old_High_German|Old High German]] – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German.  
 
While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to [[wiki:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[wiki:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic languages]], it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalisation, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to [[Middle Valthungian]] (spoken from around 1200‒1600ᴀᴅ) through [[Old Valthungian]] (800‒1200ᴀᴅ) and ultimately to [[Griutungi]], which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800ᴀᴅ).
 
The name “Valthungian” comes from the name ''Valthungi'' – a Latin term likely derived from a pre-Old Valthungian name *''Walþungae'' – meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely a branch of or related to the [[w: Thervingi|Thervingians]] (''idem''), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungišk]]''''', which is probably from an earlier ''[[w: Greuthungi|Griutuggs]]'' (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language '''''[[Contionary: grējutungišk#Valthungian|Grējutungiška]] [[Contionary: rasta#Valthungian|Rasta]]''''' ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just '''''[[Contionary: so#Valthungian|So]] [[Contionary: grējus#Valthungian|Grējuga]] [[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|Tunga]]''''' ‘the Grey Tongue’.


==Writing System==
==Writing System==
===Alphabet & Pronunciation===
===Alphabet & Pronunciation===
Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the romanisation I use for them in the second row. This romanisation is otherwise used throughout this article.


{| class="wikitable"
{| style="border:0px; background:none;"
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aska.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|A a
|width=50|[ɑ]
||''[[Contionary:aska|aska]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ash’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aejus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǣ ǣ
|width=50|[e̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǣjus|ǣjus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘horse’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-breka.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|B b
|width=50|[b]
||''[[Contionary:breka|breka]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘birch’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-giva.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|G g
|width=50|[ɡ]
||''[[Contionary:giva|giva]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘gift’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-djus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǧ ǧ
|width=50|[ʤ]
||''[[Contionary:ǧus|ǧus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘beast’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-dagz.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|D d
|width=50|[d]
||''[[Contionary:daǧ|daǧ]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘day’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aedhi.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ð ð
|width=50|[ð]
||''[[Contionary:ǣði|ǣði]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘mother’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-egja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|E e
|width=50|[e̞]
||''[[Contionary:eǧa|eǧa]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘blade’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-akuzje.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ž ž
|width=50|[ʒ]
||''[[Contionary:akuže|akuže]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘axe’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-hagla.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|H h
|width=50|[h~x]
||''[[Contionary:hagla|hagla]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hail’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-thronus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Þ þ
|width=50|[θ]
||''[[Contionary:þronus|þronus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘thorn’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-igil.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|I i
|width=50|[i]
||''[[Contionary:igil|igil]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hedgehog’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-jeer.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|J j
|width=50|[j]
||''[[Contionary:jēr|jēr]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘year’
|}
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!''' '''
!''' '''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kune.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|K k
|width=50|[k~kʰ]
||''[[Contionary:kune|kune]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘family’
|-
|-
|width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-a.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ae.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-b.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-g.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-gh.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-d.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-dh.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-e.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-lagus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|L l
|width=50|[l]
||''[[Contionary:lagus|lagus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘lake’
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">a</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-matna.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǣ</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|M m
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">b</font></center>
|width=50|[m]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">g</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:matna|matna]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǧ</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘person’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">d</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ð</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">e</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ɑ]<br />''aska''<br />‘ash’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-naoths.png]]
|| <center>[e̞ː]<br />''ǣjus''<br />‘horse’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|N n
|| <center>[b]<br />''berkna''<br />‘birch’</center>
|width=50|[n]
|| <center>[ɡ]<br />''giva''<br />‘gift’</center>
||''[[Contionary:nǭþs|nǭþs]]''
|| <center>[ʤ]<br />''ǧus''<br />‘creature’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘need’
|| <center>[d]<br />''daǧ''<br />‘day’</center>
|| <center>[ð]<br />''ǣði''<br />‘mother’</center>
|| <center>[e̞]<br />''erða''<br />‘earth’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-zh.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ore.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-h.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|O o
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-th.png]]</center>
|width=50|[o̞]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-i.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:ore|ore]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-j.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘riverbank’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-k.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-l.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-m.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ž</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-predhra.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">h</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|P p
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">þ</font></center>
|width=50|[p~pʰ]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">i</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:preðra|preðra]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">j</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘chance’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">k</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">l</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">m</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ʐ]<br />''akuža''<br />‘axe’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-redha.png]]
|| <center>[h]<br />''haglas''<br />‘hail’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|R r
|| <center>[θ]<br />''þornus''<br />‘thorn’</center>
|width=50|[r]
|| <center>[i]<br />''igil''<br />‘hedgehog’</center>
||''[[Contionary:reða|reða]]''
|| <center>[j]<br />''jēr''<br />‘year’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘earth’
|| <center>[k]<br />''kune''<br />‘family’</center>
|| <center>[l]<br />''lagus''<br />‘lake’</center>
|| <center>[m]<br />''matna''<br />‘man’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-n.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-soogila.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-o.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|S s
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-p.png]]</center>
|width=50|[s]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-r.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:sōgila|sōgila]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-s.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘sun’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-sh.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-t.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-ch.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">n</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-sjuge.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">o</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Š š
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">p</font></center>
|width=50|[ʃ]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">r</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">s</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">š</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">t</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">č</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[n]<br />''nǭþs''<br />‘need’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]]
|| <center>[o̞]<br />''orte''<br />‘garden’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|T t
|| <center>[p]<br />''perðra''<br />‘chance’</center>
|width=50|[t~tʰ]
|| <center>[r]<br />''rǣða''<br />‘wheel’</center>
||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''
|| <center>[s]<br />''sōgil''<br />‘sun’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu’
|| <center>[ʃ]<br />''šug''<br />‘family’</center>
|| <center>[t]<br />''tījus''<br />‘Teu’</center>
|| <center>[ʧ]<br />''čusins''<br />‘chioce’</center>
|-
|-
| <center>[[File:Gutish-u.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-v.png]]</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Č č
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-f.png]]</center>
|width=50|[ʧ]
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-w.png]]</center>
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]''
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-oe.png]]</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘choice’
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-y.png]]</center>
|| <center>[[File:Gutish-oa.png]]</center>
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">u</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">v</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|U u
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">f</font></center>
|width=50|[u]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">w</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:ungula|ungula]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">œ</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘owl’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">y</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ǭ</font></center>
|-
| <center>[u]<br />''uvils''<br />‘bad’</center>
|| <center>[v]<br />''ivras''<br />‘boar’</center>
|| <center>[f]<br />''fǣjo''<br />‘cattle’</center>
|| <center>[w]<br />''wynia''<br />‘joy’</center>
|| <center>[ø̞]<br />''œrča''<br />‘farmer’</center>
|| <center>[y]<br />''ynča''<br />‘ounce’</center>
|| <center>[o̞ː]<br />''ǭsus''<br />‘ox’</center>
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ivra.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|V v
|width=50|[v]
||''[[Contionary:ivra|ivra]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘boar’
|}
|}
 
|style="vertical-align: text-top"|
'''Non-Alphabetic Variants'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
{| class="wikitable"
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''&nbsp;'''
!'''[[wiki:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]'''
!'''Name'''
!'''Name Meaning'''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-faejo.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|F f
|width=50|[f]
||''[[Contionary:fǣjo|fǣjo]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘cattle’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-wynia.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|W w
|width=50|[w]
||''[[Contionary:wynia|wynia]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘joy’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-roetja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ œ
|width=50|[ø̞̞]
||''[[Contionary:rœča|rœča]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘farmer’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ynkja.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Y y
|width=50|[y]
||''[[Contionary:ynča|ynča]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ounce’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aosus.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǭ ǭ
|width=50|[o̞ː]
||''[[Contionary:ǭsus|ǭsus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ox’
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:14pt;"|'''''Non-Alphabetic Variants'''''
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aade.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ā ā
|width=50|[ɑː]
||''[[Contionary:āde|āde]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘egg’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-eemate.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ē ē
|width=50|[ɑi̯]
||''[[Contionary:ēmate|ēmate]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ant’
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-iis.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ī ī
|width=50|[iː]
||''[[Contionary:īs|īs]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ice’
|-
|-
|width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-aa.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ee.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-ii.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-oo.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-uu.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-oeoe.png]]</center> ||width=75| <center>[[File:Gutish-yy.png]]</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-oodhla.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ō ō
|width=50|[ɑu̯]
||''[[Contionary:ōðla|ōðla]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘inheritance’
|-
|-
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ā</font></center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-uurus.png]]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ē</font></center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ū ū
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ī</font></center>
|width=50|[uː]
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ō</font></center>
||''[[Contionary:ūrus|ūrus]]''
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ū</font></center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘aurochs’
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">œ̄</font></center>
||<center><font style="font-size:18pt">ȳ</font></center>
|-
|-
| <center>[ɑː]<br />''āde''<br />‘egg’</center>
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ooezja.png]]
|| <center>[iː]<br />''ēls''<br />‘eel’</center>
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ̄ œ̄
|| <center>[ai̯]<br />''īs''<br />‘ice’</center>
|width=50|[ø̞ː]
|| <center>[uː]<br />''ōðlas''<br />‘inheritance’</center>
||''[[Contionary:œ̄ža|œ̄ža]]''
|| <center>[au̯]<br />''ūrus''<br />‘aurochs’</center>
|style="text-align:left;"|‘fortune’
|| <center>[ø̞ː]<br />''œ̄ja''<br />‘island’</center>
|| <center>[yː]<br />''ȳftigi''<br />‘timeliness’</center>
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-yyfti.png]]
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ȳ ȳ
|width=50|[yː]
||''[[Contionary:ȳfti|ȳfti]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘custom’
|}
|}
|}


Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered to be part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically to be the equivalent of its doubled short counterpart. That is, ‹ā› is equivalent to ‹aa›, ‹ē› to ‹ee›, ‹ī› to ‹ii›, and so on. This becomes complicated by the fact that all long vowels except for ‹ā› are raised, though it’s not actually any different than what happens to the letter names in English. (The long vowels ‹ǣ› and ‹ǭ› are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their Romanized forms.)
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, ⟨ā⟩ is equivalent to ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ē⟩ to ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ī⟩ to ⟨ii⟩, and so on. (The long vowels ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)
 
(NB: The Gutish alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented in this wiki are a [[Gutish#Romanization|Romanization]] of the letters shown in the table above.)
 
===Orthography===
The orthography of Gutish is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions – four, in fact:
 
# The letter ‹n› is used before ‹g› or ‹k› to indicate the velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ‹ng› is [ŋg] and ‹nk› is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
# In combinations where ‹ng› is followed by another nasal consonant, [g] is elided in speech: ‹ngm› is [ŋm] and ‹ngn› is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋg.na].)
# The diphthong ‹eu› is realized as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''sneugna'' [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
# The diphthong ‹øu› is realized as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]).


Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:
(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin‑ and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.)
# The stress is not on the first syllable, and
# the stressed syllable is a short vowel. (Long vowels cannot be unstressed, though they may sometimes take secondary stress.)
For example, ''fergúne'' ‘mountain’, but ''garǣts'' ‘correct’.


====Ligatures & Liaisons====
===Orthography & Allophony===
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:


When two like vowels of equal value come together, the words may form a ligature. This is most common with the articles (''sā'' + ''a-'', ''sō'' + ''u-'', etc.) and particles (e.g ''nī'' + ''i-'').
* The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
** In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
* In the combinations ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨hl⟩, and ⟨hr⟩,⟨h⟩ is realised as [x].
* The sequence ⟨lju⟩ is realised as [ljɛu̯] (rather than the expected [lju]). (E.g. ''ljuga'' [ljɛu̯.ɡa] ‘lion’.)
* The sequence ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
* The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''þreugi'' [θrɛu̯.ɡi] ‘wrath’.)
* The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
* Medial ⟨dl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) is realised as [dɮ]. (E.g. ''hadla'' [ha.dɮa] ‘mansion’.)
* For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s].
* Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.)
** This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''.


* '''Articles'''
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if:
** Mandatory:
* The stress is ''not'' on the first syllable.
*** sā, hwā, twā + a-, ā- → s’ā-, hw’ā-, tw’ā-
** (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.)
**** ''sā aplas'' → ''s’āplas'', ‘the apple’
* The stressed vowel is short.
**** ''twā aðna'' → ''tw’āðna'' ‘two seasons’
** (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.)
*** sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s’ō-, þ’ō-, h’ō-
* The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩.
**** ''sō uréča'' → ''s’ōréča'', ‘the persuit’
** (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i‑umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)
**** ''sō ōs'' → ''s’ōs'', ‘the ewe’
*** þǣ, twǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ’ǣ-, tw’ǣ-
**** ''þǣ ǣjus'' → ''þ’ǣjus'' ‘the horses’
**** ''twǣ elis'' → ''tw’ǣlis'' ‘two others’
*** nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n’ī-, þr’ī-, h’ī-
**** ''nī ist'' → ''n’īst'', ‘isn’t’
**** ''hī īsran'' → ''h’īsran'' ‘this iron’
** Optional:
***sō, þō + V- → sw’V-, þw’V-
**** ''sō akuže, sw’akuže'' ‘the axe’
**** ''þō ī, þw’ī'' ‘those which’


===Alternative Writing Systems===
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’.


====Cursive====
===Orthographic Variants===
 
There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.
''Coming soon...''
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic.  This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:
** ''ǧukospríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''ǧùkospringna'' or ''ǧùkospríngna''
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis''
** ''miðlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìðlǣði'' or ''mìðlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìðlǽði'')
* ⟨w⟩ may be used in place of word-initial ⟨v⟩ or pre-vocalic ⟨u⟩ to represent /w/ as a more direct transliteration of the letter ''vynia''. There is no logical or efficient reason for this transliteration to be split up the way it is in the standard language: Its existence is purely aesthetic, and many people are not as interested in aesthetics as efficiency.
* Conversely, there are some who romanise ''jēr'' as ⟨i⟩ rather than as ⟨j⟩, likely out of spite towards those who use ⟨w⟩ as above.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|
! width=100px rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| '''Short Vowels'''
! colspan="2"| '''Short Vowels'''
! rowspan="5"|
! rowspan="5"|
! colspan="3"| '''Long Vowels'''
! colspan="2"| '''Long Vowels'''
! rowspan="2"|
! width=100px rowspan="2"|
! colspan="3"| '''Diphthongs'''
! colspan="2"| '''Diphthongs'''
|-
|-
!'''Front'''
! width=65px| '''Front'''
!'''Central'''
! width=65px| '''Back'''
!'''Back'''
! width=65px| '''Front'''
!'''Front'''
! width=65px| '''Back'''
!'''Central'''
! width=65px| '''Front'''
!'''Back'''
! width=65px| '''Back'''
!'''Front'''
!'''Central'''
!'''Back'''
|-
|-
!'''Closed'''
!'''Closed'''
|i · y
|'''i · y'''<br />[i · y]
|
|'''u'''<br />[u]
|u
|'''ī · ȳ'''<br />[iː · yː]
|ē · ȳ
|'''ū'''<br />[uː]
|
|ō
!'''Closed-to-'''
!'''Closed-to-'''
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
!'''Mid'''
!'''Mid'''
|e · œ
|'''e · œ'''<br />[e̞ · ø̞]
|
|'''o'''<br />[o̞]
|o
|'''ǣ · œ̄'''<br />[e̞ː · ø̞ː]
|ǣ · œ̄
|'''ǭ'''<br />[o̞ː]
|
|ǭ
!'''Mid-to-'''
!'''Mid-to-'''
| · œu
|'''œu'''<br />[œy̑]
|
|'''eu'''<br />[ɛu̯]
|eu
|-
|-
!'''Open'''
!'''Open'''
|
|
|a
|'''a'''<br />[ɑ]
|
|
|ā
|
|
|'''ā'''<br />[ɑː]
!'''Open-to-'''
!'''Open-to-'''
|ī
|'''ē'''<br />[ai̯]
|
|'''ō''', '''au'''<br />[au̯]
|ū
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
''(Pardon the compactified consonant table. I know it doesn't quite all line up “properly,” but it does make more sense this way as regards the Valthungian language. If in doubt, rely on the transcription and not the row or column.)''


{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
!
!width=100px|
!'''Bilabial'''
!width=65px|'''Labial'''
!'''Labio-<br>dental'''
!width=65px|'''Dental'''
!'''Dental'''
!width=65px|'''Alveolar'''
!'''Alveolar'''
!width=65px|'''Palatal'''
!'''Palato-<br>alveolar'''
!width=65px|'''Dorsal'''
!'''Velar'''
!'''Glottal'''
|-
|-
!'''Plosive'''
!'''Plosive'''
|p · b
|'''p · b'''<br />[p~pʰ · b]
|
|'''t · d'''<br />[t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪]
|
|t · d
|
|k · g
|
|-
!'''Affricate'''
|
|
|
|
|č · ǧ
|
|
|
|'''č · ǧ'''<br />[ʨ · ʥ]
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · ɡ]
|-
|-
!'''Nasal'''
!'''Nasal'''
| · m
|''' · m'''<br />[m]
|''' · n'''<br />[n̪]
|
|
|
|
| · n
|''' · n'''<ref>Before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩.</ref><br />[ŋ]
|
| · (n)<small><sup>1</sup></small>
|
|-
|-
!'''Fricative'''
!'''Fricative'''
|
|'''f · v'''<br />[f · v]
|f · v
|'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ]
|ð · þ
|'''s ·'''<br />[s]
|s ·
|'''š · ž'''<br />[ɕ · ʑ]
|š · ž
|'''h ·'''<br />[h~x]
|
|h ·
|-
!'''Tap or Trill'''
|
|
|
| · r
|
|
|
|-
|-
!'''Approximant'''
!'''Approximant'''
|
|''' · w/u'''<br />[w~v]
|
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
|
|''' · j'''<br />[j]
|· j
|· w<small><sup>2</sup></small>
|
|-
!'''Lateral approximant'''
|
|
|
|· l
|
|
|
|
|}
|}
<small><sup>1</sup></small>Before ‹g› or ‹k›.<br>
<small><sup>2</sup></small> Labiovelar approximant.
===[r]-Assimilation===
This is a persistent rule that does not have much effect on declensions within the language, but does have some effect on the development of certain words.  This rule is described in the Rules chapter of this document in Assimilation of [ɾ].  Specifically, /r/ is deleted when immediately followed by /ž/. For example, the possessive adjective ''inkur'' ‘our’, from earlier ''igqar'' /inkwar/ has the genitive plural form ''inkuža'' from earlier ''igqaraizō'' /inkwarɛ̄zō/ rather than the otherwise expected **''inkurža''.
===Voicing Alternation===


This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Gutish.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ‹f› or ‹þ›, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ‹b› or ‹d›, used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’. There are three main realizations of this rule in Gutish:
===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes===
====Voicing Alternation====
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ⟨f⟩, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ⟨b⟩ used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’.  Likewise the relationship between ⟨þ⟩ and⟨d⟩. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:  


*v → f
*v → f
Line 330: Line 411:
*ž → s
*ž → s


The implications of this rule for Gutish are:
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:


*‹f› or ‹þ› occur before ‹s› in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*‹f› or ‹þ› occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*‹f› occurs when word-final or before ‹t› in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*⟨f⟩ occurs when word-final or before ⟨t⟩ in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*‹þ› also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ‹s› before ‹t› in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first- adn third-person preterit ''baþ'' but the second person ''bast''.
*⟨þ⟩ also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ⟨s⟩ before ⟨t⟩ in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first‑ and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*The implications for ‹s› and ‹ž› can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic times, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced, so many words retain ‹s› throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon and must be learned by rote.
*The implications for ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ž⟩ can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ⟨s⟩ throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.


Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ‹f› or ‹þ› from earlier ‹h› which is not affected by this rule.
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ from earlier ⟨h⟩ which is ''not'' affected by this rule.


===Palatalization===
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:


Palatalization is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Gutish, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Gutish. There are actually several types of palatalization that occur in Gutish, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ⟨d⟩ or ⟨g⟩ become palatalised before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of a‑, i‑, and u‑stems (but not feminine ō‑stems).  E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''graǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ⟨j⟩, e.g. strong masculine ja‑stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
**d or g + j → ǧ
**t or k + j → č
**s or h + j → š
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ⟨z⟩ eventually became ⟨ž⟩.)


*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ‹d› or ‹g› become palatalized before ‹s› in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems).  E.g. Gothic ''dags'' ‘day’, ''gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''garǧ''. This type of palatalization only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.
*A much more common form of palatalization, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ‹j›, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
**‹d› or ‹g› + ‹j› → ‹ǧ›
**‹t› or ‹k› + ‹j› → ‹č›
**‹s› or ‹h› + ‹j› → ‹š›
**‹z› + ‹j› → ‹ž› (and so do all other instances of ‹z›, but that’s not applicable to this section.)


===[b]/[v] Alternation===
====[b]/[v] Alternation====
A less common alternation is that of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of ⟨v⟩ to ⟨b⟩; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ⟨j⟩ are able to shift from ⟨b⟩ to ⟨v⟩ when intervocalic, but those with ⟨j⟩ are blocked from spirantizing.


A less common alternation is that of ‹b› and ‹v›.  This occurs specifically in inflections where some endings begin with ‹j› while others do not; for instance, the strong masculine ija-stem ending of nouns and adjectives. In this paradigm, the nominative, genitive, and accusative of the singular all have ‹v› from earlier ‹b› (because it is intervocalic), but the rest of the paradigm has ‹b›, because it was historically followed by ‹j›, which prevents the intervocalic shift.  For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia''.
For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja'').


===Umlaut===
====Umlaut====
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words.


Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language.  
*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted.
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
*Verbs ending in ''‑jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''‑in'' in Valthungian.


*Accusative singular nouns with palatalization ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalization ''are'' umlauted.
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted (except for the 3rd person singular in formal speech). (First person singular is palatalized ''and'' umlauted.)
*Most class 1 weak verbs and strong verbs ending in ''–jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''–in'' in Gutish.


Umlaut in Gutish initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. ⟨áu⟩) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*o (''Got''. ⟨aú⟩) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin''
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin''
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''


*‹a› → ‹e› - ''s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j‑umlaut, u/w‑umlaut, and a‑umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j‑umlaut, also known as i‑umlaut, front umlaut, or i‑mutation.
*‹ā› → ‹ǣ› - ''hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''n''
*‹ǭ› (''Got''. ‹áu›) → ‹œ̄› - ''h'''au'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*‹o› (''Got''. ‹aú›) → ‹œ› - ''þ''au''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þ'''œ'''ršin''
*‹ō› → ‹œ̄› - ''hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hw'''œ̄'''čin''
*‹u› → ‹y› - ''h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*‹ū› → ‹ȳ› - ''hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''


NB: Umlaut can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most common – but only one type is present in Gutish. Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, or front umlaut.
====Coronal Consonant Assimilation====
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨st⟩, the former consonant ⟨s⟩. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.


NB for Linguists: The asymmetrical nature of the umlaut is the result of a later change to the long vowels. See Umlaut and Stressed Long Vowel Raising in the Rules.
====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking====
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *''bagms'' and *''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending ''‑an'' to ''‑n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *''brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of ⟨a⟩after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.


===Coronal Consonant Assimilation===
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:


This rule has a formidable name, but is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, ‹d›, ‹t›, or ‹þ›) is directly followed by ‹t› or ‹st›, the coronal consonant becomes ‹s›. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person preterit strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ has a past of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’, rather than the expected **''gǭtt''.
*Dative plural a‑stem nouns whose roots end in ⟨‑m⟩ have the ending of ⟨‑am⟩ rather than ⟨‑ma⟩, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''.
*Masculine strong a‑stem nouns ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have the the dative plural ending of ⟨‑am⟩ (as above) and the accusative plural ending of ⟨‑ans⟩ rather than ⟨‑nas⟩, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''.
*Strong a‑stem adjectives ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have a masculine accusative singular of ⟨‑an⟩ rather than ⟨‑na⟩, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna''
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''‑anþ'' rather than **''‑naþ''.


===Syncope of Unstressed Non-High Middle Vowel===
====Assimilation of [r] and [s]====
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.


...um, working on it. I'll get back to you on this one...
The change initially applies to “light”‑syllable nouns with stems ending in ⟨‑s⟩ or ⟨‑r⟩ in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ⟨‑z⟩ in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s‑Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus'').


===Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking===
Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ⟨‑r⟩do not take an (additional) ⟨‑s⟩ in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r‑rule (instead of the s‑rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)


Another formidable name, but what this means is that historically a sound change caused ‹a› to disappear before a sonorant (‹l›, ‹r›, ‹m›, or ‹n›), turning them into syllabics, and merging them with other pre-existing syllabics from Gothic. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the ‹a› that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, ''brōþar'' ‘brother’ became ''brōðra'' via an intermediate *''brōðr̩''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the ‹a› before the sonorant could not be deleted; if it were, the word would have been unpronounceable. Metathesis is also blocked after any non-intervocalic voiced continuant; that is, V[v/ð]S shifts as expected (e.g. ''widan'' > ''wiðn̩'' > ''wiðna''), but VC[v/ð]S does not (e.g. ''haldan'' > ''halðan'', not **''halðna'').
====Affix Anaptyxis====
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. This is just part of a larger change in the general structure of the language in which many unstressed syllables appeared unbidden in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian causing the language to be almost entirely iambic. In Modern Valthungian all stressed syllables (primary and secondary) must de separated by an unstressed syllable.


The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Gutish is that:
Some of the most frequent are:
*af+f: Griutungi ''*affilhan'' → ''af'''a'''flījan'' ‘to hide away’
*fer+r: Griutungi ''*ferrinnan'' → ''fer'''a'''rítnan'' ‘to attain’
*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’


*Dative plural nouns whose roots end in ‹–m› have the ending of ‹–am› rather than ‹–ma›, e.g. ''worms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''wormam'' rather than **''wormma''.
However, the prefix ''us‑'' becomes ''ut‑'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’
*Masculine and feminine accusative plural strong nouns ending in ‹–n› have the ending of ‹–ans› rather than ‹–nas›, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnnas''.
*Infinitives of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs whose roots end with ‹lð›, ‹lv›, ‹rð›, or ‹rv› have ‹–an› instead of ‹–na›, e.g. Gothic ''þaurban'' becomes ''þorvan'' rather than the otherwise expected **''þorvna''.
 
===Assimilation of [r] and [s]===
 
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Gutish paradigms.
 
The change initially applies to "light"-syllable nouns with stems ending in ‹-s› or ‹-r› in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ‹-z› in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Mora Loss: Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → ''wers'', ''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus''. 
 
Later, beginning around the time of Middle Gutish, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had "heavy" syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ‹-r› and ‹-s› do not take an (additional) ‹-s› in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem.
 
===Phonemic Inventory===


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
===Personal Pronouns===
===Personal Pronouns===
The genitive pronouns form the base of the possessive determiners, but the third person non-reflexive genitives are never inflected. The third person singular and plural reflexive pronouns are identical. The non-singular pronouns may also take a reciprocal particle ''mīsa'', roughly equivalent to ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
|-
|-
| 1sg || ik || mīn || mis || mik || ''I, my, (to) me, me''
!1sg  
| ik || mīn || mis || mik ||align="left"| ''I, my, (to) me, me''
|-
|-
| 2sg || þū || þīn || þis || þik || ''thou, thy, (to) thee, thee''
!2sg  
| þū || þīn || þis || þik ||align="left"| ''thou, thy, (to) thee, thee''
|-
|-
| 3sg.masc || is || is || itma || in || ''he, his, (to) him, him''
!3sg.masc  
| is ||rowspan=2| is ||rowspan=2| itma || in ||align="left"| ''he, his, (to) him, him''
|-
|-
| 3sg.neu || it || is || itma || it|| ''it, its, (to) it, it''
!3sg.neu  
| it || it||align="left"| ''it, its, (to) it, it''
|-
|-
| 3sg.fem || sī || ižas || iža || ī, īja || ''she, her, (to) her, her''
!3sg.fem  
| sī || ižis || iža || ī, iža ||align="left"| ''she, her, (to) her, her''
|-
|-
| 1du || wit || unkar || unkis || unk || ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
!1du  
| wit || unkra || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
| 2du || jut || inkur || inkus || ink || ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
!2du  
| ǧut || inkur || inkus || inko ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
| 1pl || wīs || unsar || unsis || uns || ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
!1pl  
| wīs || unstra || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
| 2pl || jūs || ižur || ižus || ižus || ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you''
!2pl  
| jūs || ižur ||colspan=2| ižus ||align="left"| ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
| 3pl.masc || īs || iža || im || ins || ''they, their, (to) them, them''
!3pl.masc  
| īs ||rowspan=3| iža ||rowspan=3| im || ins ||align="left" rowspan=3| ''they, their, (to) them, them''
|-
|-
| 3pl.neu || ī, īja || iža || im || ī, īja || ''they, their, (to) them, them''
!3pl.neu  
| ī, iža || ī, iža
|-
|-
| 3pl.fem || ījas || iža || im || ījas || ''they, their, (to) them, them''
!3pl.fem  
|-
| ižas || ižas
 
|}
|}


===Relative Pronouns===
===Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns===
The third person reflexive pronouns are inherited from Indo-European. The other pronouns form their reflexives from a compound with the third person form. The accusative and dative for most forms are merged.


There are two types of relative pronouns in Gutish, and although they are used interchangeably, I present them here in two separate tables: The first (more common) forms are with the Gothic clitic particle ''ei-'' having separated from the pronouns (see Clitic Separation), and the second, more “traditional” forms where the clitic is still attached to the word.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"
 
|-
{| class="wikitable"
!width=100px| &nbsp; !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !!
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.!!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!1sg
| misīn ||colspan=2| mišk ||align="left"| ''myself''
|-
|-
| sg.masc || is ī || þis ī || þatm’ī || þan ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || iži|| þiži || þetmi || þeni
!2sg
| þisīn ||colspan=2| þišk ||align="left"| ''thyself''
|-
|-
| sg.neu || þat ī || þis ī || þatm’ī || þat ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þī, þeti || þiži || þetmi || þī, þeti
!3sg
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''himself, herself, itself, &c''
|-
|-
| sg.fem || sō ī, sw’ī || þižas ī || þiž’ī || þō ī, þw’ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || sī || þižaži || þiži || þī
!1du
| unkra sīn ||colspan=2| unkišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.masc || īs ī, þǣ ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þans ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || iži || þiži || þǣmi || þenǧi
!2du
| inkur sīn ||colspan=2| inkusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.neu || þō ī, þw’ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þō ī, þw’ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þœ̄gi || þiži || þǣmi || þœ̄gi
!1pl
| unstra sīn ||colspan=2| unsišk ||align="left"| ''ourselves''
|-
|-
| pl.fem || þōs ī || þiž’ī || þǣm ī || þōs ī||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || þœ̄ži || þiži || þǣmi || þœ̄ži
!2pl
| ižur sīn ||colspan=2| ižusk ||align="left"| ''yourselves''
|-
|-
!3pl
| sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''themselves''
|}
|}
The reciprocal is formed with the particle '''''mīsa'''''. It does not inflect.


===Indefinite Pronouns===
===Indefinite Pronouns===
The interrogative and negative pronouns can take the adverbial complement ''hun'', which gives them the sense of ‘any’. Additionally, the interrogative pronouns may double as elective pronouns. For example, ''huat'' ‘what’ or ‘something’; ''huat hun'' ‘anything’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
!  !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!
!width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !!
|-
|-
| inter.masc || hwas || hwis || hwatma || hwan || ''who, whose, to whom, whom''
!inter.masc  
| huas ||rowspan=2| huis ||rowspan=2| huatma || huan ||align="left"| ''who, whose, to whom, whom''
|-
|-
| inter.neu || hwā || hwis || hwatma || hwat || ''what, &c'', plural.
!inter.neu  
| huat || huat ||align="left"| ''what, &c''
|-
|-
| inter.fem || hō || hwižas || hwiža || hō || ''who, &c'', plural.
!inter.fem  
| huō || huižis || huiža || huō ||align="left"| ''who, &c''
|-
|-
| gen. || sist || is || itma || sist || ''one, one’s, &c''
!expl.
| im || - || - || (im) ||align="left"| ''it, there''
|-
|-
| neg. || nima hun || nimis hun || nimin hun || nimna hun || ''noöne, noöne’s, &c''
!univ.masc
| huažuþ ||rowspan=3| huižuþ ||rowspan=2| huatmaþ || huanaþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
|-
|-
| refl. || - || sīn || sis || sik || ''himself, herself, itself, &c''
!univ.neu
|-
| huāþ || huāþ ||align="left"| ''everything, everything’s, &c''
|}
 
==Numbers==
 
===Declinable Numerals===
 
====Singular====
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!univ.fem
| huōþ || huižaþ || huōþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c''
|-
|-
| masc. || ǣns || ǣnis || ǣnatma || ǣnan
!neg.masc
| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījutma || nījun ||align="left"| ''noöne, noöne’s, &c''
|-
|-
| neu. || ǣn(at) || ǣnis || ǣnatma || ǣn(at)
!neg.neu
|-
| nījut || nījut ||align="left"| ''nothing, nothing’s, &c''
| fem. || ǣna || ǣnažas || ǣna || ǣna
|-
|}
|}


====Dual====
===Distributive Pronouns===
The distributive pronouns are non-singular pronouns formed when the personal pronouns were fused with the distributive particles ''huaðru'' ‘each of two’ and ''huerižu'' ‘each of many’. In most forms they have now become inseparable from their root components; e.g. compare the dual genitive second person ''inkur'' and distributive ''huaðrižu'', but the distributive pronoun ''inkuáðrižu''. While the distributives as determiners, by definition, take a singular verb, the distributive pronouns take the non-singular verb of their respective pronouns, e.g. ''Aplas huerižu gatiða itnas'' ‘Each apple was eaten’, but ''Īshuerižu gatiðun itna'' ‘Each of them was eaten’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
!width=100px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !!
|-
!1du
| withuáðruþ || unkuáðrižuþ || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us''
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!2du
| ǧuthuaðruþ || inkuaðrižuþ || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you''
|-
|-
| masc. || twǣ || twǣǧa || twǣm || twans
!1pl
| wīshuerižuþ || unshuerižuþ || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of us''
|-
|-
| neu. || twā || twǣǧa || twǣm || twā
!2pl
|-
| jūshuerižuþ || ižuhuerižuþ || ižushueritmaþ || ižushuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of you''
| fem. || tōs || twǣǧa || twǣm || tōs
|-
|}
 
====Dual Distributive (short form) ====
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!3pl.masc
| īshuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| ižahuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| imhueritmaþ || inshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
|-
| masc. || bǣ || bǣža || bǣm || bans
!3pl.neu
| ižahuerituþ || ižahuerituþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
|-
|-
| neu. || bā || bǣža || bǣm || bā
!3pl.fem
|-
| ižashueriþ || ižashueriþ ||align="left"| ''each of them''
| fem. || bījas || bǣža || bǣm || bījas
|-
|}
|}


====Dual Distributive (long form) ====
==Determiners==
===Demonstratives===


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Distal (“yonder”)
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=65px| Gen.
!width=65px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=65px| Gen.  
!width=65px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| masc. || bījaþs || bīðiža || bīðum || bīðans
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| his
|rowspan=2| his
|rowspan=2| hitma
| hin
| sā
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þatma
| þan
| jǣns
| rowspan=2| jǣnis
| rowspan=2| jǣnatma
| jǣnan
|-
|-
| neu. || bījaþ || bīðiža || bīðum || bījaþ
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| hit
| hit
| þat
| þat
| jǣn
| jǣn
|-
|-
| fem. || bīðas || bīðiža || bīðum || bīðas
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hī, hiža
| hižis
| hiža
| hī, hiža
| sō
| þižis
| þiža
| þō
|rowspan=3| jǣna
| jǣnižis
|colspan=2| jǣna
|-
|-
|}
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
 
| hīs
====Trial ====
|rowspan=3| hiža
 
|rowspan=3| him
{| class="wikitable"
| hins
| þǣ
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|rowspan=3| jǣniža
|rowspan=3| jǣnam
| jǣnans
|-
|-
!  !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl  
|-
| hī, hiža
| masc. || þrīs || þrīja || þrim || þrins
| hī, hiža
| þō
| þō
| jǣna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| hižis
| hižis
| þōs
| þōs
| jǣnas
| jǣnas
|-
|-
| neu. || þrī || þrīja || þrim || þrī
|-
| fem. || þrīs || þrīja || þrim || þrins
|-
|}
|}


====Trial Distributive====
===Articles===
Valthungian has two definite articles, '''''he''''' and '''''sa''''', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘this’ and ‘that’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sa'' is usually preferred. These are simply unstressed equivalents of the demonstratives ''his'' (proximal) and ''sā'' (medial). The distal demonstrative, ''jǣns'', is never used as an article.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Proximal (“this”)
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| Medial (“that”)
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!width=100px| &nbsp;
!width=75px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=75px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=75px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.  
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=75px| Acc.
|-
|-
| masc. || þrǣ || þrǣža || þrǣm || þrans
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| he*, his†
|rowspan=2| his
|rowspan=2| him
| he*, hin†
| sa*, s·†
|rowspan=2| þis
|rowspan=2| þam
| þa*, þan†
|-
|-
| neu. || þrā || þrǣža || þrǣm || þrā
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| he*, hit†
| he*, hit†
| þa*, þat†
| þa*, þat†
|-
|-
| fem. || þrījas || þrǣža || þrǣm || þrījas
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| hi*, hiž·†
| his, hižis
| hiža*, hiž·†
| hi*, hiž·†
| so*, s·†
| þis, þižis
| þiža*, þiž·†
| þo*, þ·†
|-
|-
|}
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
 
| his
===Undeclinable Numerals===
|rowspan=3| hiža
 
|rowspan=3| him
{| class="wikitable"
| hins
| þe
|rowspan=3| þiža
|rowspan=3|  þǣm
| þans
|-
|-
! !! # !! 1# !! #0 !! #00 !! #000 !! #000
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl  
|-
| hi*, hiž·†
|  0 || (nǣns) || tǣjun, tēn || ''-tiǧis'' || ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''-ljǭn''
| hi*, hiž·†
|-
| þo*, þ·†
| 1 || (ǣns) || ǣnlif || ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn
| þo*, þ·†
|-
|-
|  2 || (twǣ) || twalif || twǣtiǧis || twā hunda || tōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl  
|-
| hižis
|  3 || (þrīs) || þrījatǣn || þrīstiǧis || þrī hunda || þrī þūsunǧis || þriljǭn
| hižis
|-
| þos
|  4 || fiður, fiðra || fiðratǣn || fiðratiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || friljǭn
| þos
|-
|  5 || fim || fimtǣn || fimtiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn
|-
|  6 || sǣs || sǣstǣn || sǣstiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn
|-
| 7 || sivun, sivna || sivnatǣn || sivnatiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn
|-
| 8 || āta || ātatǣn || ātatiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn
|-
|  9 || njun || njuntǣn || njuntiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn
|-
|-
|}
|}
<small><nowiki>*</nowiki> Form used before a consonant. † Form used before a vowel.</small>


The numbers in Gutish – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities.  Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by assimilation from the dual (‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Gutish.
There are complex rules around how and when to use the elided forms of the articles. For simplicity’s sake it is broken down into forms used before vowels or consonants, though this doesn’t always apply to all vowels or all consonants. Expect a more detailed article on liaison someday maybe.
 
The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but required in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.)


The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers, the former being preferred elsewhere, though still optional.
There is no indefinite article in Valthungian.


Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kwaðriljǭn'', and **''kwintiljǭn''.
===Other Determiners===
The determiners are an important word class in Valthungian because they trigger the choice of whether to use a strong or weak adjective in the noun phrase they introduce. Though most adjectives follow their nouns, determiners precede them. A non-exhaustive list follows:


Another note concerning the higher numbers: Gutish follows the short scale for higher numbers (whereas most European countries currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
====''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' ‘all’====
This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive /d/ in parts of the inflection due to changes to the geminates in [[Old Valthungian]]. When ''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' is used in conjunction with another determiner, it is declined as a weak adjective and has the meaning of ‘entire’ or ‘complete’.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| als ‘all’
|-
|-
! N⁰ !! Numerals !! Gutish !! Short !! Hybrid !! Long !! Metric
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 10³  || 1,000 || þūsunde || thousand || thousand || thousand || k''ilo''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| als
|rowspan=2| adlis
|rowspan=2| adlatma
| adlan
|-
|-
|  10⁶ || 1,000,000 || miljǭn || million || million || million || M''ega''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg  
| al
| al
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg  
|rowspan=3| adla
| adlažis
|colspan=2| adla
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| adlaža
|rowspan=3| adlam
| adlans
|-
|-
|  10⁹  || 1,000,000,000 || biljǭn || billion || milliard || thousand million || G''iga''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl  
| adla
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl  
| adlas
| adlas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: ǣnagis#Valthungian|ǣnagis]]'' ‘any, whichever’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| ǣnagis ‘any’
|-
|-
| 10¹² || 1,000,000,000,000  || þriljǭn || trillion || billion || billion || T''era''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 10¹⁵ || 1,000,000,000,000,000  || fiðriljǭn || quadrillion || billiard || thousand billion || P''eta''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| ǣnagis
|rowspan=2| ǣnagis
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧitma
| ǣnaǧin
|-
|-
|  10¹⁸ || 1,000,000,000,000,000,000  || fimfiljǭn || quintillion || trillion || trillion || E''xa''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg  
|-
|rowspan=2| ǣnage
|  10²¹ || 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sǣsiljǭn || sextillion || trilliard || thousand trillion || Z''etta''
| ǣnage
|-
|-
| 10²⁴ || 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sivniljǭn || septillion || quadrillion || quadrillion || Y''otta''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg  
|-
| ǣnaǧižis
|  10²⁷ || 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || ātatiljǭn || octillion || quadrilliard || thousand quadrillion || -
|colspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|-
|-
| 10³⁰ || 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || njuniljǭn || nonillion || quintillion || quintillion || -
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| ǣnaǧa
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧiža
|rowspan=3| ǣnaǧim
| ǣnaǧins
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| ǣnaǧa
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| ǣnaǧis
| ǣnaǧis
|}
|}


===Ordinal Numbers===
====''[[Contionary: bǣ#Valthungian|bǣ]]'' ‘both’ & [[Contionary: þrǣ#Valthungian|þrǣ]] ‘all three’====
Note that only plural forms of these determiners exist, because it is impossible to have both or all three of a singular noun.


Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English).
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
 
! &nbsp;
In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second used only the weak declension, but all ordinals now use both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules. As with the cardinal numbers, there are two acceptable forms for ‘fourth’, ‘seventh’, and ‘tenth,’ following the same lenition as the cardinals, though there is only one form of ‘eighth’. An alternate form of ‘third’, ''þrīǧas'' is sometimes used, but it is not always considered correct.
!colspan=4| bǣ ‘both’
 
! &nbsp;
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=4| þrǣ ‘all three’
|-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.  
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
| 1 || frumist, frums || first
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.
| bǣ
|rowspan=3| beǧa
|rowspan=3| bǣm
| bans
| þrǣ
|rowspan=3| þrǣža
|rowspan=3| þrǣm
| þrans
|-
|-
| 2 || anðras || second
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.
|-
| bā
| 3 || þriǧas, þrīǧas || third
| bā
|-
| þrā
| 4 || fiðraþs || fourth
| þrā
|-
| 5 || fimft || fifth
|-
| 6 || sǣst || sixth
|-
| 7 || sivunǧ || seventh
|-
| 8 || ātuǧ || eighth
|-
| 9 || njunǧ || ninth
|-
| 10 || tǣjunǧ, tǣnǧ || tenth
|-
| 11 || ǣnlift || eleventh
|-
| 12 || twālift || twelfth
|-
| 13 || þrītǣnǧ || thirteenth
|-
| 20 || twǣtiǧist || twentieth
|-
| 100 || hundaþs || hundredth
|-
| 1,000 || þūsunǧiþs || thousandth
|-
| 1,000,000 || miljǭnǧ || millionth
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.
| bōs
| bōs
| þreǧis
| þreǧis
|}
|}


==Articles & Determiners==
====''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'' ‘other, another’====
''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|Elis]]'' can also be used as an adjective to mean ‘different’, in which case it follows the noun and may have a weak declension.


Gutish has two definite articles, ''sā'' and ''his'', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sā'' is usually preferred.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
 
! &nbsp;
There is no indefinite article in Gutish.
!colspan=4| elis ‘other’
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc. !!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| !! Nom. !! Gen. !! Dat. !! Acc.
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.  
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.  
|-
|-
| masc.sg || sā || þis || þatma || þan ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| ||his || his || hitma || hin
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| elis
|rowspan=2| elis
|rowspan=2| elitma
| elin
|-
|-
| neu.sg  || þat || þis || þatma || þat ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || hit || his || hitma || hit
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| elit
| elit
|-
|-
| fem.sg  || sō || þižas || þiža || þō ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || hīja || hižas || hiža || hī, hīja
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| eližis
|colspan=2| elia
|-
|-
| masc.pl || þǣ || þiža || þǣm || þans ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || hīs || hiža || him || hins
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| elia
|rowspan=3| eliža
|rowspan=3| elim
| elins
|-
|-
| neu.pl  || þō || þiža || þǣm || þō ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || hī, hīja || hiža || him || hī, hīja
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| elia
|-
|-
| fem.pl  || þōs || þiža || þǣm || þōs ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none"| || hījas || hiža || him || hījas
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| elis
| elis
|}
|}


==Nouns==
====''[[Contionary: huaðruþ#Valthungian|huaðruþ]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužiþ#Valthungian|hreužiþ]]'' ‘each one’====
Note that only singular forms exist for ''each'' (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ''‑þ'' ending is the result of compounding with earlier ''‑uh''.


===A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
 
! &nbsp;
In most Germanic languages, nouns (as well as verbs and adjectives) tend to be broken into categories con-sidered “strong” and “weak.” In nouns and adjectives, “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. For the purposes of this text, I will dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to the nouns and simply relate the various categories into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Gutish language to add this additional arbitrary distinction.
!colspan=4| huaðruþ ‘each (of two)’
 
! &nbsp;
Noun classes differ by stem vowel and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described above). There are also a few minor classes in consonantal stems (a.k.a. Ø-stem), in /r/ (a very small class having to do with familial relations), and in /nd/ (based on the nominalization of the present participle). These minor classes will be discussed here, but for the learner who is new to Germanic languages, these should be treated as irregular declensions and learned by rote. Many of these have also been regularized in Gutish through the process of paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated by analogy into other classes.
!colspan=4| hreužiþ ‘each (of many)’
 
Every noun in Gutish (and most Germanic languages) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).
 
Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
 
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural also takes –a. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma (exceptions are noted in the paradigms). Finally the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is –ans, but again may metathesize to –nas; neuter plurals generally take –a.
 
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardized, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation. It is im-portant to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
 
In order to give more context to the evolution of these rules and the variations that emerge, the original Proto-Germanic and Gothic forms are also examined.
 
===a- and ō-stems===
 
By far the most common type of noun in all of the Germanic languages, a- and ō-stems become the basis of several sub-classes of nouns. Masculine and neuter nouns took a-stem (from Proto-Indo-European o-), while feminine nouns took ō (from PIE ā-).
 
====Strong a-stem (masculine)====
 
This is the most common type of noun class in Gutish as well as in most Germanic languages. As such, it is also the most varied in terms of declension.
 
{| class="wikitable" width=900
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.m.a”)'''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.  
|-
|-
|align="center"| slǣp'''az''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''is''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''ai''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''ą''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''ōz''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''amaz''' ||align="center"| slǣp'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''sleep''’
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=3| huaðruþ
|rowspan=3| huaðrižuþ
|rowspan=2| huaðratmaþ
| huaðranaþ
|rowspan=3 colspan=2| hreužiþ
|rowspan=2| hreužitmaþ
| hreužinaþ
|-
|-
|align="center"| slēp'''s''' ||align="center"| slēp'''is''' ||align="center"| slēp'''a''' ||align="center"| slēp ||align="center"| slēp'''ōs''' ||align="center"| slēp'''ē''' ||align="center"| slēp'''am''' ||align="center"| slēp'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg
|-
|rowspan=2| hwaðraþ
|align="center"| slēp'''s ''' ||align="center"| slēp'''is ''' ||align="center"| slēp'''a ''' ||align="center"| slēp ||align="center"| slēp'''as ''' ||align="center"| slēp'''a ''' ||align="center"| slēp'''ma ''' ||align="center"| slēp'''nas '''
|rowspan=2| hreužiþ
|-
|colspan=8| <small>This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.</small>
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: Syllabic''' (“n.st.m.a.syl”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
|-
|-
|align="center"| ak'''raz''' ||align="center"| ak'''ris''' ||align="center"| ak'''rai''' ||align="center"| ak'''rą''' ||align="center"| ak'''rōz''' ||align="center"| ak'''rǫ̂''' ||align="center"| ak'''ramaz''' ||align="center"| ak'''ranz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''field''’
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
| huaðraþ
|align="center"| ak'''rs''' ||align="center"| ak'''ris''' ||align="center"| ak'''ra''' ||align="center"| ak'''r''' ||align="center"| ak'''rōs''' ||align="center"| ak'''rē''' ||align="center"| ak'''ram''' ||align="center"| ak'''rans'''
| hreužiþ
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huaðra#Valthungian|huaðra]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužis#Valthungian|hreužis]]'' ‘which’====
The dual form (''huaðra'') only exists in the singular, as there can only be a singular option when choosing between two nouns, but ''hreužis'' can be singular (“which one”) or plural (“which ones”).
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huaðra ‘which (of the two)’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| hreužis ‘which (of many)’
|-
|-
|align="center"| akr'''<span style="color:red">a</span>s''' ||align="center"| akr'''is''' ||align="center"| akr'''a''' ||align="center"| akr'''<span style="color:red">a</span>''' ||align="center"| akr'''as''' ||align="center"| akr'''a''' ||align="center"| akr'''<span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| akr'''<span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.) </small>
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=3| huaðra
|rowspan=2| huaðris
|rowspan=2| huaðratma
| huaðran
| hreužis
|rowspan=3| hreužis
|rowspan=2| hreužitma
| hreužin
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging''' (“n.st.m.ba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vb- and Vf-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|-
|rowspan=2| huaðra
|align="center"| hlai'''baz''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bis''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bai''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bą''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bōz''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bǫ̂''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bamaz''' ||align="center"| hlai'''banz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''bread''’
| hreužit
| hreužit
|-
|-
|align="center"| hlai'''<span style="color:red">f</span>s''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bis''' ||align="center"| hlai'''ba''' ||align="center"| hlai'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bōs''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bē''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bam''' ||align="center"| hlai'''bans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg  
|-
| huaðražis
|align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:red">f</span>s''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>is''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>as''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>ma''' ||align="center"| þlǣ'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>nas'''
| huaðra
|-
| hreuža
|colspan=8| <small>For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue.  (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.</small>
|colspan=2| hreuža
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging''' (“n.st.m.da”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ-
 
|-
|align="center"| au'''daz''' ||align="center"| au'''dis''' ||align="center"| au'''dai''' ||align="center"| au'''dą''' ||align="center"| au'''dōz''' ||align="center"| au'''dǫ̂''' ||align="center"| au'''damaz''' ||align="center"| au'''danz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''fortune''’
|-
|-
|align="center"| au'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>s''' ||align="center"| au'''dis''' ||align="center"| au'''da''' ||align="center"| au'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| au'''dōs''' ||align="center"| au'''dē''' ||align="center"| au'''dam''' ||align="center"| au'''dans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|-
|rowspan=3 colspan=4| —
|align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>s''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>is''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>as''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>ma''' ||align="center"| ǭ'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>nas'''
|rowspan=2| hreuža
|rowspan=3| hreužiža
|rowspan=3| hreužim
| hreužins
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue.  (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.</small>
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
|-
| hreuža
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIc: Devoicing''' (“n.st.m.za”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vz-
|-
|align="center"| gai'''zaz''' ||align="center"| gai'''zis''' ||align="center"| gai'''zai''' ||align="center"| gai'''zą''' ||align="center"| gai'''zōz''' ||align="center"| gai'''zǫ̂''' ||align="center"| gai'''zamaz''' ||align="center"| gai'''zanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''spear''’
|-
|-
|align="center"| gai'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| gai'''zis''' ||align="center"| gai'''za''' ||align="center"| gai'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| gai'''zōs''' ||align="center"| gai'''zē''' ||align="center"| gai'''zam''' ||align="center"| gai'''zans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| hreužis
|align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>is''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>as''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>ma ||align="center"| gǣ'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>nas'''
| hreužis
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: huǣjus#Valthungian|huǣjus]]'' ‘how much, how many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| huǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Same idea as above, with an extra twist. For roots ending in ‹ž›, it is devoiced to ‹s› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹ž› remains in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. In addition to the devoicing in the nominative and accusative, the nominative ending ‹s› is deleted or assimilated.</small>
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.  
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.  
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IVa: Post-Approximant Spirantization''' (“n.st.m.rba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vlb- and Vrb-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| huǣjus
|rowspan=2| huǣjugis
|rowspan=2| huǣjugatma
| huǣjugna
|-
|-
|align="center"| hwer'''baz''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bis''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bai''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bą''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bōz''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bǫ̂''' ||align="center"| hwer'''bamaz''' ||align="center"| hwer'''banz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''planet''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| huǣjo
| huǣjo
|-
|-
|align="center"| ƕaír'''bs''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''bis''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''ba''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''b''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''bōs''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''bē''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''bam''' ||align="center"| ƕaír'''bans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|rowspan=3| huǣjuga
|align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:red">b</span>s''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>is''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:red">b</span>''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>as''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span><span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| hwer'''<span style="color:blue">v</span><span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
| huǣjugažis
|colspan=2| huǣjuga
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| huǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| huǣjugam
| huǣjugnas
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Like the above, this deals with nouns ending in ‹b›, which spirantizes to ‹v› in most declensions, but it is prevented from devoicing to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative by a consonant before it. This is a rule inhereited from Gothic. Metathesis in the dative and accusative plural is also blocked. This occurs for stems ending in ‹rb›, ‹rd›, ‹lb›, and ‹ld›.</small>
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
|-
| huǣjuga
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IVb: Post-Approximant Spirantization''' (“n.st.m.rda”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vld- and Vrd-
|-
|align="center"| bar'''daz''' ||align="center"| bar'''dis''' ||align="center"| bar'''dai''' ||align="center"| bar'''dą''' ||align="center"| bar'''dōz''' ||align="center"| bar'''dǫ̂''' ||align="center"| bar'''damaz''' ||align="center"| bar'''danz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''beard''’
|-
|-
|align="center"| bar'''ds''' ||align="center"| bar'''dis''' ||align="center"| bar'''da''' ||align="center"| bar'''d''' ||align="center"| bar'''dōs''' ||align="center"| bar'''dē''' ||align="center"| bar'''dam''' ||align="center"| bar'''dans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| huǣjgas
| align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:red">ǧ</span>''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>is''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:red">d</span>''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>as''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span><span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| bar'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span><span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
| huǣjgas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣžums#Valthungian|mǣžums]]'', ''[[Contionary: mǣst#Valthungian|mǣst]]'', ‘much, many, more, most’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| filus ‘much, many’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mǣžums ‘more’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mǣst ‘most’
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>This is the same idea as the “rda” declension above, with the additional twist that Gothic ‹ds›, when word-final, palatalizes and becomes ‹ǧ›. There is also spirantization in the other declensions except for the accusative singular, which retains the original ‹d›, and metathesis is blocked in the dative and accusative plural.</small>
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=65px| Nom.  
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IVc: Post-Approximant Spirantization''' (“n.st.m.rza”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vlz- and Vrz-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| filus
|rowspan=3| filus
|rowspan=2| filitma
| filin
|rowspan=2| mǣžums
|rowspan=2| mǣžumis
|rowspan=2| mǣžumatma
| mǣžumna
|rowspan=2| mǣst
|rowspan=2| mǣstis
|rowspan=2| mǣstatma
| mǣstna
|-
|-
|align="center"| am'''zaz''' ||align="center"| am'''zis''' ||align="center"| am'''zai''' ||align="center"| am'''zą''' ||align="center"| am'''zōz''' ||align="center"| am'''zǫ̂''' ||align="center"| am'''zamaz''' ||align="center"| am'''zanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''shoulder''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| filo
| filo
| mǣžum
| mǣst
|-
|-
|align="center"| am'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| am'''zis''' ||align="center"| am'''za''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| am'''zōs''' ||align="center"| am'''zē''' ||align="center"| am'''zam''' ||align="center"| am'''zans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|colspan=2| filia
|align="center"| am'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>is''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>as''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span><span style="color:red">am</span> ||align="center"| am'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span><span style="color:red">ans</span>'''
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
| mǣžumažis
|colspan=2| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣsta
| mǣstažis
|colspan=2| mǣsta
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=2| filia
|rowspan=3| filiža
|rowspan=3| filim
| filins
|rowspan=3| mǣžuma
|rowspan=3| mǣžumam
| mǣžumnas
|rowspan=3| mǣstaža
|rowspan=3| mǣstam
| mǣstnas
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>This paradigm differs from the version above in that a consonant occurring before a voiced fricative (‹ž›) has the affect of blocking metathesis in the dative and accusative plural (in red).</small>
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
|-
| filia
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type Va: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing''' (“n.st.m.lfa”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vlf- and Vrf-
| mǣžuma
|-
| mǣsta
|align="center"| wul'''faz''' ||align="center"| wul'''fis''' ||align="center"| wul'''fai''' ||align="center"| wul'''fą''' ||align="center"| wul'''fōz''' ||align="center"| wul'''fǫ̂''' ||align="center"| wul'''famaz''' ||align="center"| wul'''fanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''wolf''’
|-
|-
|align="center"| wul'''fs''' ||align="center"| wul'''fis''' ||align="center"| wul'''fa''' ||align="center"| wul'''f''' ||align="center"| wul'''fōs''' ||align="center"| wul'''fē''' ||align="center"| wul'''fam''' ||align="center"| wul'''fans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| filis
|align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:red">f</span>s''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>is''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>as''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span><span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| wul'''<span style="color:blue">v</span><span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
| filis
|-
| mǣžumas
|colspan=8| <small>Scary name, but it’s really just the same as the above, but for nouns ending in ‹f›.</small>
| mǣžumas
| mǣstas
| mǣstas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: sams#Valthungian|sams]]'' ‘the same’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sams ‘the same’
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type Vb: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing''' (“n.st.m.lþa”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vlþ- and Vrþ-
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.  
!width=75px| Dat.  
!width=65px| Acc.  
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIa: Post-Approximant Inter-Sonorant Voicing''' (“n.st.m.ga”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vg-, Vng-, Vlg-, Vrg-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sams
|rowspan=2| samis
|rowspan=2| samatma
| samna
|-
|-
|align="center"| da'''gaz''' ||align="center"| da'''gis''' ||align="center"| da'''gai''' ||align="center"| da'''gą''' ||align="center"| da'''gōz''' ||align="center"| da'''gǫ̂''' ||align="center"| da'''gamaz''' ||align="center"| da'''ganz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''day''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| sam
| sam
|-
|-
|align="center"| da'''gs''' ||align="center"| da'''gis''' ||align="center"| da'''ga''' ||align="center"| da'''g''' ||align="center"| da'''gōs''' ||align="center"| da'''gē''' ||align="center"| da'''gam''' ||align="center"| da'''gans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|rowspan=3| sama
|align="center"| da'''<span style="color:red">ǧ</span>'''  ||align="center"| dag'''is''' ||align="center"| dag'''a''' ||align="center"| dag ||align="center"| dag'''as''' ||align="center"| dag'''a''' ||align="center"| dag'''ma''' ||align="center"| dag'''nas'''
| samažis
|-
|colspan=2| sama
|colspan=8| <small>This is the same as the default with the only exception that there is palatalization of ‹g› in the nominative singular.</small>
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIIa: /r/-Assimilation''' (“n.st.m.ra”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in r-
|rowspan=3| samažis
|rowspan=3| samam
| samnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| we'''raz''' ||align="center"| we'''ris''' ||align="center"| we'''rai''' ||align="center"| we'''rą''' ||align="center"| we'''rōz''' ||align="center"| we'''rǫ̂''' ||align="center"| we'''ramaz''' ||align="center"| we'''ranz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''man''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| sama
|-
|-
|align="center"| waí'''r''' ||align="center"| waí'''ris''' ||align="center"| waí'''ra''' ||align="center"| waí'''r''' ||align="center"| waí'''rōs''' ||align="center"| waí'''rē''' ||align="center"| waí'''ram''' ||align="center"| waí'''rans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| samas
|align="center"| we'''<span style="color:red">r</span>''' ||align="center"| wer'''is''' ||align="center"| wer'''a''' ||align="center"| wer ||align="center"| wer'''as''' ||align="center"| wer'''a''' ||align="center"| wer'''ma''' ||align="center"| wer'''nas'''
| samas
|-
|}
|colspan=8| <small>This is the same as the default with the only exception that the nominative singular ‹s› is assimilated (in pre-Gothic times). This rule expands slightly in Gutish; whereas in Gothic it applied only to light syllables, by Gutish times it applies to all nouns ending in ‹r›.</small>
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIIb: /s/-Assimilation''' (“n.st.m.sa”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in s-
|-


|align="center"| waps'''az''' ||align="center"| waps'''is''' ||align="center"| waps'''ai''' ||align="center"| waps'''ą''' ||align="center"| waps'''ōz''' ||align="center"| waps'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| waps'''amaz''' ||align="center"| waps'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''wasp''’
====''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'' ‘some’====
|-
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
|align="center"| wap'''s''' ||align="center"| waps'''is''' ||align="center"| waps'''a''' ||align="center"| wap'''s''' ||align="center"| waps'''ōs''' ||align="center"| waps'''ē''' ||align="center"| waps'''am''' ||align="center"| waps'''ans'''
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sums ‘some’
|-
|-
|align="center"| wap'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| waps'''is''' ||align="center"| waps'''a''' ||align="center"| wap'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| waps'''as''' ||align="center"| waps'''a''' ||align="center"| waps'''ma''' ||align="center"| waps'''nas'''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=8| ''s is dropped/assimilated from the nominative.''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sums
|rowspan=2| sumis
|rowspan=2| sumatma
| sumna
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIIc: Cluster Simplification and Palatalization''' (“n.st.m.ska”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vsk-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|-
| sum
|align="center"| fisk'''az''' ||align="center"| fisk'''is''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ai''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ą''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ōz''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| fisk'''amaz''' ||align="center"| fisk'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''fish''’
| sum
|-
|-
|align="center"| fisk'''s''' ||align="center"| fisk'''is''' ||align="center"| fisk'''a''' ||align="center"| fisk ||align="center"| fisk'''ōs''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ē''' ||align="center"| fisk'''am''' ||align="center"| fisk'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| suma
| sumažis
|colspan=2| suma
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| sumažis
|rowspan=3| sumam
| sumnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| fi'''<span style="color:red">š</span>k'''  ||align="center"| fišk'''is''' ||align="center"| fišk'''a''' ||align="center"| fišk ||align="center"| fišk'''as''' ||align="center"| fišk'''a''' ||align="center"| fišk'''am''' ||align="center"| fišk'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
|-
| suma
|colspan=8| ''s is dropped from the nominative.''
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIId: Cluster Simplification''' (“n.st.m.ska”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vsp-, Vst-, Vft-
|-
|align="center"| ast'''az''' ||align="center"| ast'''is''' ||align="center"| ast'''ai''' ||align="center"| ast'''ą''' ||align="center"| ast'''ōz''' ||align="center"| ast'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| ast'''amaz''' ||align="center"| ast'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''branch''’
|-
|-
|align="center"| ast'''s''' ||align="center"| ast'''is''' ||align="center"| ast'''a''' ||align="center"| ast ||align="center"| ast'''ōs''' ||align="center"| ast'''ē''' ||align="center"| ast'''am''' ||align="center"| ast'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| sumas
| sumas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: suǣjus#Valtsungian|suǣjus]]'' ‘so much, so many’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| suǣjus ‘how much, how many’
|-
|-
|align="center"| a'''<span style="color:red">st</span>'''  ||align="center"| ast'''is''' ||align="center"| ast'''a''' ||align="center"| ast ||align="center"| ast'''as''' ||align="center"| ast'''a''' ||align="center"| ast'''ma''' ||align="center"| ast'''nas'''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
|-
!width=65px| Nom.
|colspan=8| ''s is dropped from the nominative.''
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.  
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /m/''' (“n.st.m.ska”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in m-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| suǣjus
|rowspan=2| suǣjugis
|rowspan=2| suǣjugatma
| suǣjugna
|-
|-
|align="center"| wurm'''az''' ||align="center"| wurm'''is''' ||align="center"| wurm'''ai''' ||align="center"| wurm'''ą''' ||align="center"| wurm'''ōz''' ||align="center"| wurm'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| wurm'''amaz''' ||align="center"| wurm'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''wurm''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| suǣjo
| suǣjo
|-
|-
|align="center"| waúrm'''s''' ||align="center"| waúrm'''is''' ||align="center"| waúrm'''a''' ||align="center"| waúrm ||align="center"| waúrm'''ōs''' ||align="center"| waúrm'''ē''' ||align="center"| waúrm'''am''' ||align="center"| waúrm'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|rowspan=3| suǣjuga
|align="center"| worm'''s''' ||align="center"| worm'''is''' ||align="center"| worm'''a''' ||align="center"| worm ||align="center"| worm'''as''' ||align="center"| worm'''a''' ||align="center"| wor'''<span style="color:red">mam</span>''' ||align="center"| worm'''nas'''
| suǣjugažis
|-
|colspan=2| suǣjuga
|colspan=8| ''no metathesis in dat pl only''
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type VIIIa: Metathetical Blocking with /n/''' (“n.st.m.ska”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in n-
|rowspan=3| suǣjugaža
|rowspan=3| suǣjugam
| suǣjugnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| uhn'''az''' ||align="center"| uhn'''is''' ||align="center"| uhn'''ai''' ||align="center"| uhn'''ą''' ||align="center"| uhn'''ōz''' ||align="center"| uhn'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| uhn'''amaz''' ||align="center"| uhn'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''oven''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| suǣjuga
|-
|-
|align="center"| auhn'''s''' ||align="center"| auhn'''is''' ||align="center"| auhn'''a''' ||align="center"| auhn ||align="center"| auhn'''ōs''' ||align="center"| auhn'''ē''' ||align="center"| auhn'''am''' ||align="center"| auhn'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| suǣjgas
| suǣjgas
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnums#Valthungian|mitnums]]'', ''[[Contionary: faugist#Valthungian|faugist]]'', ''[[Contionary: mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]]'', ‘few, little, fewer, less, fewest, least’====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| fǭs ‘little, few’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mitnums ‘less, fewer’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=9| faugist, mitnist ‘least, fewest’<ref>[[faugist#Valthungian|faugist]] and [[mitnist#Valthungian|mitnist]] are used interchangeably.</ref>
|-
|-
|align="center"| ǭn'''s''' ||align="center"| ǭn'''is''' ||align="center"| ǭn'''a''' ||align="center"| ǭn ||align="center"| ǭn'''as''' ||align="center"| ǭn'''a''' ||align="center"| ǭn'''ma''' ||align="center"| ǭn'''<span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
!width=65px| &nbsp;
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=65px| Nom.
!width=75px| Gen.
!width=75px| Dat.
!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=8| ''no metathesis in acc pl only''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| fǭs
|rowspan=2| faugis
|rowspan=2| faugatma
| faugna
| mitnums
|rowspan=2| mitnumis
|rowspan=2| mitnumatma
| mitnumna
|rowspan=2| faugist
|rowspan=2| faugistis
|rowspan=2| faugistatma
| faugistna
|rowspan=2| mitnist
|rowspan=2| mitnistis
|rowspan=2| mitnistatma
| mitnistna
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/''' (“n.st.m.mba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in mb-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|-
| fǭ
|align="center"| lamb'''az''' ||align="center"| lamb'''is''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ai''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ą''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ōz''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| lamb'''amaz''' ||align="center"| lamb'''anz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''lamb, sheep''’
| fǭ
| mitnum
| mitnum
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
|-
|align="center"| lamb'''s''' ||align="center"| lamb'''is''' ||align="center"| lamb'''a''' ||align="center"| lamb ||align="center"| lamb'''ōs''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ē''' ||align="center"| lamb'''am''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|rowspan=3| fauga
|align="center"| la'''<span style="color:red">m</span>s''' ||align="center"| lamb'''is''' ||align="center"| lamb'''a''' ||align="center"| la'''<span style="color:red">m</span>''' ||align="center"| lamb'''as''' ||align="center"| lamb'''a''' ||align="center"| lamb'''<span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| lamb'''<span style="color:red">an</span>s'''
| faugažis
|-
|colspan=2| fauga
|colspan=8| ''b is lost in nom and acc sg''
|rowspan=3| mitnuma
|-
| mitnumažis
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IXa: nd''' (“n.st.m.nda”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in nd-
|colspan=2| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugista
| faugistažis
|colspan=2| faugista
|rowspan=3| mitnista
| mitnistažis
|colspan=2| mitnista
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| faugaža
|rowspan=3| faugam
| faugnas
|rowspan=3| mitnumaža
|rowspan=3| mitnumam
| mitnuma
|rowspan=3| faugistaža
|rowspan=3| faugistam
| faugistnas
|rowspan=3| mitnistaža
|rowspan=3| mistnistam
| mitnistnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| wendaz ||align="center"| wendaiz ||align="center"| wendai ||align="center"| wendą ||align="center"| wendōz ||align="center"| wendǫ̂ ||align="center"| wendamaz ||align="center"| wendanz ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''wind''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| fauga
| mitnuma
| faugista
| mitnista
|-
|-
|align="center"| winds ||align="center"| windis ||align="center"| winda ||align="center"| wind ||align="center"| windōs ||align="center"| windē ||align="center"| windam ||align="center"| windans
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
|-
| faugas
|align="center"| win'''<span style="color:red">ǧ</span>''' ||align="center"| win'''dis''' ||align="center"| win'''da''' ||align="center"| win'''d''' ||align="center"| win'''das''' ||align="center"| win'''da''' ||align="center"| win'''<span style="color:red">dam</span>''' ||align="center"| win'''<span style="color:red">dan</span>s'''
| faugas
|-
| mitnumas
|colspan=8| In addition to those a-stem nouns ending in nd-, nounds from the “nd-stems,” such as ''frīnǧ'' ‘friend’, have been assimilated into this declension, adding ‹a› to the declension of the dative singular and nominative plural, and adding ‹n› to the accusative plural.
| mitnumas
| faugistas
| faugistas
| mitnistas
| mitnistas
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Strong a-stem (neuter)====
And finally all possessive adjectives ''can'' be used as determiners. (See below.)
 
===Possessives===
All possessives can be used as determiners; when used alone, it is more common to for possessive phrases using a definite article (''sa'' or ''he'') followed by the noun, followed in turn by the possessive declined as a weak adjective. For example, ‘my house’ may be rendered as ''mīn hūs'' or ''þa hūs mīna''. The <span style="font-variant: small-caps;">Poss > Noun</span> format is required when the noun is modified by an adjective, e.g. ‘my red house’ is nearly always ''mīn hūs rǭða.''
 
The third person non-reflexive pronouns ''do not decline'', and they may precede or follow the noun without an article, and any adjective that accompanies the noun phrase is declined as strong.
 
The possessives are:


The strong neuter a-stems are just like the masculine, except that the neuter does not take an ‹-s› on the nominative singular (i.e. the nominative is the same as the accusative), and the nominative and accusative plurals are identical to the dative singular.  In other words, any of the irregularities discussed above that have to do with these categories will no longer apply for neuter a-stem nouns.
====''[[Contionary: mīns#Valthungian| mīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: þīns#Valthungian|þīns]]'', ''[[Contionary: sīns#Valthungian|sīns]]'' ‘my, your, his<ref>This is a 3rd person reflexive possessive, used when the noun is possessed by the subject of the clause.</ref>’====
The singular possessives differ only by the first letter.


{| class="wikitable" width=900
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| mīns ‘my’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| þīns ‘your’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| sīns ‘his, her, its (own)’
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.  
!width=100px| Gen.  
!width=100px| Dat.  
!width=100px| Acc.  
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.  
!width=100px| Gen.  
!width=100px| Dat.  
!width=100px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=100px| Gen.  
!width=100px| Dat.  
!width=100px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.n.a”)'''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| mīns
|rowspan=2| mīnis
|rowspan=2| mīnatma
| mīnan
| þīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| þīnatma
| þīnan
| sīns
|rowspan=2| þīnis
|rowspan=2| sīnatma
| sīnan
|-
|-
|align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''is''' ||align="center"| barn'''ai''' ||align="center"| barn'''ą''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||align="center"| barn'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| barn'''amaz''' ||align="center"| barn'''ō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''child''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| mīn
| mīn
| þīn
| þīn
| sīn
| sīn
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|rowspan=3| mīna
| mīnažis
|colspan=2| mīna
|rowspan=3| þīna
| þīnažis
|colspan=2| þīna
|rowspan=3| sīna
| sīnažis
|colspan=2| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| mīnaža
|rowspan=3| mīnam
| mīnans
|rowspan=3| þīnaža
|rowspan=3| þīnam
| þīnans
|rowspan=3| sīnaža
|rowspan=3| sīnam
| sīnans
|-
|-
|align="center"| barn ||align="center"| barn'''is''' ||align="center"| barn'''a''' ||align="center"| barn ||align="center"| barn'''a''' ||align="center"| barn'''ē''' ||align="center"| barn'''am''' ||align="center"| barn'''a'''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| mīna
| þīna
| sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| mīnas
| mīnas
| þīnas
| þīnas
| sīnas
| sīnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| barn ||align="center"| barn'''is''' ||align="center"| barn'''a''' ||align="center"| barn ||align="center"| barn'''a''' ||align="center"| barn'''a''' ||align="center"| barn'''ma''' ||align="center"| barn'''nas'''
! '''''Weak'''''  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>This is the default declension of the a-stem paradigm. Note the metathesis in the endings on the dative and accusative plural.</small>
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sa … mīna
|rowspan=2| þis … mīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … mīnin
| þa … mīnan
| sa … þīna
|rowspan=2| þis … þīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … þīnin
| þa … þīnan
| sa … sīna
|rowspan=2| þis … sīnins
|rowspan=2| þam … sīnin
| þan … sīnan
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: Syllabic''' (“n.st.m.a.syl”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in VCR (VCl-, VCm-, VCn-, VCr-)
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| þa … mīna
| þa … mīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … þīna
| þa … sīna
| þa … sīna
|-
|-
|align="center"| aþ'''ną''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nis''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nai''' ||align="center"| aþ'''ną''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nōz''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nǫ̂''' ||align="center"| aþ'''namaz''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''season''’
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … mīna
| þižis … mīnans
| þiža … mīnan
| þo … mīna
| so … þīna
| þižis … þīnans
| þiža … þīnan
| þo … þīna
| so … sīna
| þižis … sīnans
| þiža … sīnan
| þo … sīna
|-
|-
|align="center"| aþ'''n''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nis''' ||align="center"| aþ'''na''' ||align="center"| aþ'''n''' ||align="center"| aþ'''na''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nē''' ||align="center"| aþ'''nam''' ||align="center"| aþ'''na'''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| þe … mīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … mīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … mīnam
| þans … mīnans
| þe … þīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … þīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … þīnam
| þans … þīnans
| þe … sīnans
|rowspan=3| þiža … sīnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … sīnam
| þans … sīnans
|-
|-
|align="center"| að'''n<span style="color:red">a</span>''' ||align="center"| að'''nis''' ||align="center"| að'''na''' ||align="center"| að'''n<span style="color:red">a</span>''' ||align="center"| að'''na''' ||align="center"| að'''na''' ||align="center"| að'''n<span style="color:red">am</span>''' ||align="center"| að'''n<span style="color:red">a</span>'''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| þo … mīna
| þo … mīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … þīna
| þo … sīna
| þo … sīna
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … mīnans
| þos … mīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … þīnans
| þos … sīnans
| þos … sīnans
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: unkra#Valthungian|unkra]]'', ''[[Contionary: unstra#Valthungian|unstra]]'' ‘both of our, all of our’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unkra ‘(both of) our’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| unstra ‘(all of) our’
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>For those nouns ending in a syllabic sonorant in Gothic (‹r›, ‹l›, ‹m›, or ‹n› after another consonant), a vowel must be added to certain endings (indicated in red). Consquently, the metathesis observed in the default form is undone. (Or, more accurately, is blocked from occurring in the first place.) </small>
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.  
!width=100px| Gen.  
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIa: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging''' (“n.st.m.ba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vb- and Vf-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=5| unkra
|rowspan=2| unkris
|rowspan=2| unkratma
| unkran
|rowspan=5| unstra
|rowspan=2| unstris
|rowspan=2| unstratma
| unstran
|-
|-
|align="center"| hrō'''fą''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fis''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fai''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fą''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fō''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fǫ̂''' ||align="center"| hrō'''famaz''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''roof''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| unkra
|rowspan=2| unstra
|-
|-
|align="center"| hrō'''<span style="color:red">f</span>s''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fis''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fa''' ||align="center"| hrō'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fōs''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fē''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fam''' ||align="center"| hrō'''fans'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| unkražis
| unkra
| unstražis
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| unkraža
|rowspan=3| unkram
| unkrans
|rowspan=3| unstraža
|rowspan=3| unstram
| unstrans
|-
|-
|align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>is''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:red">f</span>''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>ma''' ||align="center"| þrō'''<span style="color:blue">v</span>a'''
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| unkra
| unstra
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| unkras
| unkras
| unstras
| unstras
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>For roots ending in ‹b›, it is devoiced to ‹f› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹b› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹v›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue. (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹f›, the ‹f› is voiced to ‹v› in the same environment that ‹b› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.</small>
! '''''Weak'''''
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.  
! Gen.  
! Dat.  
! Acc.  
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIb: Devoicing/Spirantization Merging''' (“n.st.m.da”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vd- and Vþ-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
 
| sa … unkra
|rowspan=2| þis … unkrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unkrin
| þa … unkran
| sa … unstra
|rowspan=2| þis … unstrins
|rowspan=2| þam … unstrin
| þa … unstran
|-
|-
|align="center"| blō'''þą''' ||align="center"| blō'''þis''' ||align="center"| blō'''þai''' ||align="center"| blō'''þą''' ||align="center"| blō'''dō''' ||align="center"| blō'''dǫ̂''' ||align="center"| blō'''damaz''' ||align="center"| blō'''dō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''blood''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| þa … unkra
| þa … unkra
| þa … unstra
| þa … unstra
|-
|-
|align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| blō'''þis''' ||align="center"| blō'''þa''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| blō'''þa''' ||align="center"| blō'''þē''' ||align="center"| blō'''þam''' ||align="center"| blō'''þa'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
| so … unkra
|align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>is''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:red">þ</span>''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>ma''' ||align="center"| blō'''<span style="color:blue">ð</span>a'''
| þižis … unkrans
| þiža … unkran
| þo … unkran
| so … unstra
| þižis … unstrans
| þiža … unstran
| þo … unstra
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Same idea as above. For roots ending in ‹d›, it is devoiced to ‹þ› in the nominative and accusative singular (at a time before Gothic), indicated in red. ‹d› is spirantized (that is, becomes ‹ð›) in the rest of the endings, indicated in blue.  (This was the case in Gothic as well, though the spirantization was not indicated in writing.) In the case of those roots ending in ‹þ›, the ‹þ› is voiced to ‹ð› in the same environment that ‹d› is spirantized, so as far as Gutish is concerned, these two paradigms are identical.</small>
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| þe … unkrans
|rowspan=3| þiža … unkraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unkram
| þans … unkrans
| þe … unstrans
|rowspan=3| þiža … unstraro
|rowspan=3| þem … unstram
| þans … unstrans
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIc: Devoicing''' (“n.st.m.za”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in Vz-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
|-
| þo … unkra
|align="center"| deu'''zą''' ||align="center"| deu'''zis''' ||align="center"| deu'''zai''' ||align="center"| deu'''zą''' ||align="center"| deu'''zō''' ||align="center"| deu'''zǫ̂''' ||align="center"| deu'''zamaz''' ||align="center"| deu'''zō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''creature''’
| þo … unkra
| þo … unstra
| þo … unstra
|-
|-
|align="center"| diu'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| diu'''zis''' ||align="center"| diu'''za''' ||align="center"| diu'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| diu'''za''' ||align="center"| diu'''zē''' ||align="center"| diu'''zam''' ||align="center"| diu'''za'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unkrans
| þos … unstrans
| þos … unstrans
|}
 
====''[[Contionary: inkur#Valthungian|inkur]]'', ''[[Contionary: ižur#Valthungian|ižur]]'' ‘both of your, all of your’====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| inkur ‘(both of) your’
! &nbsp;
!colspan=4| ižur ‘(all of) your’
|-
|-
|align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>is''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:red">s</span>''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a''' ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>ma ||align="center"| ǧu'''<span style="color:blue">ž</span>a'''
!width=65px| '''''Strong'''''
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
!width=100px| Nom.
!width=110px| Gen.
!width=100px| Dat.
!width=110px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IXa: Assimilation of /b/''' (“n.st.n.mba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in mb-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
|rowspan=2| inkur
|rowspan=2| inkuris
|rowspan=2| inkuratma
| inkurna
|rowspan=2| ižur
|rowspan=2| ižuris
|rowspan=2| ižuratma
| ižurna
|-
|-
|align="center"| lamb'''ą''' ||align="center"| lamb'''is''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ai''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ą''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ō''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| lamb'''amaz''' ||align="center"| lamb'''ō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''lamb''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
|rowspan=2| inkur
|rowspan=2| ižur
|-
|-
|align="center"| la'''mb''' ||align="center"| la'''mbis''' ||align="center"| la'''mba''' ||align="center"| la'''mb''' ||align="center"| la'''mba''' ||align="center"| la'''mbē''' ||align="center"| la'''mbam''' ||align="center"| la'''mba'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
|-
|rowspan=3| inkura
|align="center"| la'''<span style="color:red">m</span>''' ||align="center"| la'''mbis''' ||align="center"| la'''mba''' ||align="center"| la'''<span style="color:red">m</span>''' ||align="center"| la'''mba''' ||align="center"| la'''mba''' ||align="center"| la'''<span style="color:red">mbam</span>''' ||align="center"| la'''mba'''
| inkuražis
| inkura
|rowspan=3| ižura
| ižuražis
| ižura
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''lba''' (“n.st.n.lba”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in lb-, rba
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
|rowspan=3| inkuraža
|rowspan=3| inkuram
| inkurnas
|rowspan=3| ižuraža
|rowspan=3| ižuram
| ižurnas
|-
|-
|align="center"| kalb'''ą''' ||align="center"| kalb'''is''' ||align="center"| kalb'''ai''' ||align="center"| kalb'''ą''' ||align="center"| kalb'''ō''' ||align="center"| kalb'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| kalb'''amaz''' ||align="center"| kalb'''ō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''calf''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| inkura
| ižura
|-
|-
|align="center"| ka'''lb''' ||align="center"| ka'''lbis''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba''' ||align="center"| ka'''lb''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba''' ||align="center"| ka'''lbē''' ||align="center"| ka'''lbam''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| inkuras
| inkuras
| ižuras
| ižuras
|-
|-
|align="center"| ka'''<span style="color:red">lb</span>''' ||align="center"| ka'''lbis''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba''' ||align="center"| ka'''<span style="color:red">lb</span>''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba''' ||align="center"| ka'''<span style="color:red">lbam</span>''' ||align="center"| ka'''lba'''
! '''''Weak'''''  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none;" width=10px rowspan=7|  
! Nom.
! Gen.
! Dat.
! Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''rda''' (“n.st.m.rda”)<br />&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;for roots ending in rda-, lda-
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg
| sa … inkura
|rowspan=2| þis … inkurins
|rowspan=2| þam … inkurin
| þa … inkurna
| sa … ižura
|rowspan=2| þis … ižurins
|rowspan=2| þam … ižurin
| þa … ižurna
|-
|-
|align="center"| wu'''rdą''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdis''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdai''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdą''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdō''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdǫ̂''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdamaz''' ||align="center"| wu'''rdō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''word''’
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg 
| þa … inkura
| þa … inkura
| þa … ižura
| þa … ižura
|-
|-
|align="center"| waú'''<span style="color:red">rd</span>''' ||align="center"| waú'''rdis''' ||align="center"| waú'''rda''' ||align="center"| waú'''<span style="color:red">rd</span>''' ||align="center"| waú'''rda''' ||align="center"| waú'''rdē''' ||align="center"| waú'''rdam''' ||align="center"| waú'''rda'''
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg 
| so … inkura
| þižis … inkurans
| þiža … inkuran
| þo … inkuran
| so … ižura
| þižis … ižurans
| þiža … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
|-
|align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:red">rd</span>''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>is''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>a''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:red">rd</span>''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>a''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>a''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>ma''' ||align="center"| wo'''<span style="color:blue">rð</span>a'''
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl
| þe … inkurnas
|rowspan=3| þiža … inkurnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … inkurma
| þans … inkurnas
| þe … ižurnas
|rowspan=3| þiža … ižurnaro
|rowspan=3| þem … ižurma
| þans … ižurnas
|-
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl 
| þo … inkuran
| þo … inkuran
| þo … ižuran
| þo … ižuran
|-
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl 
| þos … inkurans
| þos … inkurans
| þos … ižurans
| þos … ižurans
|}
|}


====Strong ō-stem (feminine)====
====Indeclinable Possessives====
The following possessives do not decline. When the noun they modify is not accompanied by an adjective, they usually follow the noun; if no adjective is present, they precede the noun, and the adjective takes the strong declension.
* [[Contionary: is#Valthungian|'''''is''''']] ‘his, its’
* [[Contionary: ižis#Valthungian|'''''ižis''''']] ‘her’
* [[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|'''''iža''''']] ‘their’
* [[Contionary: huis#Valthungian|'''''huis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: huižis#Valthungian|'''''huižis''''']] ‘whose’
* [[Contionary: nījus#Valthungian|'''''nījus''''']] ‘no one's’
* [[Contionary: huižuþ#Valthungian|'''''huižuþ''''']] ‘everyone's’


The simplest noun class by far is the strong feminine ō-stem.  There is only one paradigm with no variations.
==Numbers==
 
===Declinable Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" width=900
====Singular (‘one’)====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
!width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.f.ō”)'''
!masc.  
|-
| ǣns ||rowspan=2| ǣnis ||rowspan=2| ǣnatma || ǣnan
|align="center"| erþ'''ō''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ōz''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ōi''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ǭ''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ôz''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ǫ̂''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ōmaz''' ||align="center"| erþ'''ôz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''earth''’
|-
|align="center"| aírþ'''a''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ais''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ai''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''a''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ōs''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ō''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ōm''' ||align="center"| aírþ'''ōs'''
|-
|align="center"| erð'''a''' ||align="center"| erð'''is''' ||align="center"| erð'''a''' ||align="center"| erð'''a''' ||align="center"| erð'''as''' ||align="center"| erð'''a''' ||align="center"| erð'''am''' ||align="center"| erð'''as'''
|-
|colspan=8| <small>This is the default declension of the ō-stem paradigm. Note the assimilation of the genitive singular (from the expected “-as”).</small>
|-
|-
!neu.
| ǣn(at) || ǣn(at)
|-
!fem.
| ǣna || ǣnažis || ǣna || ǣna
|-
|}
|}


===ja- and jō-stems===
====Dual (‘two, both’)====
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
While traditionally listed as sub-classes of a- and ō-stems, the j-stem nouns differ from these in two important ways: Umlaut and Palatalization. (…more below…)
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
 
====Strong ja-stem (masculine)====
{| class="wikitable" width=900
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ja”)'''
|-
|-
|align="center"|  har'''jaz''' ||align="center"| har'''jis''' ||align="center"| har'''jai''' ||align="center"| har'''ją''' ||align="center"| har'''jōz''' ||align="center"| har'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| har'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| har'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''army''’
!width=65px|  !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|  
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|align="center"| har'''jis''' ||align="center"| har'''jis''' ||align="center"| har'''ja''' ||align="center"| har'''i''' ||align="center"| har'''jōs''' ||align="center"| har'''jē''' ||align="center"| har'''jam''' ||align="center"| har'''jans'''
! masc.
| tuǣ ||rowspan=3| tuǣǧa ||rowspan=3| tuǣm || tuans
| bǣ ||rowspan=3| bǣǧa ||rowspan=3| bǣm || bans
|-
|-
|align="center"|  h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''is''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''is''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''ia''' ||align="center"| har'''e''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''is''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''ia''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''im''' ||align="center"| h<span style="color:blue">e</span>r'''ins'''
! neu.
|-
| tuā || tuā
|colspan=8| <small></small>
| bā || bā
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: bja (“n.st.m.bja”)'''
! fem.
| tuōs || tuōs
| bōs || bōs
|}
 
====Trial (‘three, all three’) ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive
|-
|-
|align="center"| seb'''jaz''' ||align="center"| seb'''jis''' ||align="center"| seb'''jai''' ||align="center"| seb'''ją''' ||align="center"| seb'''jōz''' ||align="center"| seb'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| seb'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| seb'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''kinsman''’
!width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
!style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4|
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc.
|-
|-
|align="center"| sib'''jis''' ||align="center"| sib'''jis''' ||align="center"| sib'''ja''' ||align="center"| sib'''i''' ||align="center"| sib'''jōs''' ||align="center"| sib'''jē''' ||align="center"| sib'''jam''' ||align="center"| sib'''jans'''
! masc.
| þrīs ||rowspan=3| þriža ||rowspan=3| þrim || þrins
| þrǣ ||rowspan=3| þrǣža ||rowspan=3| þrǣm || þrans
|-
|-
|align="center"| sib'''is''' ||align="center"| sib'''is''' ||align="center"| sib'''ia''' ||align="center"| siv'''e''' ||align="center"| sib'''is''' ||align="center"| sib'''ia''' ||align="center"| sib'''im''' ||align="center"| sib'''ins'''
! neu.
| þrī, þriža || þrī, þriža
| þrā || þrā
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /v/…</small>
! fem.
| þrīs || þrins
| þreǧis || þreǧis
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
|}
|-
 
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIa: dja (“n.st.m.dja”)'''
===Undeclinable Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
|align="center"|  med'''jaz''' ||align="center"| med'''jis''' ||align="center"| med'''jai''' ||align="center"| med'''ją''' ||align="center"| med'''jōz''' ||align="center"| med'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| med'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| med'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''middle''’
! !!width=100px| # !!width=150px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000
|-
|-
|align="center"| mid'''jis''' ||align="center"| mid'''jis''' ||align="center"| mid'''ja''' ||align="center"| mid'''i''' ||align="center"| mid'''jōs''' ||align="center"| mid'''jē''' ||align="center"| mid'''jam''' ||align="center"| mid'''jans'''
! 0
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣ tiǧis|| ''tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''‑ljǭn''
|-
|-
|align="center"| miǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| mið'''e''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''im''' ||align="center"| miǧ'''ins'''
! 1
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣndlif || tuǣ tiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /ð/…</small>
!  2
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || tuǣ tiǧi tuǣ|| tuǣ tiǧis || tuā hunda || tuōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 3
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrigatǣn (þrižatǣn), ig || tuǣ tiǧi þrīs|| þrīs tiǧis || þrī hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIb: gja (“n.st.m.gja”)'''
!  4
| fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fiður|| fiðra tiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || fiðriljǭn
|-
|-
|align="center"| sag'''jaz''' ||align="center"| sag'''jis''' ||align="center"| sag'''jai''' ||align="center"| sag'''ją''' ||align="center"| sag'''jōz''' ||align="center"| sag'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| sag'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| sag'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''messenger''’
! 5
| fim || fimfatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fim|| fim tiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn
|-
|-
|align="center"| sag'''jis''' ||align="center"| sag'''jis''' ||align="center"| sag'''ja''' ||align="center"| sag'''i''' ||align="center"| sag'''jōs''' ||align="center"| sag'''jē''' ||align="center"| sag'''jam''' ||align="center"| sag'''jans'''
! 6
| sǣs || sǣstatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sǣs|| sǣs tiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn
|-
|-
|align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| sag'''e''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''im''' ||align="center"| s<span style="color:blue">e</span>ǧ'''ins'''
! 7
| sivun (sivna) || sivuntǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sivun|| sivun tiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /g/…</small>
!  8
| āta (āt) || ātatǣn || tuǣ tiǧis āta|| āta tiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 9
|-
| njun || niðatǣn, iþ || tuǣ tiǧi njun|| njun tiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIc: tja (“n.st.m.tja”)'''
|-
|-
|align="center"| t'''jaz''' ||align="center"| t'''jis''' ||align="center"| t'''jai''' ||align="center"| t'''ją''' ||align="center"| t'''jōz''' ||align="center"| t'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| t'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| t'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''army''’
|}
 
The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by analogy with the dual (''bǣ'' ‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian.
 
The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.)
 
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, common in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.
 
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīs tiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''‑i‑'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn‑'' and ''āta''.
 
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''.
 
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[wiki:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘‑ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
|align="center"|  t'''jis''' ||align="center"| t'''jis''' ||align="center"| t'''ja''' ||align="center"| t'''i''' ||align="center"| t'''jōs''' ||align="center"| t'''jē''' ||align="center"| t'''jam''' ||align="center"| t'''jans'''
! N⁰ !! Numerals !!width=100px| Valthungian !!width=130px| Short !!width=130px| Hybrid !!width=130px| Long !!width=100px| Metric
|-
|-
|align="center"| č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''a''' ||align="center"| t'''e''' ||align="center"| č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''a''' ||align="center"| č'''im''' ||align="center"| č'''ins'''  
!  10³  
|align="right"| 1,000 || þūsunde ||colspan=3 align="center"| thousand || '''k'''''ilo''
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /t/…</small>
!  10⁶ 
|align="right"| 1,000,000 || miljǭn ||colspan=3 align="center"| million || '''M'''''ega''
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 10⁹ 
|-
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000  || biljǭn || billion || milliard || thousand million || '''G'''''iga''
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIId: kja (“n.st.m.kja”)'''
|-
|-
|align="center"| k'''jaz''' ||align="center"| k'''jis''' ||align="center"| k'''jai''' ||align="center"| k'''ją''' ||align="center"| k'''jōz''' ||align="center"| k'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| k'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| k'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''army''’
! 10¹²
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000  || þriljǭn || trillion || billion || billion || '''T'''''era''
|-
|-
|align="center"| k'''jis''' ||align="center"| k'''jis''' ||align="center"| k'''ja''' ||align="center"| k'''i''' ||align="center"| k'''jōs''' ||align="center"| k'''jē''' ||align="center"| k'''jam''' ||align="center"| k'''jans'''
! 10¹⁵
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000  || fiðriljǭn || quadrillion || billiard || thousand billion || '''P'''''eta''
|-
|-
|align="center"|  č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''a''' ||align="center"| k'''e''' ||align="center"| č'''is''' ||align="center"| č'''a''' ||align="center"| č'''im''' ||align="center"| č'''ins'''  
!  10¹⁸
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 || fimfiljǭn || quintillion || trillion || trillion || '''E'''''xa''
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /k/…</small>
!  10²¹
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sǣsiljǭn || sextillion || trilliard || thousand trillion || '''Z'''''etta''
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 10²⁴
|-
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || sivniljǭn || septillion || quadrillion || quadrillion || '''Y'''''otta''
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIe: sja (“n.st.m.sja”)'''
|-
|-
|align="center"| s'''jaz''' ||align="center"| s'''jis''' ||align="center"| s'''jai''' ||align="center"| s'''ją''' ||align="center"| s'''jōz''' ||align="center"| s'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| s'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| s'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''army''’
! 10²⁷
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  || ātatiljǭn || octillion || quadrilliard || thousand quadrillion || -
|-
|-
|align="center"| s'''jis''' ||align="center"| s'''jis''' ||align="center"| s'''ja''' ||align="center"| s'''i''' ||align="center"| s'''jōs''' ||align="center"| s'''jē''' ||align="center"| s'''jam''' ||align="center"| s'''jans'''
! 10³⁰
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || njuniljǭn || nonillion || quintillion || quintillion || -
|-
|-
|align="center"|  š'''is''' ||align="center"| š'''is''' ||align="center"| š'''a''' ||align="center"| s'''e''' ||align="center"| š'''is''' ||align="center"| š'''a''' ||align="center"| š'''im''' ||align="center"| š'''ins'''
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /s/…</small>
|-
|}
|}


====Strong ja-stem (neuter)====
===Ordinal Numbers and Other Number Forms===
Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English). In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second took only the weak declension, but all ordinals now take both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules of adjectives.


{| class="wikitable" width=900
The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tvaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''.
 
Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''‑tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''‑tel'' being a direct cognate to ''dǣl''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''‑a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
!rowspan=2| &nbsp;
|-
!colspan=3| Ordinal
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.n.ja”)'''
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Multiplicative
!colspan=2 rowspan=2| Fractional
|-
|-
|align="center"|  fergun'''ją''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jis''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jai''' ||align="center"| fergun'''ją''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jō''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| fergun'''jō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''mountain''’
! (Strong)
! (Weak)
! &nbsp;
|-
|-
|align="center"|  faírgun'''i''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''jis''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''ja''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''i''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''ja''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''jē''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''jam''' ||align="center"| faírgun'''ja'''
! 1
| frumist, frums
| frumista, fruma
| first
| ǣniþis
| once, one time
|colspan=2| --
|-
|-
|align="center"| fergún'''e''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''is''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''ia''' ||align="center"| fergún'''e''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''ia''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''ia''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''im''' ||align="center"| fergýn'''ia'''
! 2
|colspan=2| anðra
| second
| tuaþis
| twice, two times
| hlafs, tuǣǧa dǣlaro
| half
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
! 3
| þrīǧis
| þrīǧa
| third
| þriþis
| thrice, three times
| þriža dǣlaro
| third
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 4
|-
| fiðraþs
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: bja (“n.st.n.bja”)'''
| fiðraða
| fourth
| fiðurþis
| four times
| fiðra dǣlaro
| quarter/fourth
|-
|-
|align="center"| lu'''bją''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjis''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjai''' ||align="center"| lu'''bją''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjō''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjǫ̂''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjamaz''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''drug, poison''’
! 5
| fimft
| fimfta
| fifth
| fimftis
| five times
| fimfa dǣlaro
| fifth
|-
|-
|align="center"| lu'''bi''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjis''' ||align="center"| lu'''bja''' ||align="center"| lu'''bi''' ||align="center"| lu'''bja''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjē''' ||align="center"| lu'''bjam''' ||align="center"| lu'''bja'''
! 6
| sǣst
| sǣsta
| sixth
| sǣstis
| six times
| sǣsa dǣlaro
| sixth
|-
|-
|align="center"| lu'''ve''' ||align="center"| ly'''bis''' ||align="center"| ly'''bia''' ||align="center"| lu'''ve''' ||align="center"| ly'''bia''' ||align="center"| ly'''bia''' ||align="center"| ly'''bim''' ||align="center"| ly'''bia'''
! 7
| sivunþs
| sivunþa
| seventh
| sivunþis
| seven times
| sivun dǣlaro
| seventh
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
! 8  
|-
| ātuþs
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
| ātuða
| eighth
| ātuðis
| eight times
| āta dǣlaro
| eighth
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: dja (“n.st.n.dja”)'''
! 9
| njunþs
| njunþa
| ninth
| njunþis
| nine times
| njuna dǣlaro
| ninth
|-
|-
|align="center"| ba'''dją''' ||align="center"| ba'''djis''' ||align="center"| ba'''djai''' ||align="center"| ba'''dją''' ||align="center"| ba'''djō''' ||align="center"| ba'''djǫ̂''' ||align="center"| ba'''djamaz''' ||align="center"| ba'''djō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''bed''’
! 10
| tǣjunþs
| tǣjunþa
| tenth
| tǣjunþis
| ten times
| tǣjun dǣlaro
| tenth
|-
|-
|align="center"| ba'''di''' ||align="center"| ba'''djis''' ||align="center"| ba'''dja''' ||align="center"| ba'''di''' ||align="center"| ba'''dja''' ||align="center"| ba'''djē''' ||align="center"| ba'''djam''' ||align="center"| ba'''dja'''
! 11
| ǣndlift
| ǣndlifta
| eleventh
| ǣndliftis
| eleven times
| ǣndliva dǣlaro
| eleventh
|-
|-
|align="center"| ba'''ðe''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧis''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| ba'''ðe''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧim''' ||align="center"| be'''ǧa'''
! 12
| tuālift
| tuālifta
| twelfth
| tuāliftis
| twelve times
| tuāliva dǣlaro
| twelfth
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
! 13
| þrigatǣnþs
| þrigatǣnþa
| thirteenth
| þrigatǣnþis
| thirteen times
| þrigatǣjun dǣlaro
| thirteenth
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 20
|-
| tuǣ tiǧist
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: ddja (“n.st.n.ddja”)'''
| tuǣ tiǧista
| twentieth
| tuǣ tiǧistis
| twenty times
| tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro
| twentieth
|-
|-
|align="center"| ai'''ją''' ||align="center"| ai'''jis''' ||align="center"| ai'''jai''' ||align="center"| ai'''ją''' ||align="center"| ai'''jō''' ||align="center"| ai'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| ai'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| ai'''jō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''egg''’
! 100
| hundaþs
| hundaða
| hundredth
| hundaðis
| a hundred times
| hunda dǣlaro
| hundredth
|-
|-
|align="center"| a'''ddi''' ||align="center"| a'''ddjis''' ||align="center"| a'''ddja''' ||align="center"| a'''ddi''' ||align="center"| a'''ddja''' ||align="center"| a'''ddjē''' ||align="center"| a'''ddjam''' ||align="center"| a'''ddja'''
! 1,000
| þūsundiþs
| þūsundiða
| thousandth
| þūsundiðis
| a thousand times
| þūsunǧa dǣlaro
| thousandth
|-
|-
|align="center"| ā'''de''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧis''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| ā'''de''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧa''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧim''' ||align="center"| ǣ'''ǧa'''
! 1,000,000
| miljǭnþs
| miljǭnþa
| millionth
| miljǭnþis
| a million times
| miljǭna dǣlaro
| millionth
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
|}
 
===Alternative Numbers===
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form.  Primary among these numbers were ‘13’ and ‘19’, which were written in Gothic as ''·ig·'' and ''·iþ·'', respectively.  This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (''rig''), ‘119’ (''riþ''), ‘213’ (''sig''), ‘219’ (''siþ''), ‘313’ (''tig''), ‘319’ (''tiþ''), ‘413’ (''wig''), ‘419’ (''wiþ''), ‘513’ (''fig''), and ‘519’ (''fiþ''). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.)
 
Though this seems like a modern form of word-play, it is actually quite ancient. The rendering of ‘19’ as ''iþ'' exerted enough influence on the numeric form from early days that the modern form became ''niðatǣn'' rather than the expected **''njunatǣn''. Similarly, the standard form of ‘13’ is ''þrigatǣn'', though the expected ''þrižatǣn'' is still an accepted alternative.
 
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat niðatǣn'' referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (''fiður-ig''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' (‘road’).
 
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.
 
==A Note on Terminology: “Strong” vs. “Weak”==
In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.”
In verbs, these denote two of the many categories into which verbs may be broken, “strong” verbs being those that form the preterit by means of ablaut, and “weak” being those that form the preterit with a suffix containing some manner of dental consonant. There are further classifications of preterit-present, aorist-present, subjunctive-present, and anomalous, and many of them overlap with the simplistic “strong” and “weak” descriptors. (See [[#Verbs|Verbs]] for more information.)
 
This usage is completely unrelated to strong and weak nouns and adjectives, in which “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending.
 
And even though the meaning of strong and weak in nouns and adjectives are historically related, their usage is not: In nouns, like the verbs, this is merely a convenient way of categorising certain types of nouns which take certain endings. In adjectives, however, the use of a strong or weak adjective depends on whether other determiners are present in the same noun phrase; most adjectives have both a strong and a weak declension.
 
For the purposes of this text, I dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various stem classes into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction. I maintain the use of the terms for verbs and adjectives, though, to be honest, their usage with verbs could easily be similarly eschewed; the only area  where these distinctions are really functionally important is in the discussion of adjectives.
 
==Nouns==
Main article: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]
 
Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).
 
Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of ‑s or ‑a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by ‑is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes ‑a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
 
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take ‑as as an ending; neuter takes ‑a. The genitive plural takes ‑aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes ‑am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it ‑ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually ‑ans, but again may metathesise to ‑nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take ‑a.
 
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See [[#Phonology|Phonology]]). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
 
Details about the inflections of individual noun classes and their variants can be found here: [[Valthungian/Nouns]]
 
==Verbs==
===Inversion===
A peculiar feature about Valthungian verbs is that every finite verb has a “Standard” and “Inverted” form. This arose historically because of the increasing strictness of the V2 environment, causing shifts in voicing and sandhi between the verb and subject pronoun. Inverted pronouns are generally appended to the inverted verb (with no apostrophes!), and the plural pronouns have particularly different forms which may merge some pronouns (the third person plural forms, for example, are all identical).
 
===Strong Verbs===
Strong verbs are those verbs in Germanic which form the preterit and past participles through a process of ablaut; that is, by changing the stressed vowel. This is analogous to those verbs in English such as ''drive – drove – driven'' (class I), or ''drink – drank – drunk'' (class III). These are traditionally divided into four “Principal Parts”: The first is the base of the infinitive, present participle, present indicative and subjunctive tenses, and the imperatives. The second principal part is used to form the preterit singular. The third is the preterit plural and all of the subjunctive. (This is usually umlauted in the subjunctive.) Finally the fourth principal part is the root of the past participle.
 
====Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.1p|seize|grī|grǣ|gri|gri|gri}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2p|strju|strǭ|stru|stry}}
 
Because of the shift of the vowel from '''iu''' to '''ju''', when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalisation, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}
 
Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *‑euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class III (i – a – u – u)====
 
Class III strong verbs are those verbs with /i/ (historically /e/) as the root vowel which is followed by a sonorant (r, l, m, n) and an obstruent (p, t, k, b, d, g, f, þ, s, h), or, rarely, two obstruents (e.g. /hs/, /gd/). Ablaut causes the second principle part to shift to /a/, and the third and fourth to /u/.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3nd|bi|ba|ba|bu|by}}
 
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3rg|be|ba|ba|bo|bœ}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kui|kua|kuē|kū}}
 
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4r|b}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kui|kua|kuē|kui}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6g|dra|drō|drœu|dra}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by ⟨e⟩, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
Verbs beginning with ⟨s⟩ followed by a stop (i.e. ⟨sp⟩, ⟨st⟩, or ⟨sk⟩), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
<!--<small>Verbs with ⟨ē⟩ as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to ⟨ō⟩ in the past (and subsequently umlaut to ⟨œ̄⟩ in the past subjunctive).</small>-->
 
===Weak Verbs===
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (‑janą)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (‑ijaną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class II (‑ōną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class III (‑āną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (‑naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (‑ną)====
 
===Preterit-Present Verbs===
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}}
 
Finally, '''wilin''' is not actually a preterit-present verb, but a subjunctive-present verb. However, it seems to fit best here amongst its other quasi-anomalous quasi-auxiliary brethren.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.wilin|}}
 
===Anomalous Verbs===
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/‑reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ‑'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj‑'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''stǣn/standna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. Though it acts like a Class VI verb in how it ablauts in the past, there is also a parallel form with reduplication, indicating Class VII.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}
 
''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis‑'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i‑'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i‑'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
 
===Compound Tenses===
====Forming the Perfect====
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga‑'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.
 
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
 
Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|wisna]]'' and the past participle.
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''vroðna'''.''
**‘She has become a doctor.’
*''Is '''was''' hǣma '''gangna'''.''
**‘He had gone home.’
 
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga‑'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
**‘She had given it to him.’
*''Ik þik '''sǣjua gā'''.''
**‘I have seen you.’
 
====Forming the Future====
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages).
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þo hroþ '''lūkna'''.''
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’
*''Ik ni '''gangiða''' nījo '''ligna''' þo livran af hǣða hun.''
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’
 
====Forming the Passive====
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! &nbsp;  
|-
! Patient:<br />Deliberate
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: gja (“n.st.n.gja”)'''
! Patient:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|-
|-
|align="center"|  ha'''wją''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjis''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjai''' ||align="center"| ha'''wją''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjō''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjǫ̂''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjamaz''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''hay''’
! Agent:<br />Deliberate
|-
|| ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’
|align="center"| ha'''wi''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjis''' ||align="center"| ha'''wja''' ||align="center"| ha'''wi''' ||align="center"| ha'''wja''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjē''' ||align="center"| ha'''wjam''' ||align="center"| ha'''wja'''
|| ''gitna'' ‘to get’<ref>The present tense of ''gitna'' is often reduced, particularly in the third person, when used as a passive auxiliary; i.e. ''gitiþ'' → ''giþ'', ''gitnaþ'' → ''ginþ''. </ref><br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’
|-
|align="center"| ha'''uge''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧis''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧa''' ||align="center"| ha'''uge''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧa''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧa''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧim''' ||align="center"| he'''uǧa'''
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: tja (“n.st.n.tja”)'''
|-
|align="center"|  wi'''tją''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjis''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjai''' ||align="center"| wi'''tją''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjō''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjǫ̂''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjamaz''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjō''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''knowledge''’
|-
|align="center"|  wi'''ti''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjis''' ||align="center"| wi'''tja''' ||align="center"| wi'''ti''' ||align="center"| wi'''tja''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjē''' ||align="center"| wi'''tjam''' ||align="center"| wi'''tja'''
|-
|align="center"|  wi'''te''' ||align="center"| wi'''čis''' ||align="center"| wi'''ča''' ||align="center"| wi'''te''' ||align="center"| wi'''ča''' ||align="center"| wi'''ča''' ||align="center"| wi'''čim''' ||align="center"| wi'''ča'''
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
|-
|-
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br />&nbsp;
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skǣšin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''vreðna'' ‘to become’
|}
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forða vork '''fraglíðiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis broðaþjugis '''ganōguþ'''.
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’
'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.
*''Ik '''gat''' þis weris '''slagun'''.''
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’
*''S·wagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþ'''.''
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’
'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižis fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiž·intǣkninis) toðiža miðéndina '''tugun'''.''
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’
'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþ'''.''
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’
*''Þe lǭvas '''skāguðun''' þižis rynins '''avbrón'''.''
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’
====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future====
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.''
**‘I had '''just''' eaten.’
*''Is '''straks''' gangiþ hǣma.''
**‘He is '''about to''' go home.’
''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.''
====Forming the Progressive====
The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense.
The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb ''sitna'' ‘to sit’ and the preposition ''bī'' ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter ''sitna bi'' followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as ''Ik sita bi vrǣtina'' rather than the expected ''Ik sita bi vrǣčin''.
*''Ū '''sitistu''' njužis '''bi drinkna''' gā?''
**‘Have you '''been drinking''' again?’
*''Ik '''sita bi skrīvna''' þo bisāt mīna. Raniso '''sitik bi drinkna''' gā.''
**‘'''I’m writing''' my dissertation. Of course I’ve '''been drinking'''.’
==Adjectives==
In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a [[#Determiners|determiner]] (article, possessive<ref>Only when a possessive is used without an article; otherwise the possessive itself is also declined as weak.</ref>, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong.
Predicative adjectives do not decline; they usually take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify.
Legend: <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">Predicative</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">Strong</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">Weak</span> · <span style="background-color:#99FF99;">Determiner</span> · <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">Non-declining Genitive</span>
When a noun is modified by an adjective alone (with no determiner present), the adjective takes the strong declension.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘a red house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘sparkling mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘forbidden knowledge’
When paired with a third person possessive (is, ižis, or iža), an adjective also takes the strong declension:
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">rǭðat</span>'' ‘his red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">glitnaþs</span>'' ‘her sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘their forbidden knowledge’
When one of the above possessives is used without an adjective, they follow the noun.
*''ražna <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">is</span> ‘his house’
*''miðus <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">ižis</span> ‘her mead’
*''vituvne <span style="background-color:#FF9999;">iža</span> ‘their knowledge’
When a determiner is present, the adjective takes a weak declension.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">hreužitaþ</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">rǭða</span>'' ‘every red house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'' ‘my sparkling mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">frobúðna</span>'' ‘the forbidden knowledge’
When a possessive is used with an adjective (as in ''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">mīns</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">glitnaða</span>'', above), the possessive precedes the noun and takes a strong declension while the adjective takes the weak; however, when no adjective is present, a definite article precedes the noun, and the weak-declined possessive follows it.
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span>'' ‘my house’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span>'' ‘your mead’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span>'' ‘our knowledge’
When an adjective is used as a predicate, it takes the predicative form (not really a declension, because there is only one).
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">þa</span> ražna <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">mīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">rǭþ</span>.''  ‘my house is red’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">sa</span> miðus <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">þīna</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">glitnaþ</span>.'' ‘your mead is sparkling’
*''<span style="background-color:#99FF99;">so</span> vituvne <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">unstra</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">frobúðna</span>.'' ‘our knowledge is forbidden’
===Comparison===
To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ''‑ums'' (which declines as an a‑stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ''‑ims''. E.g.:
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilums''''' ‘bigger’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunims''''' ‘greener’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''aglums''''' ‘more difficult’
The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition ''than'':
* ''Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum.'' ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to‑the brother of‑himself taller.”)


|}
To form the superlative, most adjectives add ''‑ist'' to the stem.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilist''''' ‘biggest’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunist''''' ‘greenest’
* '''''aglus''''' ‘difficult’ → '''''eglist''''' ‘most difficult’


The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:
* ''Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist.'' ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of‑the brothers of‑himself the tallest.”)


===ija- and ijō-stems===
===Adverbialization===
Historically, adverbs are formed from adjectives in a variety of ways. The most common, however, is to add the suffix '''''‑so''''' (often written as '''''‑sua''''' in older texts) after the stem vowel.
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilaso''''' ‘largely’
* '''''synikus''''' ‘honest’ → '''''synikuso''''' ‘honestly’
* '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’ → '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’


====Strong ija-stem (masculine)====
===Irregular and Suppletive Forms===
There are a number of irregular and suppletive forms of adjectives.
{| class="wikitable" width=900
{| class="wikitable"
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
! Adverbial
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
| '''''tils~þjuþs''''' ‘good’
|-
| '''''batums''''' ‘better’
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type I: Default (“n.st.m.ija”)'''
| '''''batist''''' ‘best’
| '''''tila''''' ‘well’
|-
|-
|align="center"|  blōstr'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijis''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijai''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''iją''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''worshipper''’
| '''''līts'''''~'''''lītils'''''~'''''lītlas''''' ‘little, small’
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘smaller’
| '''''mitnist''''' ‘smallest’
| —
|-
|-
|align="center"|  blōstr'''jis''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''jis''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''ja''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''i''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''jōs''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''jē''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''jam''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''jans'''
| '''''uvils~balus''''' ‘bad’
| '''''vresums''''' ‘worse’
| '''''vresist''''' ‘worst’
| '''''balo''''' ‘badly, poorly’
|-
|-
|align="center"|  blœ̄str'''is''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''is''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''ia''' ||align="center"| blōstr'''e''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''is''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''ia''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''im''' ||align="center"| blœ̄str'''ins'''
| '''''fǭs''''' ‘little, few’
| '''''mitnums''''' ‘less, fewer’
| '''''mitnist'''''~'''''faugist''''' ‘least, fewest’
| —
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small></small>
| '''''filus''''' ‘much, many’
| '''''mǣžums''''' ‘more’
| '''''mǣst''''' ‘most’
| '''''mǣstaso''''' ‘mostly’
|}
 
==Vocabulary==
'''[[:Category: Valthungian words|Valthungian Words on Contionary]]'''
 
===Swadesh List===
''For those of you who like this sort of thing!''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! &nbsp;
|-
!width=200px| Valthungian
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type II: bija (“n.st.m.bija”)'''
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
! &nbsp;
!width=200px| Valthungian
!width=150px| English
|-
|-
|align="center"|  drōb'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijis''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijai''' ||align="center"| drōb'''iją''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''mud, muck''’
! 001
| '''[[Contionary: ik#Valthungian|ik]]'''
| I
! 070
| '''[[Contionary: fiðra#Valthungian|fiðra]]''' (''n'')
| feather
! 139
| '''[[Contionary: reþin#Valthungian|reþin]]'''
| to count
|-
|-
|align="center"|  drōb'''eis''' ||align="center"| drōb'''eis''' ||align="center"| drōb'''ja''' ||align="center"| drōb'''i''' ||align="center"| drōb'''jōs''' ||align="center"| drōb'''jē''' ||align="center"| drōb'''jam''' ||align="center"| drōb'''jans'''
! 002
| '''[[Contionary: þū#Valthungian|þū]]'''
| you
! 071
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þlāta#Valthungian|þlāta]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: skuft#Valthungian|skuft]]''' (''n'')
| hair (''on head'')
! 140
| '''[[Contionary: kwiðna#Valthungian|kuiðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: rœuǧin#Valthungian|rœuǧin]]'''
| to say
|-
|-
|align="center"|  drœ̄v'''is''' ||align="center"| drœ̄v'''is''' ||align="center"| drœ̄b'''ia''' ||align="center"| drōv'''e''' ||align="center"| drœ̄b'''is''' ||align="center"| drœ̄b'''ia''' ||align="center"| drœ̄b'''im''' ||align="center"| drœ̄b'''ins'''  
! 003
| '''[[Contionary: is#Valthungian|is]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sī#Valthungian|sī]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: it#Valthungian|it]]''' (''n'')
| he, she, it
! 072
| '''[[Contionary: hǭviþ#Valthungian|hǭviþ]]''' (''n'')
| head
! 141
| '''[[Contionary: singun#Valthungian|singun]]''',  '''[[Contionary: hežin#Valthungian|hežin]]'''
| to sing
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /v/…</small>
! 004
| '''[[Contionary: wit#Valthungian|vit]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: wīs#Valthungian|vīs]]''' (''pl'')
| we
! 073
| '''[[Contionary: hǭsa#Valthungian|hǭsa]]''' (''n'')
| ear
! 142
| '''[[Contionary: lǣkna#Valthungian|lǣkna]]'''
| to play
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 005
|-
| '''[[Contionary: ǧut#Valthungian|ǧut]]''' (''du''), '''[[Contionary: jūs#Valthungian|jūs]]''' (''pl'')
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIa: dija (“n.st.m.dija”)'''
| you
! 074
| '''[[Contionary: ǭga#Valthungian|ǭga]]''' (''n'')
| eye
! 143
| '''[[Contionary: þljutna#Valthungian|þljutna]]'''
| to float
|-
|-
|align="center"|  herd'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijis''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijai''' ||align="center"| herd'''iją''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| herd'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''herder''’
! 006
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ižas#Valthungian|ižas]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: iža#Valthungian|iža]]''' (''n'')
| they
! 075
| '''[[Contionary: nasa#Valthungian|nasa]]''' (''n'')
| nose
! 144
| '''[[Contionary: ǧusna#Valthungian|ǧusna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: þreǧin#Valthungian|þreǧin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: ritnan#Valthungian|ritnan]]'''
| to flow
|-
|-
|align="center"|  haírd'''eis''' ||align="center"| haírd'''eis''' ||align="center"| haírd'''ja''' ||align="center"| haírd'''i''' ||align="center"| haírd'''jōs''' ||align="center"| haírd'''jē''' ||align="center"| haírd'''jam''' ||align="center"| haírd'''jans'''
! 007
| '''[[Contionary: his#Valthungian|his]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: hiža#Valthungian|hiža]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: hī#Valthungian|hī]]''' (''n'')
| this
! 076
| '''[[Contionary: munþs#Valthungian|munþs]]''' (''m'')
| mouth
! 145
| '''[[Contionary: frjusna#Valthungian|frjusna]]'''
| to freeze
|-
|-
|align="center"| herð'''is''' ||align="center"| herð'''is''' ||align="center"| herǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| herð'''e''' ||align="center"| herǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| herǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| herǧ'''im''' ||align="center"| herǧ'''ins'''  
! 008
| '''[[Contionary: sā#Valthungian|sā]]''' (''m''),  '''[[Contionary: sō#Valthungian|sō]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: þat#Valthungian|þat]]''' (''n'')
| that
! 077
| '''[[Contionary: tanþus#Valthungian|tanþus]]''' (''m'')
| tooth
! 146
| '''[[Contionary: ljuðna#Valthungian|ljuðna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: wǣšin#Valthungian|vǣšin]]''',  '''[[Contionary: bligna#Valthungian|bligna]]''',  '''[[Contionary: suitlan#Valthungian|suitlan]]'''
| to swell
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /ð/…</small>
! 009
| '''[[Contionary: hēr#Valthungian|hēr]]'''
| here
! 078
| '''[[Contionary: tunga#Valthungian|tunga]]''' (''f'')
| tongue
! 147
| '''[[Contionary: sōgila#Valthungian|sōgila]]''' (''f'')
| sun
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 010
| '''[[Contionary: þar#Valthungian|þar]]'''
| there
! 079
| '''[[Contionary: nagla#Valthungian|nagla]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: klauga#Valthungian|klauga]]''' (''f'')
| fingernail
! 148
| '''[[Contionary: mēna#Valthungian|mēna]]''' (''m'')
| moon
|-
|-
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIb: gija (“n.st.m.gija”)'''
! 011
| '''[[Contionary: hwas#Valthungian|huas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hwōs#Valthungian|huōs]]''' (''f'')
| who
! 080
| '''[[Contionary: fōts#Valthungian|fōts]]''' (''f'')
| foot
! 149
| '''[[Contionary: strena#Valthungian|strena]]''' (''f'')
| star
|-
|-
|align="center"|  drang'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijis''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijai''' ||align="center"| drang'''iją''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| drang'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''servant''’
! 012
| '''[[Contionary: hwat#Valthungian|huat]]''' (''n'')
| what
! 081
| '''[[Contionary: anke#Valthungian|anke]]''' (''f'')
| leg
! 150
| '''[[Contionary: watra#Valthungian|vatra]]''' (''n'')
| water
|-
|-
|align="center"|  *dragg'''eis''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''eis''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''ja''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''i''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''jōs''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''jē''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''jam''' ||align="center"| *dragg'''jans'''
! 013
| '''[[Contionary: hwar#Valthungian|huar]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: hweri#Valthungian|hueri]]''' (''rel'')
| where
! 082
| '''[[Contionary: knio#Valthungian|knio]]''' (''n'')
| knee
! 151
| '''[[Contionary: rigna#Valthungian|rigna]]''' (''n'')
| rain
|-
|-
|align="center"|  dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>ng'''is''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>ng'''is''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>nǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| drang'''e''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>nǧ'''is''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>nǧ'''a''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>nǧ'''im''' ||align="center"| dr<span style="color:blue">e</span>nǧ'''ins'''  
! 014
| '''[[Contionary: hwan#Valthungian|huan]]''' (''int''), '''[[Contionary: þeni#Valthungian|þeni ]]''' (''rel'')
| when
! 083
| '''[[Contionary: handus#Valthungian|handus]]''' (''f'')
| hand
! 152
| '''[[Contionary: þlōðus#Valthungian|þlōðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: flūma#Valthungian|flūma]]''' (''f'')
| river
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /g/…</small>
! 015
| '''[[Contionary: hwē#Valthungian|huē]]'''
| how
! 084
| '''[[Contionary: þljuðre#Valthungian|þljuðre]]''' (''n'')
| wing
! 153
| '''[[Contionary: lagus#Valthungian|lagus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: mare#Valthungian|mare]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: marisǣjus#Valthungian|marisǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| lake
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 016
|-
| '''[[Contionary: ni#Valthungian|ni]]'''
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIc: tija (“n.st.m.tija”)'''
| not
! 085
| '''[[Contionary: wamba#Valthungian|vamba]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: būks#Valthungian|būks]]''' (''m'')
| belly, abdomen
! 154
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjus#Valthungian|sǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| sea
|-
|-
|align="center"|  fast'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijis''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijai''' ||align="center"| fast'''iją''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| fast'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''restraint''’
! 017
| '''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'''
| all
! 086
| '''[[Contionary: hreðra#Valthungian|hreðra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: instra#Valthungian|instra]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: þrams#Valthungian|þrams]]''' (''m'')
| guts, entrails
! 155
| '''[[Contionary: slat*#Valthungian|slat*]]''' (''n'')
| salt
|-
|-
|align="center"|  fast'''eis''' ||align="center"| fast'''eis''' ||align="center"| fast'''ja''' ||align="center"| fast'''i''' ||align="center"| fast'''jōs''' ||align="center"| fast'''jē''' ||align="center"| fast'''jam''' ||align="center"| fast'''jans'''
! 018
| '''[[Contionary: filus#Valthungian|filus]]'''
| many
! 087
| '''[[Contionary: hlas#Valthungian|hlas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: þnāka#Valthungian|þnāka]]''' (''m'')
| neck
! 156
| '''[[Contionary: stǣns#Valthungian|stǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hadlus#Valthungian|hadlus]]''' (''m'')
| stone
|-
|-
|align="center"|  fest'''is''' ||align="center"| fest'''is''' ||align="center"| fesč'''a''' ||align="center"| fast'''e''' ||align="center"| fesč'''is''' ||align="center"| fesč'''a''' ||align="center"| fesč'''im''' ||align="center"| fesč'''ins'''
! 019
| '''[[Contionary: sums#Valthungian|sums]]'''
| some
! 088
| '''[[Contionary: þryǧis#Valthungian|þryǧis]]''' (''m'')
| back
! 157
| '''[[Contionary: blama#Valthungian|blama]]''' (''m'')
| sand
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /t/…</small>
! 020
| '''[[Contionary: fǭs#Valthungian|fǭs]]'''
| few
! 089
| '''[[Contionary: bōsmas#Valthungian|bōsmas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tīča#Valthungian|tīča]]''' (''f'')
| breast
! 158
| '''[[Contionary: pulus#Valthungian|pulus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stybis#Valthungian|stybis]]''' (''m'')
| dust
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 021
|-
| '''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'''
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIId: kija (“n.st.m.kija”)'''
| other
! 090
| '''[[Contionary: hreta#Valthungian|hreta]]''' (''n'')
| heart
! 159
| '''[[Contionary: reða#Valthungian|reða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: bluða#Valthungian|bluða]]''' (''f''),  '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lia#Valthungian|sœ̄lia]]''' (''f'')
| earth, soil, dirt
|-
|-
|align="center"|  lǣk'''jaz''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''jis''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''jai''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''ją''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''jōz''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''jǫ̂''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''jamaz''' ||align="center"| lǣk'''janz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''medicine''’
! 022
| '''[[Contionary: ǣns#Valthungian|ǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ǣna#Valthungian|ǣna]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣn#Valthungian|ǣn]]''' (''n'')
| one
! 091
| '''[[Contionary: ǧikur#Valthungian|ǧikur]]''' (''n'')
| liver
! 160
| '''[[Contionary: blīma#Valthungian|blīma]]''' (''m'')
| cloud
|-
|-
|align="center"|  lēk'''eis''' ||align="center"| lēk'''eis''' ||align="center"| lēk'''ja''' ||align="center"| lēk'''i''' ||align="center"| lēk'''jōs''' ||align="center"| lēk'''jē''' ||align="center"| lēk'''jam''' ||align="center"| lēk'''jans'''
! 023
| '''[[Contionary: twǣ#Valthungian|tuǣ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: twōs#Valthungian|tuōs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: twā#Valthungian|tuā]]''' (''n'')
| two
! 092
| '''[[Contionary: drinkna#Valthungian|drinkna]]'''
| to drink
! 161
| '''[[Contionary: nivula#Valthungian|nivula]]''' (''f'')
| fog, mist
|-
|-
|align="center"|  lēk'''is''' ||align="center"| lēk'''is''' ||align="center"| lēč'''a''' ||align="center"| lēk'''e''' ||align="center"| lēč'''is''' ||align="center"| lēč'''a''' ||align="center"| lēč'''im''' ||align="center"| lēč'''ins'''
! 024
| '''[[Contionary: þrīs#Valthungian|þrīs]]''' (''m, f''), '''[[Contionary: þriža#Valthungian|þriža]]''' (''n'')
| three
! 093
| '''[[Contionary: itna#Valthungian|itna]]'''
| to eat
! 162
| '''[[Contionary: himins#Valthungian|himins]]''' (''m'')
| sky
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /k/…</small>
! 025
| '''[[Contionary: fiður#Valthungian|fiður]]'''
| four
! 094
| '''[[Contionary: bītna#Valthungian|bītna]]'''
| to bite
! 163
| '''[[Contionary: winǧ#Valthungian|vinǧ]]''' (''m'')
| wind
|-
|-
!width=100| Nom.Sg. !!width=100| Gen.Sg. !!width=100| Dat.Sg. !!width=100| Acc.Sg. !!width=100| Nom.Pl. !!width=100| Gen.Pl. !!width=100| Dat.Pl. !!width=100| Acc.Pl. !!width=100| &nbsp;
! 026
|-
| '''[[Contionary: fim#Valthungian|fim]]'''
|colspan=9 width=900|'''Type IIIe: sija (“n.st.m.sija”)'''
| five
! 095
| '''[[Contionary: sūgna#Valthungian|sūgna]]'''
| to suck
! 164
| '''[[Contionary: snǣjus#Valthungian|snǣjus]]''' (''m'')
| snow
|-
|-
|align="center"|  bǣrus'''ijaz''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijis''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijai''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''iją''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijōz''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijǫ̂''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijamaz''' ||align="center"| bǣrus'''ijanz''' ||rowspan=4 valign="top"| ‘''parent''’
! 027
| '''[[Contionary: grǭts#Valthungian|grǭts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lǭþs#Valthungian|lǭþs]]'''
| big, large
! 096
| '''[[Contionary: spījugna#Valthungian|spījugna]]'''
| to spit
! 165
| '''[[Contionary: īs#Valthungian|īs]]''' (''n'')
| ice
|-
|-
|align="center"|  bērus'''eis''' ||align="center"| bērus'''eis''' ||align="center"| bērus'''ja''' ||align="center"| bērus'''i''' ||align="center"| bērus'''jōs''' ||align="center"| bērus'''jē''' ||align="center"| bērus'''jam''' ||align="center"| bērus'''jans'''
! 028
| '''[[Contionary: lengis#Valthungian|lengis]]'''
| long
! 097
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukurépna#Valthungian|ǧukurépna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kesčin#Valthungian|kesčin]]'''
| to vomit
! 166
| '''[[Contionary: rǭks#Valthungian|rǭks]]''' (''m'')
| smoke
|-
|-
|align="center"|  bērus'''is''' ||align="center"| bērus'''is''' ||align="center"| bēruš'''a''' ||align="center"| bērus'''e''' ||align="center"| bēruš'''is''' ||align="center"| bēruš'''a''' ||align="center"| bēruš'''im''' ||align="center"| bēruš'''ins'''
! 029
| '''[[Contionary: brǣþs#Valthungian|brǣþs]]'''
| wide, broad
! 098
| '''[[Contionary: wǣžin#Valthungian|vǣžin]]'''
| to blow
! 167
| '''[[Contionary: fōr#Valthungian|fōr]]''' (''n'')
| fire
|-
|-
|colspan=8| <small>Accusative changes to /s/…</small>
! 030
|-
| '''[[Contionary: þikus#Valthungian|þikus]]'''
|}
| thick
 
! 099
==Verbs==
| '''[[Contionary: anan#Valthungian|anan]]'''
 
| to breathe
''I haven't got quite as far as describing the verbs on this page yet, but everyone likes a good conjugation of their favorite irregular verbs, right? So here you go:''
! 168
 
| '''[[Contionary: aska#Valthungian|aska]]''' (''f'')
''wisna'' ‘to be’
| ash, ashes
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !!  !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative
|-
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"|  || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' ||
|-
|| ''wisna'' ||align="right"| ''ik'' || ''was'' || ''wēša'' || ''im'' || ''sīja'' ||
|-
|| '''Present Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''wast'' || ''wēsis'' || ''is'' || ''sījas'' || ''sī, ī''
|-
|| ''wisnaǧ'' ||align="right"| ''sist'' || ''was'' || ''wēse'' || ''ist'' || ''sīja'' || ''imda''
|-
|| '''Past Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''wīs'' || ''wēsum'' || ''wēsim'' || ''sīm, sījum'' || ''sījam'' || ''sīm''
|-
|-
|| ''wisnas'' ||align="right"| ''jūs'' || ''wēsuþ'' || ''wēsiþ'' || ''sīþ, sījuþ'' || ''sījaþ'' || ''sīþ''
! 031
| '''[[Contionary: korus#Valthungian|korus]]'''
| heavy
! 100
| '''[[Contionary: þlǣšin#Valthungian|þlǣšin]]'''
| to laugh
! 169
| '''[[Contionary: britnan#Valthungian|britnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: bretnin#Valthungian|bretnin]]'''
| burn
|-
|-
|| ||align="right"| ''īs'' || ''wēsun'' || ''wēsin'' || ''sinþ'' || ''sījan'' || ''sinda''
! 032
| '''[[Contionary: līts#Valthungian|līts]]''', '''[[Contionary: lītils#Valthungian|lītils]]'''
| small, little
! 101
| '''[[Contionary: sǣjun#Valthungian|sǣjun]]''', '''[[Contionary: wlītna#Valthungian|vlītna]]'''
| to see
! 170
| '''[[Contionary: stǣga#Valthungian|stǣga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: gatua#Valthungian|gatua]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: pleča#Valthungian|pleča]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: wiǧ#Valthungian|viǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: 413#Valthungian|413]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: fordore#Valthungian|fordore]]''' (''n'')
| path, road, trail
|-
|-
|}
! 033
 
| '''[[Contionary: skrots#Valthungian|skrots]]'''
''gēn, gangna'' ‘to be’
| short
 
! 102
{| class="wikitable"
| '''[[Contionary: hœ̄šin#Valthungian|hœ̄šin]]''', '''[[Contionary: anhœ̄šin#Valthungian|anhœ̄šin]]'''
| to hear
! 171
| '''[[Contionary: breǧ#Valthungian|breǧ]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fregune#Valthungian|fregune]]''' (''n'')
| mountain
|-
|-
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative
! 034
| '''[[Contionary: angus#Valthungian|angus]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣns#Valthungian|þrǣns]]'''
| narrow
! 103
| '''[[Contionary: witna#Valthungian|vitna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kutnan#Valthungian|kutnan]]'''
| to know
! 172
| '''[[Contionary: rōþs#Valthungian|rōþs]]'''
| red
|-
|-
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"|  || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' ||
! 035
| '''[[Contionary: þutnus#Valthungian|þutnus]]'''
| thin
! 104
| '''[[Contionary: hyǧin#Valthungian|hyǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: þenčin#Valthungian|þenčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: mitan#Valthungian|mitan]]''', '''[[Contionary: munan#Valthungian|munan]]'''
| to think
! 173
| '''[[Contionary: grœunis#Valthungian|grœunis]]'''
| green
|-
|-
|| ''gēn, gangna'' ||align="right"| ''ik'' || ''ēǧa'' || ''ēǧa'' || ''gēm, ganga'' || ''ganga'' ||
! 036
| '''[[Contionary: kwina#Valthungian|kuina]]''' (''f'')
| woman
! 105
| '''[[Contionary: dœ̄nin#Valthungian|dœ̄nin]]''' (''trs''), '''[[Contionary: stinkun#Valthungian|stinkun]]''' (''intr'')
| to smell
! 174
| '''[[Contionary: gilus#Valthungian|gilus]]'''
| yellow
|-
|-
|| '''Present Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''ēǧis'' || ''ēǧis'' || ''gēs, gangis'' || ''gangas'' || ''gē, gang''
! 037
| '''[[Contionary: wer#Valthungian|ver]]''' (''m'')
| man
! 106
| '''[[Contionary: frœ̄čin#Valthungian|frœ̄čin]]''', '''[[Contionary: ōgna#Valthungian|ōgna]]'''
| to fear
! 175
| '''[[Contionary: hwīts#Valthungian|huīts]]'''
| white
|-
|-
|| ''gangnaǧ'' ||align="right"| ''sist'' || ''ēǧa'' || ''ēǧa'' || ''gēþ, gangiþ'' || ''ganga'' || ''gangaða''
! 038
| '''[[Contionary: guma#Valthungian|guma]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: matna#Valthungian|matna]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: ljuþs#Valthungian|ljuþs]]''' (''f'')
| person
! 107
| '''[[Contionary: kuižin#Valthungian|kuižin]]''', '''[[Contionary: livna#Valthungian|livna]]'''
| to sleep
! 176
| '''[[Contionary: strauks#Valthungian|strauks]]'''
| black
|-
|-
|| '''Past Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''wīs'' || ''ēǧim'' || ''ēǧim'' || ''gēm, gangma'' || ''gangam'' || ''gēm, gangma''  
! 039
| '''[[Contionary: bran#Valthungian|bran]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: kliþ#Valthungian|kliþ]]''' (''n'')
| child
! 108
| '''[[Contionary: slēpna#Valthungian|slēpna]]'''
| to live
! 177
| '''[[Contionary: nāts#Valthungian|nāts]]''' (''f'')
| night
|-
|-
|| ''gēns'' ||align="right"| ''jūs'' || ''ēǧiþ'' || ''ēǧiþ'' || ''gēþ, gangiþ'' || ''gangaþ'' || ''gēþ, gangiþ''  
! 040
| '''[[Contionary: kwēns#Valthungian|kuēns]]''' (''f'')
| wife
! 109
| '''[[Contionary: ǧugna#Valthungian|ǧugna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dǭðnan#Valthungian|dǭðnan]]''', '''[[Contionary: sljutna#Valthungian|sljutna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strevna#Valthungian|strevna]]'''
| to die
! 178
| '''[[Contionary: daǧ#Valthungian|daǧ]]''' (''m'')
| day
|-
|-
|| ||align="right"| ''īs'' || ''ēǧin'' || ''ēǧin'' || ''gēnþ, gangnaþ'' || ''gangan'' || ''gangnaða''
! 041
| '''[[Contionary: ava#Valthungian|ava]]''' (''m'')
| husband
! 110
| '''[[Contionary: avdœ̄þin#Valthungian|(av)]][[Contionary: dœ̄þin#Valthungian|dœ̄þin]]''', '''[[Contionary: afslagun#Valthungian|afslagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: uskwímna#Valthungian|uskuímna]]'''
| to kill
! 179
| '''[[Contionary: jēr#Valthungian|jēr]]''' (''n'')
| year
|-
|-
|}
! 042
 
| '''[[Contionary: mōðra#Valthungian|mōðra]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: ǣði#Valthungian|ǣði]]''' (''f'')
''dōn'' ‘to do’
| mother
 
! 111
{| class="wikitable"
| '''[[Contionary: ǧukna#Valthungian|ǧukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: anþawīstna#Valthungian|(anþa)]][[Contionary: vīstna#Valthungian|vīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: fǣtna#Valthungian|fǣtna]]'''
| to fight
! 180
| '''[[Contionary: wrams#Valthungian|vrams]]''', '''[[Contionary: hīts#Valthungian|hīts]]'''
| hot (''weather'')
|-
|-
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative
! 043
| '''[[Contionary: faðra#Valthungian|faðra]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: āta#Valthungian|āta]]''' (''m'')
| father
! 112
| '''[[Contionary: jagan#Valthungian|jagan]]''', '''[[Contionary: frelǣsčin#Valthungian|frelǣsčin]]''', '''[[Contionary: vǣþin#Valthungian|vǣþin]]'''
| to hunt
! 181
| '''[[Contionary: klaþs#Valthungian|klaþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: kōls#Valthungian|kōls]]'''
| cold (''weather'')
|-
|-
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"|  || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' ||
! 044
| '''[[Contionary: ǧus#Valthungian|ǧus]]''' (''n'')
| animal
! 113
| '''[[Contionary: slagun#Valthungian|slagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǭtna#Valthungian|stǭtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þningun#Valthungian|þningun]]'''
| to hit
! 182
| '''[[Contionary: fuls#Valthungian|fuls]]'''
| full
|-
|-
|| ''dōn'' ||align="right"| ''ik'' || ''dedéða'' || ''dedēða'' || ''dōm'' || ''dōwa'' ||
! 045
| '''[[Contionary: fišk#Valthungian|fišk]]''' (''m'')
| fish
! 114
| '''[[Contionary: mǣtna#Valthungian|mǣtna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skǣðna#Valthungian|skǣðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: skrežin#Valthungian|skrežin]]''', '''[[Contionary: snīðna#Valthungian|snīðna]]'''
| to cut
! 183
| '''[[Contionary: njužis#Valthungian|njužis]]'''
| new
|-
|-
|| '''Present Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''dedéðis'' || ''dedēðis'' || ''dōs'' || ''dōwas'' || ''dō''
! 046
| '''[[Contionary: fuglas#Valthungian|fuglas]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: fǭls#Valthungian|fǭls]]''' (''m'')
| bird
! 115
| '''[[Contionary: slīvna#Valthungian|slīvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kljuvna#Valthungian|kljuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: splītna#Valthungian|splītna]]'''
| to split
! 184
| '''[[Contionary: grīsis#Valthungian|grīsis]]''', '''[[Contionary: leðis#Valthungian|leðis]]''', '''[[Contionary: frenis#Valthungian|frenis]]'''
| old
|-
|-
|| ''dōnǧ'' ||align="right"| ''sist'' || ''dedéða'' || ''dedēðe'' || ''dōþ'' || ''dōwa'' || ''dōða''
! 047
| '''[[Contionary: hunǧ#Valthungian|hunǧ]]''' (''m'')
| dog
! 116
| '''[[Contionary: þrǣšin#Valthungian|þrǣšin]]''', '''[[Contionary: stynǧin#Valthungian|stynǧin]]'''
| to stab, to pierce
! 185
| '''[[Contionary: gōþs#Valthungian|gōþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: tils#Valthungian|tils]]''', '''[[Contionary: sēls#Valthungian|sēls]]''', '''[[Contionary: fagra#Valthungian|fagra]]'''
| good
|-
|-
|| '''Past Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''wīs'' || ''dedēðum'' || ''dedēðim'' || ''dōm'' || ''dōwam'' || ''dōm''  
! 048
| '''[[Contionary: lūs#Valthungian|lūs]]''' (''f'')
| louse
! 117
| '''[[Contionary: krātan#Valthungian|krātan]]'''
| to scratch
! 186
| '''[[Contionary: uvils#Valthungian|uvils]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| bad
|-
|-
|| ''dēns'' ||align="right"| ''jūs'' || ''dedēðuþ'' || ''dedēðiþ'' || ''dōþ'' || ''dōwaþ'' || ''dōþ''  
! 049
| '''[[Contionary: wroms#Valthungian|vroms]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: naðra#Valthungian|naðra]]''' (''m'')
| snake
! 118
| '''[[Contionary: gravna#Valthungian|gravna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dlivna#Valthungian|dlivna]]'''
| to dig
! 187
| '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]''', '''[[Contionary: wams#Valthungian|vams]]'''
| rotten
|-
|-
|| ||align="right"| ''īs'' || ''dedēðun'' || ''dedēðin'' || ''dōnþ'' || ''dōwan'' || ''dōnaða''
! 050
| '''[[Contionary: maða#Valthungian|maða]]''' (''m'')
| worm
! 119
| '''[[Contionary: suitman#Valthungian|suitman]]'''
| to swim
! 188
| '''[[Contionary: unþrǣns#Valthungian|unþrǣns]]''', '''[[Contionary: sœ̄lins#Valthungian|sœ̄lins]]''', '''[[Contionary: sǭliþs#Valthungian|sǭliþs]]''', '''[[Contionary: fūls#Valthungian|fūls]]'''
| dirty
|-
|-
|}
! 051
 
| '''[[Contionary: bagmas#Valthungian|bagmas]]''' (''m'')
''stēn, standna'' ‘to stand, to stay’
| tree
 
! 120
{| class="wikitable"
| '''[[Contionary: þljugna#Valthungian|þljugna]]'''
| to fly
! 189
| '''[[Contionary: drǣts#Valthungian|drǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: rǣts#Valthungian|rǣts]]'''
| straight
|-
|-
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative
! 052
| '''[[Contionary: wlaðus#Valthungian|vlaðus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: braus#Valthungian|braus]]''' (''m'')
| forest, woods
! 121
| '''[[Contionary: gangna#Valthungian|gangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gǣn#Valthungian|gǣn]]''', '''[[Contionary: traþningun#Valthungian|traþningun]]'''
| to walk
! 190
| '''[[Contionary: hlaufs#Valthungian|hlaufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: hljufs#Valthungian|hljufs]]''', '''[[Contionary: krītus#Valthungian|krītus]]'''
| round
|-
|-
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"|  || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' ||
! 053
| '''[[Contionary: þrunga#Valthungian|þrunga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: staka#Valthungian|staka]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: stanga#Valthungian|stanga]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: stika#Valthungian|stika]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: tǣns#Valthungian|tǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: walus#Valthungian|valus]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: wandus#Valthungian|vandus]]''' (''m'')
| stick
! 122
| '''[[Contionary: ankwímna#Valthungian|(an)]][[Contionary: kwimna#Valthungian|kuímna]]'''
| come
! 191
| '''[[Contionary: huās#Valthungian|huās]]'''
| sharp
|-
|-
|| ''stēn, standna'' ||align="right"| ''ik'' || ''stōþ'' || ''stœ̄þia'' || ''stēm, standa'' || ''standa'' ||
! 054
| '''[[Contionary: akran#Valthungian|akran]]''' (''n'')
| fruit
! 123
| '''[[Contionary: ligna#Valthungian|ligna]]'''
| to lie (''down'')
! 192
| '''[[Contionary: slējus#Valthungian|slējus]]'''
| dull
|-
|-
|| '''Present Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''stōst'' || ''stœ̄ðis'' || ''stēs, standis'' || ''standas'' || ''stē, stand''
! 055
| '''[[Contionary: frǣjo#Valthungian|frǣjo]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: sēþs#Valthungian|sēþs]]''' (''f'')
| seed
! 124
| '''[[Contionary: sičin#Valthungian|sičin]]''', '''[[Contionary: sitna#Valthungian|sitna]]'''
| to sit
! 193
| '''[[Contionary: slǣts#Valthungian|slǣts]]'''
| smooth
|-
|-
|| ''standnaǧ'' ||align="right"| ''sist'' || ''stōþ'' || ''stœ̄ðe'' || ''stēþ, standiþ'' || ''standa'' || ''standaða''
! 056
| '''[[Contionary: blaþ#Valthungian|blaþ]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: lǭfs#Valthungian|lǭfs]]''' (''m'')
| leaf
! 125
| '''[[Contionary: standna#Valthungian|standna]]''', '''[[Contionary: stǣn#Valthungian|stǣn]]'''
| to stand
! 194
| '''[[Contionary: nats#Valthungian|nats]]'''
| wet
|-
|-
|| '''Past Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''wīs'' || ''stōðum'' || ''stœ̄ðim'' || ''stēm, standma'' || ''standam'' || ''stēm, standma''  
! 057
| '''[[Contionary: vrōts#Valthungian|vrōts]]''' (''f'')
| root
! 126
| '''[[Contionary: wenǧin#Valthungian|venǧin]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīðna#Valthungian|vrīðna]]''', '''[[Contionary: hreuvna#Valthungian|hreuvna]]'''
| to turn
! 195
| '''[[Contionary: þrosus#Valthungian|þrosus]]'''
| dry
|-
|-
|| ''standnas'' ||align="right"| ''jūs'' || ''stōðuþ'' || ''stœ̄ðiþ'' || ''stēþ, standiþ'' || ''standaþ'' || ''stēþ, standiþ''
! 058
| '''[[Contionary: brakus#Valthungian|brakus]]''' (''m'')
| bark (''of tree'')
! 127
| '''[[Contionary: drjusna#Valthungian|drjusna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dūkna#Valthungian|dūkna]]''', '''[[Contionary: kringna#Valthungian|kringna]]'''
| to fall
! 196
| '''[[Contionary: garǣts#Valthungian|garǣts]]''', '''[[Contionary: undrǣžis#Valthungian|undrǣžis]]''', '''[[Contionary: wēris#Valthungian|vēris]]'''
| correct, right
|-
|-
|| ||align="right"| ''īs'' || ''stōðun'' || ''stœ̄ðin'' || ''stēnþ, standnaþ'' || ''standan'' || ''standnaða''
! 059
| '''[[Contionary: blōma#Valthungian|blōma]]''' (''m'')
| flower
! 128
| '''[[Contionary: givna#Valthungian|givna]]'''
| to give
! 197
| '''[[Contionary: nēfus#Valthungian|nēfus]]'''
| near
|-
|-
|}
! 060
 
| '''[[Contionary: hauge#Valthungian|hauge]]''' (''n'')
''wilin'' ‘to want’
| grass
 
! 129
{| class="wikitable"
| '''[[Contionary: hlaðna#Valthungian|hlaðna]]'''
| to hold
! 198
| '''[[Contionary: vīþs#Valthungian|vīþs]]'''
| far
|-
|-
! !! !!colspan=2| Preterit !!colspan=2| Present !! Imperative
! 061
| '''[[Contionary: rǣp#Valthungian|rǣp]]''' (''n''), '''[[Contionary: wiða#Valthungian|viða]]''' (''f'')
| rope
! 130
| '''[[Contionary: þrīstna#Valthungian|þrīstna]]''', '''[[Contionary: gaprángna#Valthungian|gaprángna]]'''
| to squeeze
! 199
| '''[[Contionary: tǣsus#Valthungian|tǣsus]]'''
| right (''hand'')
|-
|-
|| '''Infinitive:''' ||align="right"|  || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' || '''Indicative''' || '''Subjunctive''' ||
! 062
| '''[[Contionary: hūþs#Valthungian|hūþs]]''' (''f''), '''[[Contionary: fil#Valthungian|fil]]''' (''n'')
| skin
! 131
| '''[[Contionary: bingun#Valthungian|bingun]]''', '''[[Contionary: strjukna#Valthungian|strjukna]]''', '''[[Contionary: strǣkan#Valthungian|strǣkan]]'''
| to rub
! 200
| '''[[Contionary: þlīðums#Valthungian|þlīðums]]'''
| left (''hand'')
|-
|-
|| ''wilin'' ||align="right"| ''ik'' || ''wilða'' || ''wilǧa'' || ''wilia'' || ''wilia'' ||
! 063
| '''[[Contionary: mims#Valthungian|mims]]''' (''m'')
| flesh, meat
! 132
| '''[[Contionary: þwagun#Valthungian|þuagun]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrǣnin#Valthungian|þrǣnin]]'''
| to wash
! 201
| '''[[Contionary: at#Valthungian|at]]''', '''[[Contionary: tō#Valthungian|tō]]''', (''dative'')
| at
|-
|-
|| '''Present Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''þū'' || ''wilðas'' || ''wilðis'' || ''wilis'' || ''wilis'' || ''wili''
! 064
| '''[[Contionary: blōþ#Valthungian|blōþ]]''' (''n'')
| blood
! 133
| '''[[Contionary: bistreuvna#Valthungian|(bi)]][[Contionary: streuvna#Valthungian|streuvna]]''', '''[[Contionary: wrīvna#Valthungian|vrīvna]]'''
| to wipe
! 202
| '''[[Contionary: in#Valthungian|in]]'''
| in
|-
|-
|| ''wilinǧ'' ||align="right"| ''sist'' || ''wilða'' || ''wilðe'' || ''wilia'' || ''wilia'' || ''wiliða''
! 065
| '''[[Contionary: bǣn#Valthungian|bǣn]]''' (''n'')
| bone
! 134
| '''[[Contionary: þinsna#Valthungian|þinsna]]''', '''[[Contionary: dragna#Valthungian|dragna]]''', '''[[Contionary: čugun#Valthungian|čugun]]'''
| to pull
! 203
| '''[[Contionary: miþ#Valthungian|miþ]]'''
| with
|-
|-
|| '''Past Participle:''' ||align="right"| ''wīs'' || ''wilðum'' || ''wilðim'' || ''wilim'' || ''wilim'' || ''wilim''  
! 066
| '''[[Contionary: simbréðra#Valthungian|simbréðra]]''' (''n'')
| fat
! 135
| '''[[Contionary: þnītna#Valthungian|þnītna]]''', '''[[Contionary: þrindna#Valthungian|þrindna]]''', '''[[Contionary: prangna#Valthungian|prangna]]''', '''[[Contionary: šuvna#Valthungian|šuvna]]'''
| to push
! 204
| '''[[Contionary: jā#Valthungian|jā]]''', '''[[Contionary: ǭk#Valthungian|ǭk]]''', '''[[Contionary: -u#Valthungian|-u]]'''
| and
|-
|-
|| ''wiliþs'' ||align="right"| ''jūs'' || ''wilðuþ'' || ''wilðiþ'' || ''wiliþ'' || ''wiliþ'' || ''wiliþ''  
! 067
| '''[[Contionary: āde#Valthungian|āde]]''' (''n'')
| egg
! 136
| '''[[Contionary: wrepna#Valthungian|vrepna]]''', '''[[Contionary: smītna#Valthungian|smītna]]'''
| to throw
! 205
| '''[[Contionary: java#Valthungian|java]]''', '''[[Contionary: iva#Valthungian|iva]]'''
| if
|-
|-
|| ||align="right"| ''īs'' || ''wilðun'' || ''wilðin'' || ''wilin'' || ''wilin'' || ''wilinaða''
! 068
| '''[[Contionary: hron#Valthungian|hron]]''' (''n'')
| horn
! 137
| '''[[Contionary: bindna#Valthungian|bindna]]'''
| to tie, bind
! 206
| '''[[Contionary: inþis#Valthungian|inþis]]''', '''[[Contionary: unta#Valthungian|unta]]''', '''[[Contionary: nū#Valthungian|nū]]''', '''[[Contionary: þī#Valthungian|þī]]''', '''[[Contionary: inþížas ī wǣtis#Valthungian|inþížas ī vǣtis]]'''
| because
|-
|-
! 069
| '''[[Contionary: tagla#Valthungian|tagla]]''' (''n'')
| tail
! 138
| '''[[Contionary: šužin#Valthungian|šužin]]'''
| to sew
! 207
| '''[[Contionary: nama#Valthungian|nama]]''' (''n'')
| name
|}
|}
==Adjectives==
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/67060...329310"