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<li>''[[Middle Valthungian]]''</li>
<li>''[[Middle Valthungian]]''</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<li>[[Gothic Romance]]
<li>[[Gothic Romance]]</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</small>
</small>
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# For some speakers, word-final 〈þs〉 may be realised as [t̪s].
# For some speakers, word-final 〈þs〉 may be realised as [t̪s].
# For some speakers, medial 〈tl〉 (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ].
# For some speakers, medial 〈tl〉 (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ].
# Inexplicably, the letter ''vynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, but more frequently it is rendered as ⟨v⟩ when initial and ⟨u⟩ when non-initial. Since ⟨v⟩ representing /v/ does not occur word-initially, this is not an issue, but when prefixes get involved, it can sometimes be ambiguous. E.g. vœrčin ‘to render’ → gavœrčin ‘''idem''’.  
# Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, but frequently it is rendered as ⟨v⟩ when initial and ⟨u⟩ when non-initial. Since ⟨v⟩ representing /v/ does not occur word-initially, this is not an issue, but when prefixes get involved, it can sometimes be ambiguous. E.g. vœrčin ‘to render’ → gavœrčin ‘''idem''’.  


Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent only if:
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#: (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i-umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)
#: (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i-umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)


For example, ''ferg'''ú'''ne'' ‘mountain’, ''župst'''é'''nǧin'' 'to set upright'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gav'''œ'''rčin'' ‘to handle’.
For example, ''ferg'''ú'''ne'' ‘mountain’, ''ǧupst'''é'''nǧin'' 'to set upright'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gav'''œ'''rčin'' ‘to handle’.


====Ligatures & Liaisons====
====Ligatures & Liaisons====
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There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.
There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation.
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic.  This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:  
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic.  This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.:  
** ''župspríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''žùpspringna'' or ''žùpspríngna''
** ''ǧupspríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''ǧùpspringna'' or ''ǧùpspríngna''
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis''
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis''
** ''miþlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìþlǣði'' or ''mìþlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìþlǽði'')
** ''miþlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìþlǣði'' or ''mìþlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìþlǽði'')
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|-
|-
!'''Approximant'''
!'''Approximant'''
|''' · v/u'''<br />[w]
|''' · w/u'''<br />[w]
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪]
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ]
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Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉 and 〈-s〉 do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)
Later, beginning around the time of Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉 and 〈-s〉 do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)


===Affix Anaptyxix===
===Affix Anaptyxis===


When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters.  Some of the most frequent are:
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters.  Some of the most frequent are:
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|-
|-
!1du  
!1du  
| vit || unkar || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
| wit || unkar || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
!2du  
!2du  
| žut || inkur || inkus || ink ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
| ǧut || inkur || inkus || ink ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you''
|-
|-
!1pl  
!1pl  
| vīs || unsar || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
| wīs || unsar || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us''
|-
|-
!2pl  
!2pl  
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|-
|-
!1du
!1du
| vithuáðru || unkuáðrižu || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranaþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us''
| withuáðru || unkuáðrižu || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranaþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us''
|-
|-
!2du  
!2du  
| žuthuaðru || inkuaðrižu || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranaþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you''
| ǧuthuaðru || inkuaðrižu || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranaþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you''
|-
|-
!1pl
!1pl
| vīshuerižu || unshuerižu || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinaþ ||align="left"| ''each of us''
| wīshuerižu || unshuerižu || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinaþ ||align="left"| ''each of us''
|-
|-
!2pl
!2pl
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The number '19' is also sometimes called ''iþ'' by the same formulation.
The number '19' is also sometimes called ''iþ'' by the same formulation.


Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (''fiðrahunda þrižatǣn'' or ''fiður-þrižatǣn''), written ''vig'' (the accusative singular of ''viǧ'' ('road').
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, a 'road' or 'highway' is sometimes referred to as a '413' (''fiðrahunda þrižatǣn'' or ''fiður-þrižatǣn''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' ('road').


A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number '843' to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''.
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====wja-Stems====
====wja-Stems====
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wja|nǭ|naug|neug|corpse}}
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wja|nǭ|naug|neug|corpse}}
 
<!--
===ō-Stems (Feminine)===
===ō-Stems (Feminine)===


Line 1,094: Line 1,094:


====wjōn-Stem====
====wjōn-Stem====
 
-->
==Verbs==
==Verbs==
===Strong Verbs===
===Strong Verbs===
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{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3nd|bi|ba|ba|bu|by}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3nd|bi|ba|ba|bu|by}}


In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3rg|be|ba|ba|bo|bœ}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kui|kua|kuē|kū}}
 
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4r|b}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kui|kua|kuē|kui}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)====
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6g|dra|drō|drœu|dra}}
 
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by 〈e〉, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
Verbs beginning with 〈s〉 followed by a stop (i.e. 〈sp〉, 〈st〉, or 〈sk〉), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
<!--<small>Verbs with 〈ē〉 as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to 〈ō〉 in the past (and subsequently umlaut to 〈œ̄〉 in the past subjunctive).</small>-->
 
===Weak Verbs===
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (-janą)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (-ijaną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class II (-ōną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class III (-āną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}
 
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (-naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (-ną)====
 
===Preterit-Present Verbs===
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}}
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}}
 
Finally, '''wilin''' is not actually a preterit-present verb, but a subjunctive-present verb. However, it seems to fit best here amongst its other quasi-anomalous quasi-auxiliary brethren.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.wilin|}}
 
===Anomalous Verbs===
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/-reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ-'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj-'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
 
The present indicative tense of ''stǣn/standna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. Though it acts like a Class VI verb in how it ablauts in the past, there is also a parallel form with reduplication, indicating Class VII.
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}
 
''Visna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''vis-'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i-'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i-'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).
 
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
 
===Compound Tenses===
====Forming the Perfect====
 
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga-'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.
 
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
 
Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|visna]]'' and the past participle. (The participle is an adjective, and must be declined to agree with the subject.)
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''vorðna'''.''
**‘She has become a doctor.’
*''Is '''vas''' hǣma '''gangnas'''.''
**‘He had gone home.’
 
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga-'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
**‘She had given it to him.’
*''Ik þik '''sǣja gā'''.''
**‘I have seen you.’
 
====Forming the Future====
 
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages).
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þō hord '''lūkna'''.''
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’
*''Ik nī '''gangiða''' nījo þō livran af hǣða hun '''ligna'''.''
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’
 
====Forming the Passive====
 
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English).
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp;
! Patient:<br />Deliberate
! Patient:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|-
! Agent:<br />Deliberate
|| ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’
|| ''gitna'' ‘to get’<br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’
|-
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br />&nbsp;
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skeǧin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''verðan'' ‘to become’
|}
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forðat vork '''fergilðiþs'''.''
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis borðaþjugis '''ganōguða'''.
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’
 
'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action.
*''Ik '''gat''' þis veris '''slaguns'''.''
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’
*''Sā vagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþs'''.''
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’
 
'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose.
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižas fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþs'''.''
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiža intǣkninis) toðíža miðéndina '''tuguns'''.''
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’
 
'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’.
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþs'''.''
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’
*''Þǣ lǭvas '''skagiðun''' þižas rynins '''afbórna'''.''
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’
 
====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future====
 
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’.
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.''
**‘I had '''just''' eaten.’
*''Is '''straks''' gangiþ hǣma.''
**‘He is '''about to''' go home.’
 
''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.''
 
====Forming the Progressive====
 
The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense.
 
The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb ''sitna'' ‘to sit’ and the preposition ''bī'' ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter ''sitna bī'' followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as ''Ik sita bī vrǣtina'' rather than the expected ''Ik sita bī vrǣčin''.
*''Ū '''sitistu''' njužis '''bī drinkna''' gā?''
**‘Have you '''been drinking''' again?’
*''Ik '''sita bī skrīvna''' þō bisāt mīna. Ranive '''sitik bī drinkna''' gā.''
**‘'''I’m writing''' my dissertation. Of course I’ve '''been drinking'''.’
 
==Adjectives==
In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a determiner (article, possessive<ref>Only when a possessive is used without an article; otherwise the possessive itself is also declined as weak.</ref>, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong.
 
<span style="background-color:#FFFFCC;">Predicative adjectives</span> do not decline; they take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify.
 
For example:
*''Sā wer duala ist dual.'' ‘The stupid man is stupid.’
*''Sō kuina duala ist dual.'' ‘The stupid woman is stupid.’
*''Þat kliþ duala ist dual.'' ‘The stupid child is stupid.’
*''Þǣ avnas dualnas sinþ dual.'' ‘The stupid husbands are stupid.’
*''Þōs kwēnis dualans sinþ dual.'' ‘The stupid wives are stupid.’
*''Þō brana dualan sinþ dual.'' ‘The stupid children are stupid.’
 
But strong declension for 3rd person possessives<ref>With the exception of ''sīns'', which declines normally like ''mīns'' and ''þīns'' and takes a weak adjective.</ref>, since they don’t decline!
*''Ižas brōðra duals ist dual.'' ‘Her stupid brother is stupid.’
*''Is dǭtra duala ist dual.'' ‘His stupid daughter is stupid.’
*''Iža bran dualat ist dual.'' ‘Their stupid child is stupid.’
*''Iža synis duala sinþ dual.'' ‘Their stupid sons are stupid.’
*''Is swistris dualas sinþ dual.'' ‘His stupid sisters are stupid.’
*''Ižas kliða duala sinþ dual.'' ‘Her stupid children are stupid.’
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