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Valthungian: Difference between revisions
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[[Category: Languages]] | [[Category:Languages]] | ||
[[Category: Conlangs]] | [[Category:Conlangs]] | ||
[[Category: Artlangs]] | [[Category:Artlangs]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:A_posteriori]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Indo-European_languages]] | ||
[[Category:Germanic_languages]] | |||
[[Category:East_Germanic_languages]] | |||
{{privatelang}}{{construction}} | |||
{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = | |name = Valthungian, Grey Tongue | ||
|nativename = | |nativename = Grējutungiška Rasta,<br />Sō Grējuga Tunga | ||
|pronunciation = | |pronunciation = /ˈgrai̯.juˌtuŋ.giʃ.kɑ ˈrɑs.tɑ,<br />sau̯ ˈgrai̯.ju.ɡɑ ˈtuŋ.gɑ/ | ||
|creator = [[User:Bpnjohnson|BenJamin P. Johnson]],<br /> | |creator = [[User:Bpnjohnson|BenJamin P. Johnson]],<br /> | ||
<small>creator of:<br /> | <small>creator of:<br /> | ||
| Line 39: | Line 40: | ||
</ul> | </ul> | ||
</small> | </small> | ||
|created = | |created = 2010 | ||
|setting = | |setting = | ||
|familycolor = | |familycolor = Indo-European | ||
|fam1 = | |fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]] | ||
| | |fam2 = [[w:Germanic_languages|Germanic]] | ||
|fam3 = [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] | |||
|brcl = | |fam4 = [[Griutungi]] | ||
|fam5 = [[Old Valthungian]] | |||
|fam6 = [[Middle Valthungian]] | |||
|script = [[Valthungian#Alphabet_.26_Pronunciation|Valthungian Alphabet]]<br />[[w:Latin script|Latin script]] (transliteration) | |||
|iso3 = qgt | |||
|brcl = grey | |||
}} | }} | ||
==Alphabet | Valthungian is an [[w:East_Germanic_languages|East Germanic]] language descended from a language that was probably mutually intelligible with [[w:Gothic_language|Gothic]], though much of its corpus cannot have been inherited from the language of [[w:Ulfilas|Wulfila]]. It is likely, however, that the speakers of the ancestor of Valthungian did consider themselves Goths (or Gutai or Gutþiudōs), and that their language was mutually intelligible with other dialects of Gothic. The Valthungian relationship to “Classical Gothic” can be thought of as analogous to the relationship between Modern High German and [[w:Old_High_German|Old High German]] – that is, not a direct lineage, but the modern languages are descended from neighboring dialects spoken by people who would likewise have considered themselves to be “Gutisks,” in the case of Valthungian, or “Diotisk” in the case of German. | ||
While Valthungian shares many of the areal changes common to [[w:North_Germanic_languages|North]] and [[w:West_Germanic_languages|West Germanic languages]], it is also marked by distinctive changes in palatalisation, which, while similar to those of Old English, are most likely influenced by contact with Romance and Slavic languages. Modern Valthungian can be traced back to [[Middle Valthungian]] (spoken from around 1200‒1600ᴀᴅ) through [[Old Valthungian]] (800‒1200ᴀᴅ) and ultimately to [[Griutungi]], which would likely have been thought of as a dialect of Gothic (400‒800ᴀᴅ). | |||
The name “Valthungian” comes from the name ''Valthungi'' – a Latin term likely derived from a pre-Old Valthungian name *''Walþungae'' – meaning “Forest-dweller,” likely a branch of or related to the [[w:Thervingi|Thervingians]] (''idem''), though the Valthungian people refer to themselves as ''Grējutungišk'', which is probably from an earlier ''[[w:Greuthungi|Griutuggs]]'' (the name of an Ostrogothic tribe living along the northern shore of the Black Sea), but which underwent some semantic reanalysis over the generations and came to mean ‘the grey-tongued ones’. In turn, they call their language ''Grējutungiška Rasta'' ‘Grey-tonguish Language’ or just ''Sō Grējuga Tunga'' ‘the Grey Tongue’. | |||
==Writing System== | |||
===Alphabet & Pronunciation=== | |||
Here I give the traditional Valthungian letters followed by the romanisation I use for them in the second row. This romanisation is otherwise used throughout this article. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| style="border:0px; background:none;" | ||
|style="vertical-align: text-top"| | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
!''' ''' | |||
!''' ''' | |||
!'''[[w:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]''' | |||
!'''Name''' | |||
!'''Name Meaning''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aska.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|A a | ||
| | |width=50|[ɑ] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:aska|aska]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘ash’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aejus.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǣ ǣ | ||
| | |width=50|[e̞ː] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:ǣjus|ǣjus]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘horse’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-breka.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|B b | ||
| | |width=50|[b] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:breka|breka]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘birch’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-giva.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|G g | ||
| | |width=50|[ɡ] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:giva|giva]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘gift’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-djus.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǧ ǧ | ||
| | |width=50|[ʤ] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:ǧus|ǧus]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘beast’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |width=75| [[File:Valthungian-dagz.png]] | ||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|D d | ||
| | |width=50|[d] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:daǧ|daǧ]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘day’ | ||
= | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aedhi.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ð ð | ||
|style="font-size: | |width=50|[ð] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:ǣði|ǣði]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘mother’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-egja.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|E e | ||
|style="font-size: | |width=50|[e̞] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:eǧa|eǧa]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘blade’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-akuzje.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ž ž | |||
|width=50|[ʒ] | |||
||''[[Contionary:akuže|akuže]]'' | |||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘axe’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-hagla.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|H h | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=50|[h~x] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:hagla|hagla]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘hail’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-thronus.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Þ þ | |||
| | |width=50|[θ] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:þronus|þronus]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘thorn’ | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-igil.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|I i | |||
|width=50|[i] | |||
||''[[Contionary:igil|igil]]'' | |||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘hedgehog’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-jeer.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|J j | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=50|[j] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:jēr|jēr]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘year’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|} | |} | ||
|style="vertical-align: text-top"| | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
!''' ''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | !''' ''' | ||
! | !'''[[w:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]''' | ||
! | !'''Name''' | ||
!width= | !'''Name Meaning''' | ||
|- | |||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kune.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|K k | |||
|width=50|[k~kʰ] | |||
||''[[Contionary:kune|kune]]'' | |||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘family’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-lagus.png]] | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|L l | ||
| | |width=50|[l] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:lagus|lagus]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘lake’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-matna.png]] | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|M m | ||
| | |width=50|[m] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:matna|matna]]'' | ||
|style=" | |style="text-align:left;"|‘person’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-naoths.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|N n | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=50|[n] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:nǭþs|nǭþs]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘need’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ore.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|O o | |||
|width=50|[o̞] | |||
|style="font-size: | ||''[[Contionary:ore|ore]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘riverbank’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-predhra.png]] | |||
|style="font-size: | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|P p | ||
| | |width=50|[p~pʰ] | ||
|style=" | ||''[[Contionary:preðra|preðra]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘chance’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-redha.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|R r | ||
| | |width=50|[r] | ||
|style=" | ||''[[Contionary:reða|reða]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘earth’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-soogila.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|S s | ||
| | |width=50|[s] | ||
|style=" | ||''[[Contionary:sōgila|sōgila]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘sun’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-sjuge.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Š š | ||
| | |width=50|[ʃ] | ||
|style=" | ||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour ’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|T t | |||
|width=50|[t~tʰ] | |||
|style="font-size: | ||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]'' | ||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu ’ | ||
|style=" | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Č č | ||
| | |width=50|[ʧ] | ||
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘choice ’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|U u | ||
| | |width=50|[u] | ||
||''[[Contionary:ungula|ungula]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘owl’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ivra.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|V v | ||
| | |width=50|[v] | ||
||''[[Contionary:ivra|ivra]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘boar’ | ||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
|style="vertical-align: text-top"| | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
!''' ''' | |||
= | !''' ''' | ||
!'''[[w:International_Phonetic_Alphabet|IPA]]''' | |||
{| class="wikitable" | !'''Name''' | ||
! | !'''Name Meaning''' | ||
! | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-faejo.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|F f | |||
| | |width=50|[f] | ||
||''[[Contionary:fǣjo|fǣjo]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘cattle’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-wynia.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|W w | ||
| | |width=50|[w] | ||
||''[[Contionary:wynia|wynia]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘joy’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-roetja.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ œ | ||
|width=50|[ø̞̞] | |||
||''[[Contionary:rœča|rœča]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘farmer’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ynkja.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Y y | ||
| | |width=50|[y] | ||
||''[[Contionary:ynča|ynča]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘ounce’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aosus.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ǭ ǭ | ||
| | |width=50|[o̞ː] | ||
||''[[Contionary:ǭsus|ǭsus]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘ox’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|colspan=5 style="font-size:14pt;"|'''''Non-Alphabetic Variants''''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-aade.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ā ā | ||
| | |width=50|[ɑː] | ||
||''[[Contionary:āde|āde]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘egg’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-eemate.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ē ē | |||
| | |width=50|[ɑi̯] | ||
||''[[Contionary:ēmate|ēmate]]'' | |||
| | |style="text-align:left;"|‘ant’ | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-iis.png]] | |||
|width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ī ī | |||
| | |width=50|[iː] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:īs|īs]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘ice’ | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-oodhla.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ō ō | ||
|width=50|[ɑu̯] | |||
||''[[Contionary:ōðla|ōðla]]'' | |||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘inheritance’ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-uurus.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ū ū | ||
| | |width=50|[uː] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:ūrus|ūrus]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘aurochs’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ooezja.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Œ̄ œ̄ | ||
| | |width=50|[ø̞ː] | ||
||''[[Contionary:œ̄ža|œ̄ža]]'' | |||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘fortune’ | |||
|- | |- | ||
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-yyfti.png]] | |||
| | |width=75 style="font-size:18pt;"|Ȳ ȳ | ||
| | |width=50|[yː] | ||
| | ||''[[Contionary:ȳfti|ȳfti]]'' | ||
|style="text-align:left;"|‘custom’ | |||
|} | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, 〈ā〉 is equivalent to 〈aa〉, 〈ē〉 to 〈ee〉, 〈ī〉 to 〈ii〉, and so on. (The long vowels 〈ǣ〉 and 〈ǭ〉 are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.) | |||
(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.) | |||
=== | ===Orthography=== | ||
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions: | |||
# The letter 〈n〉 before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉 is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, 〈ng〉 is [ŋɡ] and 〈nk〉 is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.) | |||
## In combinations where 〈ng〉 is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: 〈ngm〉 is [ŋm] and 〈ngn〉 is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations 〈mbn〉, 〈mbm〉, 〈ndm〉, and 〈ndn〉; sometimes the stop may also become glottal. | |||
# In the combination 〈hw〉 (i.e. 〈hu〉 followed by a vowel), 〈h〉 is realised as [x]. | |||
# The combination 〈rju〉 is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.) | |||
# The diphthong 〈eu〉 is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''sneugna'' [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.) | |||
# The diphthong 〈œu〉 is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.) | |||
# For some speakers, word-final 〈þs〉 may be realised as [t̪s]. | |||
# For some speakers, medial 〈tl〉 (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ]. | |||
# Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as 〈u〉 (i.e. 〈du〉, 〈tu〉, 〈þu〉, 〈hu〉, 〈gu〉,〈ku〉 and 〈su〉.) | |||
## This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''. | |||
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if: | |||
# The stress is ''not'' on the first syllable. | |||
## (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.) | |||
# The stressed vowel is short. | |||
## (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.) | |||
# The stressed vowel is not 〈œ〉 or 〈y〉. | |||
## (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i-umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.) | |||
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gav'''œ'''rčin'' ‘to handle’. | |||
====Ligatures & Liaisons==== | |||
When two vowels come together at word boundaries, the words may form a ligature, particularly if one of the words is a “grammar word,” such as an article, preposition, pronoun, short adjective, conjunction, &c. This is most common with the articles (''sā'' + ''a-'', ''sō'' + ''u-'', etc.) and particles (e.g ''nī'' + ''i-''). | |||
* '''Articles''' | |||
** Mandatory: | |||
*** sā, huā, tuā + a-, ā- → s·ā-, hu·ā-, tu·ā- | |||
**** ''sā aplas'' → ''s·āplas'', ‘the apple’ | |||
**** ''tuā aðna'' → ''tu’āðna'' ‘two seasons’ | |||
*** sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s·ō-, þ·ō-, h·ō- | |||
**** ''sō uréča'' → ''s·ōréča'', ‘the persuit’ | |||
**** ''sō ōs'' → ''s·ōs'', ‘the ewe’ | |||
*** þǣ, tuǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ·ǣ-, tu·ǣ- | |||
**** ''þǣ ǣjus'' → ''þ·ǣjus'' ‘the horses’ | |||
**** ''tuǣ elis'' → ''tu·ǣlis'' ‘two others’ | |||
*** nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n·ī-, þr·ī-, h·ī- | |||
**** ''nī ist'' → ''n·īst'', ‘isn’t’ | |||
**** ''hī īsran'' → ''h·īsran'' ‘this iron’ | |||
** Optional: | |||
***sō, þō + V- → su·V-, þu·V- | |||
**** ''sō akuže, su·akuže'' ‘the axe’ | |||
**** ''þō ī, þu·ī'' ‘those which’ | |||
===Orthographic Variants=== | |||
There are a few regional and stylistic variations in the orthography of Valthungian romanisation. | |||
* In some areas, rather than indicating non-initial stress by placing an acute diacritic on the stressed vowel, the vowel of the initial ''unstressed'' syllable is marked with a grave diacritic. This is not standard anywhere, but is often used in children’s books and language learning tools, as it is a more consistent indicator of stress than the acute, which is not deployed over long vowels or rounded front vowels. It is often used in combination with the acute stress system, and the acute may also be used on otherwise exempt characters. E.g.: | |||
** ''ǧupspríngna'' ‘to leap up’ → ''ǧùpspringna'' or ''ǧùpspríngna'' | |||
** ''gadrynis'' ‘symphony’ → ''gàdrynis'' or ''gàdrýnis'' | |||
** ''miðlǣði'' ‘sympathy’ → ''mìðlǣði'' or ''mìðlǣ́ði'' (sometimes ''mìðlǽði'') | |||
* ⟨w⟩ may be used in place of word-initial ⟨v⟩ or pre-vocalic ⟨u⟩ to represent /w/ as a more direct transliteration of the letter ''vynia''. There is no logical or efficient reason for this transliteration to be split up the way it is in the standard language: Its existence is purely aesthetic, and many people are not as interested in aesthetics as efficiency. | |||
* Conversely, there are some who romanise ''jēr'' as ⟨i⟩ rather than as ⟨j⟩, likely out of spite towards those who use ⟨w⟩ as above. | |||
== | ==Phonology== | ||
{| class="wikitable" | ===Vowels=== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ||
! | ! colspan="2"| '''Short Vowels''' | ||
! | ! rowspan="5"| | ||
! | ! colspan="2"| '''Long Vowels''' | ||
! | ! width=100px rowspan="2"| | ||
! | ! colspan="2"| '''Diphthongs''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! width=65px| '''Front''' | ||
| '' | ! width=65px| '''Back''' | ||
| | ! width=65px| '''Front''' | ||
| | ! width=65px| '''Back''' | ||
| '' | ! width=65px| '''Front''' | ||
! width=65px| '''Back''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
!'''Closed''' | |||
| ''[ | |'''i · y'''<br />[i · y] | ||
| | |'''u'''<br />[u] | ||
| | |'''ī · ȳ'''<br />[iː · yː] | ||
|'''ū'''<br />[uː] | |||
!'''Closed-to-''' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !'''Mid''' | ||
| ''[[ | |'''e · œ'''<br />[e̞ · ø̞] | ||
| | |'''o'''<br />[o̞] | ||
| | |'''ǣ · œ̄'''<br />[e̞ː · ø̞ː] | ||
|'''ǭ'''<br />[o̞ː] | |||
!'''Mid-to-''' | |||
|'''œu'''<br />[œy̑] | |||
|'''eu'''<br />[ɛu̯] | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !'''Open''' | ||
| ''[ | | | ||
| | |'''a'''<br />[ɑ] | ||
| | | | ||
| | |'''ā'''<br />[ɑː] | ||
!'''Open-to-''' | |||
|'''ē'''<br />[ai̯] | |||
|'''ō''', '''au'''<br />[au̯] | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | |} | ||
| '' | |||
| | ===Consonants=== | ||
| | <small>''(Pardon the compactified consonant table. I know it doesn't quite all line up “properly,” but it does make more sense this way as regards the Valthungian language. If in doubt, rely on the transcription and not the row or column.)''</small> | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
!width=100px| | |||
!width=65px|'''Labial''' | |||
!width=65px|'''Dental''' | |||
!width=65px|'''Alveolar''' | |||
!width=65px|'''Palatal''' | |||
!width=65px|'''Dorsal''' | |||
|- | |- | ||
!'''Plosive''' | |||
| ''[ | |'''p · b'''<br />[p~pʰ · b] | ||
| | |'''t · d'''<br />[t̪~t̪ʰ · d̪] | ||
| | | | ||
|'''č · ǧ'''<br />[ʧ · ʤ] | |||
|'''k · g'''<br />[k~kʰ · g] | |||
|- | |- | ||
!'''Nasal''' | |||
| ''[ | |''' · m'''<br />[m] | ||
| | |''' · n'''<br />[n̪] | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
|''' · n'''<small><sup>1</sup></small><br />[ŋ] | |||
|- | |- | ||
!'''Fricative''' | |||
| ''[ | |'''f · v'''<br />[f · v] | ||
| | |'''ð · þ'''<br />[ð · θ] | ||
| | |'''s ·'''<br />[s] | ||
|'''š · ž'''<br />[ʃ · ʒ] | |||
|'''h ·'''<br />[h] | |||
|- | |- | ||
!'''Approximant''' | |||
| '' | |''' · w/u'''<br />[w] | ||
|''' · l'''<br />[l̪] | |||
|''' · r'''<br />[r~ɾ] | |||
|''' · j'''<br />[j] | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
| '' | |||
|} | |} | ||
<small><sup>1</sup></small>Before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉.<br /> | |||
===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes=== | |||
====Voicing Alternation==== | |||
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings. (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between 〈f〉, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and 〈b〉 used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’. Likewise the relationship between 〈þ〉 and〈d〉. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian: | |||
*v → f | |||
*ð → þ } at the end of a word, or before an unvoiced consonant. | |||
*ž → s | |||
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are: | |||
*〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 occur before 〈s〉 in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''. | |||
*〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''. | |||
*〈f〉 occurs when word-final or before 〈t〉 in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''. | |||
*〈þ〉 also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to 〈s〉 before 〈t〉 in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''. | |||
*The implications for 〈s〉 and 〈ž〉 can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain 〈s〉 throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon. | |||
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic 〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 from earlier 〈h〉 which is ''not'' affected by this rule. | |||
====Palatalisation==== | |||
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules: | |||
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in 〈d〉 or 〈g〉 become palatalised before 〈s〉 in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems). E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''garǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/). | |||
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with 〈j〉, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs: | |||
**d or g + j → ǧ | |||
**t or k + j → č | |||
**s or h + j → š | |||
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of 〈z〉 eventually became 〈ž〉.) | |||
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below. | |||
====[b]/[v] Alternation==== | |||
A less common alternation is that of 〈b〉 and 〈v〉. This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of 〈v〉 to 〈b〉; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original 〈j〉 are able to shift from 〈b〉 to 〈v〉 when intervocalic, but those with 〈j〉 are blocked from spirantizing. | |||
For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja''). | |||
====Umlaut==== | |||
Umlaut is another of those sound laws that no longer happens actively in the language, but it has become indicative of specific tenses or cases in the language, and may appear analogically in certain words. | |||
*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted. All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted. | |||
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy. | |||
*Verbs ending in ''–jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''–in'' in Valthungian. | |||
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word: | |||
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin'' | |||
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin'' | |||
*ǭ (''Got''. 〈áu〉) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin'' | |||
*o (''Got''. 〈aú〉) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin'' | |||
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin'' | |||
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin'' | |||
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin'' | |||
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, front umlaut, or i-mutation. | |||
=== | ====Coronal Consonant Assimilation==== | ||
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by 〈t〉 or 〈st〉, the former consonant 〈s〉. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''. | |||
====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking==== | |||
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like ''bagms'' and ''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ''-an'' to ''-n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi ''*brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of 〈a〉after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state. | |||
'' | |||
'' | |||
'' | |||
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that: | |||
The | *Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in 〈–m〉 have the ending of 〈–am〉 rather than 〈–ma〉, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''. | ||
*Masculine strong a-stem nouns ending in 〈–n〉 have the the dative plural ending of 〈–am〉 (as above) and the accusative plural ending of 〈–ans〉 rather than 〈–nas〉, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''. | |||
*Strong a-stem adjectives ending in 〈–n〉 have a masculine accusative singular of 〈–an〉 rather than 〈–na〉, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna'' | |||
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''-anþ'' rather than **''naþ''. | |||
====Assimilation of [r] and [s]==== | |||
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms. | |||
The change initially applies to “light”-syllable nouns with stems ending in 〈-s〉 or 〈-r〉 in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final 〈-z〉 in the nominative singular. E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus''). | |||
Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉 and 〈-s〉 do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.) | |||
=== | ====Affix Anaptyxis==== | ||
When a prefix ends in the same letter as the root, /a/ is inserted to break up the resulting geminate. /a/ may also be added to avoid awkward consonant clusters. This is just part of a larger change in the general structure of the language in which many unstressed syllables appeared unbidden in Late Middle and Early Modern Valthungian causing the language to be almost entirely iambic. In Modern Valthungian all stressed syllables (primary and secondary) must de separated by an unstressed syllable. | |||
Some of the most frequent are: | |||
*af+f: Griutungi ''*affilhan'' → ''af'''a'''fílþna'' ‘to hide away’ | |||
*fer+r: Griutungi ''*ferrinnan'' → ''fer'''a'''rítnan'' ‘to attain’ | |||
*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’ | |||
'' | However, the prefix ''us-'' becomes ''ut-'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’ | ||
' | |||
'' | |||
== | ==Pronouns== | ||
===Personal Pronouns=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | The genitive pronouns form the base of the possessive determiners, but the third person non-reflexive genitives are never inflected. The third person singular and plural reflexive pronouns are identical. The non-singular pronouns may also take a reciprocal particle ''mīsa'', roughly equivalent to ‘each other’ or ‘one another.’ | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | !width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. !! | ||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
! | |||
|- | |- | ||
!1sg | |||
| | | ik || mīn || mis || mik ||align="left"| ''I, my, (to) me, me'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !2sg | ||
| | | þū || þīn || þis || þik ||align="left"| ''thou, thy, (to) thee, thee'' | ||
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| | |||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !3sg.masc | ||
| | | is ||rowspan=2| is ||rowspan=2| itma || in ||align="left"| ''he, his, (to) him, him'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !3sg.neu | ||
| | | it || it||align="left"| ''it, its, (to) it, it'' | ||
| | |||
| '' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !3sg.fem | ||
| | | sī || ižas || iža || ī, iža ||align="left"| ''she, her, (to) her, her'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !3sg.refl | ||
| | | - || sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''himself, herself, itself, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !1du | ||
| | | wit || unkar || unkis || unk ||align="left"| ''we two, our, (to) us, us'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !2du | ||
| | | ǧut || inkur || inkus || inko ||align="left"| ''you/ye two, your, (to) you, you'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !1pl | ||
| | | wīs || unsar || unsis || uns ||align="left"| ''we all, our, (to) us, us'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !2pl | ||
| | | jūs || ižur || ižus || ižus ||align="left"| ''you/ye all, your, (to) you, you'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !3pl.masc | ||
| | | īs ||rowspan=3| iža ||rowspan=3| im || ins ||align="left" rowspan=3| ''they, their, (to) them, them'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!3pl.neu | |||
| ī, iža || ī, iža | |||
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|- | |- | ||
!3pl.fem | |||
| ižas || ižas | |||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !3pl.refl | ||
| '' | | - || sīn || sis || sik ||align="left"| ''themselves'' | ||
|} | |||
===Indefinite Pronouns=== | |||
The interrogative and negative pronouns can take the adverbial complement ''hun'', which gives them the sense of ‘any’. Additionally, the interrogative pronouns may double as elective pronouns. For example, ''huat'' ‘what’ or ‘something’; ''huat hun'' ‘anything’. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !! | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !inter.masc | ||
| | | huas ||rowspan=2| huis ||rowspan=2| huatma || huan ||align="left"| ''who, whose, to whom, whom'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!inter.neu | |||
| | | huat || huat ||align="left"| ''what, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !inter.fem | ||
| | | huō || huižas || huiža || huō ||align="left"| ''who, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !gen. | ||
| | | guma || gumins || gumin || gumna ||align="left"| ''one, one’s, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !univ.masc | ||
| | | huažuþ ||rowspan=3| huižuþ ||rowspan=2| huatmaþ || huanaþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!univ.neu | |||
| | | huāþ || huāþ ||align="left"| ''everything, everything’s, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !univ.fem | ||
| | | huōþ || huižaþ || huōþ ||align="left"| ''everyone, everyone’s, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !neg.masc | ||
| | | nījus ||rowspan=2| nījus ||rowspan=2| nījutma || nījun ||align="left"| ''noöne, noöne’s, &c'' | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| ''''' | !neg.neu | ||
| nījut || nījut ||align="left"| ''nothing, nothing’s, &c'' | |||
|} | |||
===Distributive Pronouns=== | |||
The distributive pronouns are non-singular pronouns formed when the personal pronouns were fused with the distributive particles ''huaðru'' ‘each of two’ and ''huerižu'' ‘each of many’. In most forms they have now become inseparable from their root components; e.g. compare the dual genitive second person ''inkur'' and distributive ''huaðrižu'', but the distributive pronoun ''inkuáðrižu''. While the distributives as determiners, by definition, take a singular verb, the distributive pronouns take the non-singular verb of their respective pronouns, e.g. ''Aplas huerižu gatiða itnas'' ‘Each apple was eaten’, but ''Īshuerižu gatiðun itna'' ‘Each of them was eaten’. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=70px| Acc. !! | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| | !1du | ||
| | | withuáðruþ || unkuáðrižuþ || unkuáðratmaþ || unkuáðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of us'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !2du | ||
| | | ǧuthuaðruþ || inkuaðrižuþ || inkuaðratmaþ || inkuaðranuþ ||align="left"| ''each of the two of you'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !1pl | ||
| | | wīshuerižuþ || unshuerižuþ || unshueritmaþ || unshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of us'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !2pl | ||
| | | jūshuerižuþ || ižuhuerižuþ || ižushueritmaþ || ižushuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of you'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !3pl.masc | ||
| | | īshuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| ižahuerižuþ ||rowspan=3| imhueritmaþ || inshuerinuþ ||align="left"| ''each of them'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
!3pl.neu | |||
| ižashuerituþ || ižashuerituþ ||align="left"| ''each of them'' | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
|- | |- | ||
!3pl.fem | |||
| ižahueriþ || ižahueriþ ||align="left"| ''each of them'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
== | ==Numbers== | ||
===Declinable Numerals=== | |||
====Singular (‘one’)==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !masc. | ||
| | | ǣns ||rowspan=2| ǣnis ||rowspan=2| ǣnatma || ǣnan | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | !neu. | ||
| ǣn(at) || ǣn(at) | |||
|- | |||
!fem. | |||
| ǣna || ǣnažas || ǣna || ǣna | |||
|- | |||
|} | |} | ||
====Dual (‘two, both’)==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | ||
| | !style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4| | ||
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! masc. | ||
| | | tuǣ ||rowspan=3| tuǣǧa ||rowspan=3| tuǣm || tuans | ||
| | | bǣ ||rowspan=3| bǣǧa ||rowspan=3| bǣm || bans | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! neu. | ||
| tuā || tuā | |||
| bā || bā | |||
|- | |||
! fem. | |||
| tuōs || tuōs | |||
| bōs || bōs | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== | ====Trial (‘three, all three’) ==== | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
! !!colspan=4| Numeral !! !! colspan=4| Distributive | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=65px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | ||
| | !style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=4| | ||
!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! masc. | ||
| | | þrīs ||rowspan=3| þriža ||rowspan=3| þrim || þrins | ||
| þrǣ ||rowspan=3| þrǣža ||rowspan=3| þrǣm || þrans | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! neu. | ||
| | | þrī, þriža || þrī, þriža | ||
| þrā || þrā | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! fem. | ||
| | | þrīs || þrins | ||
| | | þreǧis || þreǧis | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Undeclinable Numerals=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
|- | |||
! !!width=100px| # !!width=100px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000 | |||
|- | |||
! 0 | |||
| (nǣns) || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣtiǧis|| ''-tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''-ljǭn'' | |||
|- | |||
! 1 | |||
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣnlif || tuǣtiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn | |||
|- | |||
! 2 | |||
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || tuǣtiǧi tuǣ|| tuǣtiǧis || tuā hunda || tuōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn | |||
|- | |||
! 3 | |||
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrižatǣn || tuǣtiǧi þrīs|| þrīstiǧis || þrī hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! 4 | ||
| fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || tuǣtiǧi fiður|| fiðratiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || friljǭn | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 5 | ||
| | | fim || fimfatǣn || tuǣtiǧi fim|| fimtiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 6 | ||
| | | sǣs || sǣstatǣn || tuǣtiǧi sǣs|| sǣstiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 7 | ||
| | | sivun (sivna) || sivnatǣn || tuǣtiǧi sivun|| sivnatiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 8 | ||
| | | āta (āt) || ātatǣn || tuǣtiǧis āta|| ātatiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 9 | ||
| | | njun || njunatǣn || tuǣtiǧi njun|| njuntiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
The numbers in Valthungian – as in most languages – have gone through more phonological change than other words, and as a result, there are some irregularities. Four numbers have two forms (some of which may be optional). There is also an innovated trial distributive (‘all three’), probably by analogy with the dual (''bǣ'' ‘both’). The number ‘one’, usually alternating with the indefinite article in most languages, is used merely for counting purposes, as an indefinite article is not used in Valthungian. | |||
The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.) | |||
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers. | |||
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''–tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''–tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīstiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''-tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''-i-'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn-'' and ''āta''. | |||
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''. | |||
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[w:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! N⁰ !! Numerals !!width=100px| Valthungian !!width=130px| Short !!width=130px| Hybrid !!width=130px| Long !!width=100px| Metric | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | ! 10³ | ||
|align="right"| 1,000 || þūsunde ||colspan=3 align="center"| thousand || '''k'''''ilo'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | ! 10⁶ | ||
|align="right"| 1,000,000 || miljǭn ||colspan=3 align="center"| million || '''M'''''ega'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10⁹ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000 || biljǭn || billion || milliard || thousand million || '''G'''''iga'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10¹² | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000 || þriljǭn || trillion || billion || billion || '''T'''''era'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10¹⁵ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000 || fiðriljǭn || quadrillion || billiard || thousand billion || '''P'''''eta'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10¹⁸ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 || fimfiljǭn || quintillion || trillion || trillion || '''E'''''xa'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10²¹ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || sǣsiljǭn || sextillion || trilliard || thousand trillion || '''Z'''''etta'' | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | ! 10²⁴ | ||
|align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || sivniljǭn || septillion || quadrillion || quadrillion || '''Y'''''otta'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10²⁷ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || ātatiljǭn || octillion || quadrilliard || thousand quadrillion || - | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10³⁰ | ||
| | |align="right"| 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 || njuniljǭn || nonillion || quintillion || quintillion || - | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | |} | ||
===Ordinal Numbers and Other Number Forms=== | |||
Ordinal numbers are usually formed by adding a dental suffix to the end of a number, though there is some suppletion for the first and second ordinals, and the third is irregular (just as is the case in English). In Proto-Germanic and Gothic, all of the ordinals except for first and second took only the weak declension, but all ordinals now take both strong and weak declensions according to standard rules of adjectives. | |||
The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tuaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''. | |||
Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''-tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''-tel'' being a direct equivalent of ''dǣl-''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''-a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !rowspan=2| | ||
| | !colspan=3| Ordinal | ||
| | !colspan=2 rowspan=2| Multiplicative | ||
| | !colspan=2 rowspan=2| Fractional | ||
|- | |- | ||
! (Strong) | |||
! (Weak) | |||
! | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 1 | ||
| | | frumist, frums | ||
| | | frumista, fruma | ||
| | | first | ||
| ǣniþis | |||
| once, one time | |||
|colspan=2| -- | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 2 | ||
| | |colspan=2| anðra | ||
| | | second | ||
| | | tuaþis | ||
| twice, two times | |||
| halbž, tuǣǧa dǣlaro | |||
| half | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 3 | ||
| þrīǧis | |||
| þrīǧa | |||
| third | |||
| þriþis | |||
| thrice, three times | |||
| þriža dǣlaro | |||
| third | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! 4 | ||
| fiðraþs | |||
| fiðraða | |||
| fourth | |||
| fiðurþis | |||
| four times | |||
| fiðra dǣlaro | |||
| quarter/fourth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 5 | ||
| | | fimft | ||
| | | fimfta | ||
| fifth | |||
| fimftis | |||
| five times | |||
| fimfa dǣlaro | |||
| fifth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 6 | ||
| | | sǣst | ||
| | | sǣsta | ||
| sixth | |||
| sǣstis | |||
| six times | |||
| sǣsa dǣlaro | |||
| sixth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 7 | ||
| | | sivunþs | ||
| | | sivunþa | ||
| seventh | |||
| sivunþis | |||
| seven times | |||
| sivna dǣlaro | |||
| seventh | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 8 | ||
| | | ātuþs | ||
| | | ātuða | ||
| eighth | |||
| ātuðis | |||
| eight times | |||
| āta dǣlaro | |||
| eighth | |||
|- | |||
! 9 | |||
| njunþs | |||
| njunþa | |||
| ninth | |||
| njunþis | |||
| nine times | |||
| njuna dǣlaro | |||
| ninth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 10 | ||
| | | tǣjunþs | ||
| | | tǣjunþa | ||
| tenth | |||
| tǣjunþis | |||
| ten times | |||
| tǣjun dǣlaro | |||
| tenth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 11 | ||
| | | ǣnlift | ||
| | | ǣnlifta | ||
| eleventh | |||
| ǣnliftis | |||
| eleven times | |||
| ǣnliva dǣlaro | |||
| eleventh | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 12 | ||
| | | tuālift | ||
| | | tuālifta | ||
| twelfth | |||
| tuāliftis | |||
| twelve times | |||
| tuāliva dǣlaro | |||
| twelfth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 13 | ||
| | | þrižatǣnþs | ||
| | | þrižatǣnþa | ||
| thirteenth | |||
| þrižatǣnþis | |||
| thirteen times | |||
| þrižatǣjun dǣlaro | |||
| thirteenth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 20 | ||
| | | tuǣtiǧist | ||
| | | twǣtiǧista | ||
| twentieth | |||
| tuǣtiǧistis | |||
| twenty times | |||
| tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro | |||
| twentieth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 100 | ||
| | | hundaþs | ||
| | | hundaða | ||
| hundredth | |||
| hundaðis | |||
| a hundred times | |||
| hunda dǣlaro | |||
| hundredth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 1,000 | ||
| | | þūsundiþs | ||
| | | þūsundiða | ||
| thousandth | |||
| þūsundiðis | |||
| a thousand times | |||
| þūsunǧa dǣlaro | |||
| thousandth | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | ! 1,000,000 | ||
| | | miljǭnþs | ||
| | | miljǭnþa | ||
| millionth | |||
| miljǭnþis | |||
| a million times | |||
| miljǭna dǣlaro | |||
| millionth | |||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Alternative Numbers=== | |||
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primarily among these numbers was ‘13’, which was written in Gothic as ''·ig·''. This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (''rig''), ‘213’ (''sig''), ‘313’ (''tig''), ‘413’ (''wig''), and ‘513’ (''fig''). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.) | |||
The number ‘19’ is also sometimes called ''iþ'' by the same formulation. | |||
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat njunatǣn'' referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (''fiður-þrižatǣn''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' (‘road’). | |||
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''. | |||
== | ==Articles & Determiners== | ||
Valthungian has two definite articles, ''sā'' and ''his'', both of which are equivalent to ‘the,’ but may also be translated as ‘that’ and ‘this’, respectively. Where there is a lack of clear proximity-based dichotomy, ''sā'' is usually preferred. | |||
There is no indefinite article in Valthungian. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !width=100px| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. ||style="border-top: none;border-bottom: none" width=10px rowspan=7| !!width=65px| Nom. !!width=65px| Gen. !!width=65px| Dat. !!width=65px| Acc. | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !masc.sg | ||
| | | sā ||rowspan=2| þis ||rowspan=2| þatma || þan | ||
| | |his ||rowspan=2| his ||rowspan=2| hitma || hin | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | !neu.sg | ||
| | | þat || þat | ||
| | | hit || hit | ||
| | |- | ||
|- | !fem.sg | ||
| sō || þižas || þiža || þō | |||
| | | hiža || hižas || hiža || hī, hiža | ||
| | |- | ||
| | !masc.pl | ||
| | | þǣ ||rowspan=3| þiža ||rowspan=3| þǣm || þans | ||
| | | hīs ||rowspan=3| hiža ||rowspan=3| him || hins | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
!neu.pl | |||
| þō || þō | |||
| hī, hiža || hī, hiža | |||
|- | |||
!fem.pl | |||
| þōs || þōs | |||
| hižas || hižas | |||
|- | |||
|} | |} | ||
==A Note on Terminology: “Strong” vs. “Weak”== | |||
In most Germanic languages, nouns, verbs, and adjectives tend to be broken into categories considered “strong” and “weak.” | |||
In verbs, these denote two of the many categories into which verbs may be broken, “strong” verbs being those that form the preterit by means of ablaut, and “weak” being those that form the preterit with a suffix containing some manner of dental consonant. There are further classifications of preterit-present, aorist-present, subjunctive-present, and anomalous, and many of them overlap with the simplistic “strong” and “weak” descriptors. (See [[#Verbs|Verbs]] for more information.) | |||
This usage is completely unrelated to strong and weak nouns and adjectives, in which “weak” means that the words cling to their determiner endings inherited from Proto-Indo-European, which usually have an /n/ inserted between the root and the ending. | |||
And even though the meaning of strong and weak in nouns and adjectives are historically related, their usage is not: In nouns, like the verbs, this is merely a convenient way of categorising certain types of nouns which take certain endings. In adjectives, however, the use of a strong or weak adjective depends on whether other determiners are present in the same noun phrase; most adjectives have both a strong and a weak declension. | |||
For the purposes of this text, I dispense with the traditional strong and weak categories as relates to nouns and simply relate the various stem classes into which nouns can be classified, based on their inherited Proto-Germanic endings (which include the /n/ infix where applicable). Since these endings can be irregular and each class must be learned by rote anyway, there is no need in the context of the Valthungian language to add this additional arbitrary distinction. I maintain the use of the terms for verbs and adjectives, though, to be honest, their usage with verbs could easily be similarly eschewed; the only area where these distinctions are really functionally important is in the discussion of adjectives. | |||
==Nouns== | |||
Noun classes differ by suffix vowel class and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See A Note on Strong and Weak Nouns). There is also a very small class in /r/ having to do with familial relations. Some former noun classes in Gothic (such as consontant-stem and nd-stem nouns) have been regularised in Valthungian through paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes. | |||
Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object). | |||
Masculine and feminine strong nouns usually take an ending of –s for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “ ’s ” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending. | |||
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural takes –aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesise to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a. | |||
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge. | |||
===a-Stems (Masculine & Neuter)=== | |||
====Pure a-Stems==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.a|slēp|slēp|sleep}} | |||
====ja-Stems==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.ja|tep|tap|carpet}} | |||
====ija-Stems==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.ija|end|enǧ|and|end}} | |||
====wa-Stems==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wa|skað|skað|shadow}} | |||
====wja-Stems==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/n.st.m.wja|nǭ|naug|neug|corpse}} | |||
<!-- | |||
===ō-Stems (Feminine)=== | |||
====Pure ō-Stems==== | |||
====jō-Stems==== | |||
====ijō-Stems==== | |||
====wō-Stems==== | |||
===i-Stems (Masculine & Feminine)=== | |||
====Pure i-Stems==== | |||
====wi-Stem==== | |||
===u-stems (all genders)=== | |||
== | ====Pure u-Stems==== | ||
====ju-Stem==== | |||
===r-Stem (Masculine & Feminine)=== | |||
===ōn-Stem (all genders)=== | |||
====Pure ōn-Stem==== | |||
''' | ====jōn-Stem==== | ||
====wōn-Stem==== | |||
====wjōn-Stem==== | |||
--> | |||
==Verbs== | |||
===Strong Verbs=== | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class I (ī – ǣ – i – i)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.1p|grī|grǣ|gri}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class II (ju – ǭ – u – u)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2p|strju|strǭ|stru|stry}} | |||
Because of the shift of the vowel from '''iu''' to '''ju''', when a class II verb begins with a consonant that is subject to palatalisation, some unusual patterns may emerge as a result. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}} | |||
Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *-euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class III (i – a – u – u)==== | |||
Class III strong verbs are those verbs with /i/ (historically /e/) as the root vowel which is followed by a sonorant (r, l, m, n) and an obstruent (p, t, k, b, d, g, f, þ, s, h), or, rarely, two obstruents (e.g. /hs/, /gd/). Ablaut causes the second principle part to shift to /a/, and the third and fourth to /u/. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3nd|bi|ba|ba|bu|by}} | |||
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]). | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.3rg|be|ba|ba|bo|bœ}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class IV (i – a – ē – u)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4m|kui|kua|kuē|kū}} | |||
In verbs where /r/ is the sonorant in question, the paradigm shifts to /e/ in the first principle part and /o/ in the third (due to the [[Valthungian/Rules#EGmc_Reflex_of_1st_Umlaut|East Germanic Reflex of First Umlaut]]). | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.4r|b}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class V (i – a – ē – i)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5þ|kui|kua|kuē|kui}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class VI (a – ō – ō – a)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6g|dra|drō|drœu|dra}} | |||
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}} | |||
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by 〈e〉, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br /> | |||
Verbs beginning with 〈s〉 followed by a stop (i.e. 〈sp〉, 〈st〉, or 〈sk〉), the first two letters are repeated.<br /> | |||
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>--> | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}} | |||
<!--<small>Verbs with 〈ē〉 as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to 〈ō〉 in the past (and subsequently umlaut to 〈œ̄〉 in the past subjunctive).</small>--> | |||
===Weak Verbs=== | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (-janą)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}} | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (-ijaną)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}} | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class II (-ōną)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}} | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class III (-āną)==== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}} | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (-naną)==== | |||
====Weak Verbs: Class V (-ną)==== | |||
===Preterit-Present Verbs=== | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ǣgna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dorsna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.dugna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.kutnan|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.lisna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.magna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.mōtna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.munan|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.nugna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.ōgna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.skulna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.witna|}} | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.þorvan|}} | |||
Finally, '''wilin''' is not actually a preterit-present verb, but a subjunctive-present verb. However, it seems to fit best here amongst its other quasi-anomalous quasi-auxiliary brethren. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.pp.wilin|}} | |||
===Anomalous Verbs=== | |||
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/-reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}} | |||
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ-'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj-'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}} | |||
The present indicative tense of ''stǣn/standna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. Though it acts like a Class VI verb in how it ablauts in the past, there is also a parallel form with reduplication, indicating Class VII. | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}} | |||
''Visna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''vis-'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i-'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i-'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’). | |||
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}} | |||
===Compound Tenses=== | |||
====Forming the Perfect==== | |||
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga-'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs. | |||
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme. | |||
Intransitive verbs are formed in the Romance style by creating a compound of the verb ''[[Contionary: wisna#Valthungian|visna]]'' and the past participle. (The participle is an adjective, and must be declined to agree with the subject.) | |||
*''S·'''īst''' lēkare '''vorðna'''.'' | |||
**‘She has become a doctor.’ | |||
*''Is '''vas''' hǣma '''gangnas'''.'' | |||
**‘He had gone home.’ | |||
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga-'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally. | |||
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.'' | |||
**‘She had given it to him.’ | |||
*''Ik þik '''sǣja gā'''.'' | |||
**‘I have seen you.’ | |||
====Forming the Future==== | |||
The future is formed by using the auxiliary ''genǧin'' ‘to go’ followed by an infinitive (not unlike future compound constructions with ''go'' in multiple European languages). | |||
*''Ik '''genǧa''' þō hord '''lūkna'''.'' | |||
**‘I '''will lock''' the door.’ | |||
*''Ik nī '''gangiða''' nījo þō livran af hǣða hun '''ligna'''.'' | |||
**‘I was never '''going to read''' that book anyway.’ | |||
====Forming the Passive==== | |||
Gothic transitive verbs had a passive form, but this has disappeared from Valthungian. Instead, the passive may be formed using a variety of auxiliary verbs determined by the volition of the agent and the subject (patient). By their very nature, passives need not specify an agent, but an agent can be indicated using the genitive (as we would use ‘by’ in English). | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | |||
! Patient:<br />Deliberate | |||
! Patient:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Agent:<br />Deliberate | |||
| | || ''gečin'' ‘to cause to get’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’ | ||
| | || ''gitna'' ‘to get’<br />''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate | |||
| | || ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br /> | ||
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skeǧin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''verðan'' ‘to become’ | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement | |||
*''Ik '''gatiða''' forðat vork '''fergilðiþs'''.'' | |||
**‘I '''was paid''' for the work.’ | |||
*Þǣ ankýmbiðas '''langiðun''' þis borðaþjugis '''ganōguða'''. | |||
**‘The diners '''were served''' by the waiter.’ | |||
'''Agent Deliberate / Patient Unintentional''': These auxiliaries are used mainly when the agent is a person and the patient is either an object or a person who is unaware of the agent’s intention or an unwilling participant in the action. | |||
*''Ik '''gat''' þis veris '''slaguns'''.'' | |||
**‘I '''was hit''' by the man.’ | |||
*''Sā vagnas '''þagiða''' þiža mœuǧis '''fariþs'''.'' | |||
**‘The car '''was driven''' by the girl.’ | |||
'''Agent Unintentional / Patient Deliberate''': This usually refers to agents (usually inanimate) that are being used by a patient for a specific purpose. | |||
*''Ik '''þagiða''' þižas fœ̄ðinis '''nutriškiþs'''.'' | |||
**‘I '''was nourished''' by the food.’ | |||
*''Þū '''langiðas''' (þiža intǣkninis) toðíža miðéndina '''tuguns'''.'' | |||
**‘You '''were led''' to that conclusion (by the evidence).’ | |||
'''Agent/Patient Unintentional or Inanimate''': This final group is possibly the most common, and refers to inanimate agent and patient, or when the agent or patient is an unwilling participant in the action. It may refer especially to natural phenomena, e.g. ‘blown down by wind’ or ‘rained on’. | |||
*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþs'''.'' | |||
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’ | |||
*''Þǣ lǭvas '''skagiðun''' þižas rynins '''afbórna'''.'' | |||
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’ | |||
====Immediacy: Forming the Recent Past and Immediate Future==== | |||
The adverb ''straks'' can be used in conjunction with most tenses as an “immediacy particle.” In the past tenses, this translates roughly to the word ‘just’, as in “I just did that.” In the future, it is most closely translated as ‘about to’. | |||
*''Ik '''straks''' āt gā.'' | |||
* | **‘I had '''just''' eaten.’ | ||
* | *''Is '''straks''' gangiþ hǣma.'' | ||
* | **‘He is '''about to''' go home.’ | ||
* | |||
== | ''NB: ''Straks'' is definitely a Germanic word, but cannot be descended from East Germanic. (If it were, we might expect ''strakis'' or perhaps ''straka''.) It is likely a more recent borrowing into Middle Valthungian from a West or North Germanic source. Cf. Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish ''straks'', Swedish and Icelandic ''strax'', German ''stracks'', &c.'' | ||
====Forming the Progressive==== | |||
The progressive tenses are not used often in Valthungian, but they can be a useful way to indicate that something is left unfinished, since the Perfect – originally a perfective indicating completed action – has taken on more of a perfect meaning, including that of a more generalised past tense. | |||
The progressive is formed using the auxiliary verb ''sitna'' ‘to sit’ and the preposition ''bī'' ‘by’, followed by the infinitive. (In very formal language, you may encounter ''sitna bī'' followed by the dative of the nominalized form of the verb, e.g. ‘I am drawing’ may be rendered as ''Ik sita bī vrǣtina'' rather than the expected ''Ik sita bī vrǣčin''. | |||
*''Ū '''sitistu''' njužis '''bī drinkna''' gā?'' | |||
**‘Have you '''been drinking''' again?’ | |||
*''Ik '''sita bī skrīvna''' þō bisāt mīna. Ranive '''sitik bī drinkna''' gā.'' | |||
**‘'''I’m writing''' my dissertation. Of course I’ve '''been drinking'''.’ | |||
==Adjectives== | |||
In Valthungian, adjectives can be strong or weak (as with adjectives in any Germanic language that declines). The general rule is: If a nouns takes a determiner (article, possessive<ref>Only when a possessive is used without an article; otherwise the possessive itself is also declined as weak.</ref>, quantifier, &c), its accompanying adjective is weak; otherwise it is strong. | |||
Predicative adjectives do not decline; they take the form of the strong neuter singular regardless of what they modify. | |||
*<span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">Predicative</span> | |||
*<span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">Strong</span> | |||
*<span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">Weak</span> | |||
For example: | |||
*''Sā wer <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">duala</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid man is stupid.’ | |||
*''Sō kuina <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">duala</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid woman is stupid.’ | |||
*''Þat kliþ <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">duala</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid child is stupid.’ | |||
*''Þǣ avnas <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">dualnas</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid husbands are stupid.’ | |||
*''Þōs kwēnis <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">dualans</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid wives are stupid.’ | |||
*''Þō brana <span style="background-color:#99FFFF;">dualan</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘The stupid children are stupid.’ | |||
But strong declension for 3rd person possessives<ref>With the exception of ''sīns'', which declines normally like ''mīns'' and ''þīns'' and takes a weak adjective.</ref>, since they don’t decline! | |||
*''Ižas brōðra <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">duals</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘Her stupid brother is stupid.’ | |||
* '' | *''Is dǭtra <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">duala</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘His stupid daughter is stupid.’ | ||
*''Iža bran <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">dualat</span> ist <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘Their stupid child is stupid.’ | |||
*''Iža synis <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">duala</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘Their stupid sons are stupid.’ | |||
* '' | *''Is swistris <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">dualas</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘His stupid sisters are stupid.’ | ||
*''Ižas kliða <span style="background-color:#FF99FF;">duala</span> sinþ <span style="background-color:#FFFF99;">dual</span>.'' ‘Her stupid children are stupid.’ | |||
* '' | |||
* '' | |||
* '' | |||