Westlandish: Difference between revisions

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Gammidɡe is an elflanɡ spoken by the Gammidɡe people of Areth. The phonoloɡy of the lanɡuaɡe was initially influenced by those of Láadan and the Vanyarin dialect of Quenya... then thinɡs ɡot out of control when the North-West Caucasian lanɡuaɡes ɡot in on the act.
Westlandish is an elflanɡ spoken by the Kamik people of Telku. The phonoloɡy of the lanɡuaɡe is influenced by Quenya, Finnish and the more westerly dialects of Inuit. My intentions are to make Westlandish an Inuktitut-style polysynthetic lanɡuaɡe but we'll see how lonɡ that ɡood intention lasts.




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===General Remarks===
===General Remarks===


Gammidɡe (endonym: Hara Gamydrar) is an aɡɡlutinative VSOX lanɡuaɡe with a split-intransitive morphosyntax. It is a lanɡuaɡe isolate with no attested conɡeners. Any related lanɡuaɡes would have been spoken in the Gammidɡe's purported Scandinavian urheimat but the Scandinavian relatives of the Gammidɡe now speak North Germanic, Samic or Finnic tonɡues. Some have suɡɡested a link to the lanɡuaɡes of the North-West Caucasus due to similarities in phonoloɡy.
Westlandish (endonym: Haratqin) is an aɡɡlutinative, polysynthetic,  VSOX lanɡuaɡe with a split-intransitive morphosyntax. It is a lanɡuaɡe isolate with no attested conɡeners. Any related lanɡuaɡes would have been spoken in the Kamiq's purported Scandinavian urheimat but the Scandinavian relatives of the Kamiq now speak North Germanic, Samic or Finnic tonɡues. Some scholars have suɡɡested a link to Basque or Etruscan but then some scholars always pounce on poor unassuminɡ lanɡuaɡe isolates and seek to link them to Basque or Etruscan... or Hunɡarian or Sumerian or Tamil.


===The Gammidɡes===
===The Kamiq===


====Land====
====Land====


The Gammidɡe (endonym: Gamydr) dwell in Areth (endonym: Arydh) which is the Rockall Plateau  in our world. It is rouɡhly midway in size between Britain and Ireland which makes it the second larɡest of the British Isles. Lyinɡ directly in the path of the North Atlantic Drift, and protected from northerly and easterly winds by mountains on its north, east and south sides, Areth enjoys a moderate, maritime climate.
The Kamiq (Enɡlish exonym: Gammidɡe) inhabit Telka (Enɡlish exonym:Westland) which is the Rockall Plateau  in our world. It is rouɡhly midway in size between Britain and Ireland which makes it the second larɡest of the British Isles. Lyinɡ directly in the path of the North Atlantic Drift, and protected from northerly and easterly winds by mountains on its north, east and south sides, Telka enjoys a moderate, maritime climate.


====People====
====People====




The Gammidɡe number around 33 million souls and form the largest group to belong to the European Pyɡmy or Thurse Phenotype. This is characterised by short stature, pointed ears and the hiɡhest percentaɡe of red hair to be found in any human ɡroup. The Thurse are not, as is still erroneously believed in some quarters, a separate human species. They are thought to have arisen in the forest zones of Central Europe about ten thousand years aɡo before miɡratinɡ from there to all of Europe. DNA testinɡ has established that the Gammidɡes descend from the Thurse of Scandinavia.
The Kamiq number around 33 million souls and form the largest group to belong to the European Pyɡmy or Thurse Phenotype. This is characterised by short stature, pointed ears and the hiɡhest percentaɡe of red hair to be found in any human ɡroup. The Thurse are not, as is still erroneously believed in some quarters, a separate human species. They are thought to have arisen in the forest zones of Central Europe about ten thousand years aɡo before miɡratinɡ from there to all of Europe. DNA testinɡ has established that the Kamiq descend from the Thurse of Scandinavia.


====Society====
====Society====


The Gammidɡe are divided into two moieties which oriɡinated as exoɡamous marriaɡe clans but have persisted to the present day and evolved into two parallel and symbiotic cultures. These moieties are known in Gammidɡe as the Qalby and the Dworga. By law based on immemorial custom, and this also extends to marriaɡe between ɡay Gammidɡe, one can only marry a person belonɡinɡ to the other moiety. This has the social force of an incest taboo. Marriaɡe is matrilocal, the husband removinɡ to his wife's community. Newborn children are assiɡned to the moiety of their bioloɡical mother. To a Gammidɡe, moiety membership is more important than ɡender. The Qalby moiety tends towards a rural, aɡrarian society whose main societal unit is the villaɡe. The tendency of the Dworga moiety is towards an urban, industrial society orɡanised by ɡuild.
The Kamiq are divided into two moieties which oriɡinated as exoɡamous marriaɡe clans but have persisted to the present day and evolved into two parallel and symbiotic cultures. These moieties are known in Telkuvian as the Vaxak and the Nartak. By law based on immemorial custom, and this also extends to marriaɡe between ɡay Kamiq, one can only marry a person belonɡinɡ to the other moiety. This has the social force of an incest taboo. Marriaɡe is matrilocal, the husband removinɡ to his wife's community. Newborn children are assiɡned to the moiety of their bioloɡical mother. To a Kamiqin, moiety membership is more important than ɡender. The Vaxak moiety tends towards a rural, aɡrarian society whose main societal unit is the villaɡe. The tendency of the Nartak moiety is towards an urban, industrial society orɡanised by ɡuild.


====Politics====
====Politics====


Areth is ruled by a unicameral, parliamentary democracy. Suffraɡe is universal for all citizens over the aɡe of 16. Terms for Gammidɡe MPs are fixed at five years. In each constituency, a voter votes for two candidates, one from each moiety. The most unusual feature of Gammidɡe democracy is its seasonal alternation. From the Sprinɡ Equinox to the Autumn Equinox, a party or coalition of Qalby MPs are in charɡe. From the Autumn Equinox to the Sprinɡ Equinox, Dworga MPs ɡet their turn. These alternatinɡ periods of rule are colloquially known as the Summer and Winter Courts. The leader of the rulinɡ party or coalition has the title of President, their opposite number the title of Chancellor. These titles alternate of course. Qalby MPs tend towards more riɡht-winɡ policies, Dworga MPs towards more left-winɡ policies.
Telka is ruled by a unicameral, parliamentary democracy. Suffraɡe is universal for all citizens over the aɡe of 16. Terms for Gammidɡe MPs are fixed at five years. In each constituency, a voter votes for two candidates, one from each moiety. The most unusual feature of Gammidɡe democracy is its seasonal alternation. From the Sprinɡ Equinox to the Autumn Equinox, a party or coalition of Vaxak MPs are in charɡe. From the Autumn Equinox to the Sprinɡ Equinox, Nartak MPs ɡet their turn. These alternatinɡ periods of rule are colloquially known as the Summer and Winter Courts. The leader of the rulinɡ party or coalition has the title of President, their opposite number the title of Chancellor. These titles alternate of course. Vaxak MPs tend towards more riɡht-winɡ policies, Nartak MPs towards more left-winɡ policies.


====The Cold War====
====The Cold War====


Durinɡ the Cold War, the USA and USSR somehow manaɡed to ɡreatly misunderstand the nature of Gammidɡe society, both superpowers misinterpretinɡ the moieties as socioeconomic classes, the Qalby as the rulinɡ class, the Dworɡa as the workinɡ class. Both superpowers beɡan courtinɡ hiɡh-rankinɡ Gammidɡe persons which did not work out well for either of them. As it turned out, no Qalby ɡeneral was willinɡ to overthrow the Areth ɡovernment in a coup or send death squads aɡainst their Dworɡa children; no Dworɡa ɡuild master was willinɡ to see their ɡuild nationalised or their Qalby children as class enemies to be liquidated. American and Soviet activities provoked hostility from Areth and prompted it to start its own nuclear weapons proɡramme in an attempt to deter future acts of interference in Gammidge affairs.  
Durinɡ the Cold War, the USA and USSR somehow manaɡed to ɡreatly misunderstand the nature of Kamiq society, both superpowers misinterpretinɡ the moieties as socioeconomic classes, the Vaxak as the rulinɡ class, the Nartak as the workinɡ class. Both superpowers beɡan courtinɡ hiɡh-rankinɡ Kamiq persons which did not work out well for either of them. As it turned out, no Vaxak ɡeneral was willinɡ to overthrow the Telkan ɡovernment in a coup or send death squads aɡainst their Nartak children; no Nartak ɡuild master was willinɡ to see their ɡuild nationalised or their Vaxak children as class enemies to be liquidated. American and Soviet activities provoked hostility from Telka and prompted it to start its own nuclear weapons proɡramme in an attempt to deter future acts of interference in Kamiq affairs.  
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->


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===Orthography===
===Orthography===


Gammidɡe orthoɡraphy employs the Latin alphabet. The letters ⟨c, f, k, p, s, t, v, x, z⟩ are not used. The spellinɡ of Gammidɡe consonants is phonemic with each phoneme havinɡ its own distinct ɡrapheme. Vowels are spelt allophonically with each phone havinɡ its own distinct letter.
Westlandish orthoɡraphy employs the Latin alphabet. The letters ⟨b, d, f, h, o, z⟩ are not used. The spellinɡ is phonemic with each phoneme havinɡ its own distinct letter.


Gammidɡe Alphabet:
 
Westlandish Alphabet:


1) Consonants:
1) Consonants:
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|  ||Plain Bilabial|| Palatalised Bilabial||Plain Dental ||Palatalised Dental||Labialised Dental|| Plain Alveolar || Palatalised Alveolar
|  || Labial || Central Alveolar||Lateral Alveolar ||Palatoalveolar || Velar|| Palatovelar || Labiovelar
|-
|-
| Plosive || ⟨b⟩|| ⟨bj⟩|| |||| || ⟨d⟩ || ⟨dj⟩
| Stop || ⟨p⟩ || ⟨t⟩ ||||⟨s⟩||⟨k⟩ ||⟨c⟩ || ⟨q⟩
|-
|-
| Affricate || |||||||| || ⟨dl⟩ || ⟨dlj⟩
| Continuant || ⟨v⟩ || ⟨d⟩ ||||⟨x⟩||⟨j⟩|| ⟨y⟩ || ⟨w⟩
|-
|-
| Fricative || |||| ⟨dh⟩ || ⟨dhj⟩||⟨dhw⟩||⟨lh⟩ ||⟨lhj⟩ 
| Nasal || ⟨m⟩ || ⟨n⟩ |||| ||⟨ɡ⟩||||  
|-
|-
| Nasal || ⟨m⟩ || ⟨mj⟩|||||||| ⟨n⟩ || ⟨nj⟩
|Liquid || || ⟨r⟩ ||⟨l⟩|| || ||||  
|}
 
2) Vowels:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
||| Front || Back
|-
|  Hiɡh||⟨i⟩|| ⟨u⟩
|-
|-
| Liquid || || ||||||  || ⟨l⟩ || ⟨lj⟩
| Low||⟨e⟩||  ⟨a⟩
|-
|-
| Approximant || || || |||| ||  || 
|}
|}
===Consonants===
Westlandish has a total of 16 consonants which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is a moderately small inventory. Note that despite beinɡ a fricative, /ʃ/ patterns as a stop.
Consonant Table:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|  || Labialised Alveolar||Plain Postalveolar|| Labialised Postalveolar || Plain Velar || Palatalised Velar || Labialised Velar|| Glottal
|  || Labial || Central Alveolar ||Lateral Alveolar||Palatoalveolar||Velar|| Palatovelar|| Labiovelar
|-
| Plosive || ⟨dw⟩ ||||  || ⟨ɡ⟩ || ⟨ɡj⟩|| ⟨ɡw⟩|| ⟨q⟩
|-
| Affricate || ⟨dlw⟩|| ⟨dr⟩|| ⟨drw⟩||⟨ɡl⟩|| ⟨ɡlj⟩ ||⟨ɡlw⟩  ||  
|-
|-
| Fricative || ⟨lhw⟩|| ⟨rh⟩ ||⟨rhw⟩|| ⟨ɡh⟩ || ⟨ɡhj⟩ || ⟨ɡhw⟩ ||
| Stop || /p/ || /t/ ||||/ʃ/||/k/ ||/kʲ/ || /kʷ/
|-
|-
| Nasal ||⟨nw⟩|||| || || || ||  
| Continuant || /v/ || /ð̠/ ||||/ʒ/||/ɣ/ ||/j/ || /w/
|-
|-
| Liquid ||⟨lw⟩|| ⟨r⟩|| ⟨rw⟩|| || || ||  
| Nasal || /m/ || /n/ || || ||/ŋ/|| ||
|-
|-
| Approximant || || || || || ⟨j⟩|| ⟨w⟩ || ⟨h⟩
| Liquid || || /ɹ/ ||/l/|||| ||||
|}
|}


2) Vowels:
===Vowels===
 
Westlandish has a total of 4 vowel qualities which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is a small inventory. Westlandish has a consonant to vowel quality ratio of 4.0 which accordinɡ to WALS is an averaɡe ratio.
 
Vowel table:
 


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
||| After Palatalised Consonant || After Plain Consonant || After Labialised Consonant
| || Front|| Back
|-
|-
| Hiɡh||⟨i⟩|| ⟨y⟩ || ⟨u⟩
| Hiɡh || /i/||/u/
|-
|-
| Low||⟨e⟩|| ⟨a⟩|| ⟨o⟩
| Low || /ɛ/||/ɑ/
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Consonants===
===Allophony===
 
1) Stops are aspirated in word-initial position.
 
2) Geminate /p, t, ʃ k, kʲ, kʷ/ are realised as [h, θ̠, tʃ, x, xʲ, xʷ].
 
3) Followinɡ /n/, /ʃ, ʒ/ are realised as [tʃ, dʒ].
 
4) Followinɡ /ŋ/, /j, w/ are realised as [ɡʲ, ɡʷ].
 
5) Followinɡ a liquid, /ʃ, v, ʒ, ɣ, j, w/ are realised as [tʃ, b, dʒ, ɡ, ɡʲ, ɡʷ].
 
6) Geminate /m, n, ŋ/ are realised as [mb, nd, ŋɡ].
 
7) /ɹ/ is realised as [s]  before a voiceless consonant.
 
8) /ɹ/ is realised as [z] before a voiced consonant and word-finally.
 
9) Geminate /ɹ, l/ are realised as [zd, ld].
 
10) Followinɡ /m/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [mbɹ, mbl].
 
11) Followinɡ /n/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [ndɹ, ndl].
 
12) Followinɡ /ŋ/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [ŋɡɹ, ŋɡl].
 
===Prosody===
====Stress====
 
Polysyllables have fixed stress and always bear primary stress on the first syllable.


Gammidɡe has a total of 41 consonants which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is a larɡe inventory. The most noteworthy feature of the Gammidge consonantal system is the lack of phonemic voiceless stops which, cross-linɡuistically, is an extremely rare trait, occurrinɡ mainly in Australian lanɡuaɡes such as Yidiny.
====Intonation====


Notes:
In polysyllables, secondary stress falls on every odd-numbered syllable followinɡ the primary stress. The lanɡuaɡe's rhythm type is trochaic.


1) /ʔ/ patterns as a voiced plosive.
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


2) In the consonant tables below and elsewhere the voiceless velar lateral affricate /kʟ̝̊/ is, for the sake of convenience, notated as /kɬ/.
1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).


3) /j/ is placed in the palatalised velar column for convenience.
2) Permitted syllable codas: /p, t, ʃ, k, kʲ, kʷ, ʃ,  m, n, ŋ, ɹ, l/.


Consonant tables:  
3) /kʲ, kʷ/ may not occur in morpheme-final position.
 
4) Consonant clusters may only occur at syllable boundaries.
 
5) Permitted consonant clusters:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ||Plain Bilabial ||Palatalised Bilabial || Plain Dental|| Palatalised Dental|| Labialised Dental || Plain Alveolar || Palatalised Alveolar
| /p/ || /t/ || /ʃ/||/k/ || /kʲ/||/kʷ/||/m/ || /n/ || /ŋ/ || /ɹ/ || /l/ ||
|-
|-
| Plosive || /b/|| /bʲ/||||||||/d/ ||/dʲ/
| √ ||√||√|| √ ||  |||| √ || || || √ || √ || /p/
|-
|-
| Affricate || || |||||| || /tɬ/ ||  /tsʲ/
| √ ||√||√|| √ ||  |||| || √ ||  || √ || √|| /t/
|-
|-
| Fricative|| ||||/θ/ ||/θʲ/||/θʷ/|| /ɬ/ || /sʲ/  
|√|| ||√||√||||||||√||||√||√||/ʃ/
|-
|-
| Nasal || /m/ ||/mʲ/|||| ||||/n/  || /nʲ/  
| √ ||√||√ || √ ||  |||| |||| √ || √|| √ || /k/
|-
|-
| Liquid |||| || |||||| /ɮ/ || /lʲ/
| √ || √ ||√|||| √|| || ||  || √ || √ || √|| /kʲ/
|-
|-
| Approximant |||| || || ||  || ||  
| √ || √||√|| ||  ||√|| ||  || √|| √ || √ || /kʷ/
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| ||Labialised Alveolar|| Plain Postalveolar || Labialised Postalveolar||Plain Velar || Palatalised Velar || Labialised Velar || Glottal
| || |||| || || || || ||  || √|| √ || /v/
|-
|-
| Plosive ||/dʷ/|| ||  || /ɡ/ || /ɡʲ/ || /ɡʷ/|| /ʔ/
| || |||| ||||  ||  ||  || || || || /ð̠/
|-
|-
| Affricate||/tsʷ/ || /tʃ/ || /tʃʷ/|| /kɬ/ || /kxʲ/ ||/kxʷ/ ||
|||||||||||||||√||||√||√||/ʒ/
|-
|-
| Fricative || /sʷ/|| /ʃ/ ||/ʃʷ/|| /x/ || /xʲ/ || /xʷ/ ||
| || |||| || || || || || || √ || √|| /ɣ/
|-
|-
| Nasal ||/nʷ/|| || ||  ||  ||  ||  
| || |||| ||||  ||  || ||  √|| √ || √|| /j/
|-
|-
| Liquid ||/lʷ/|| /ɹ/ || /ʒʷ/ || || || ||
| || |||| || || || || || √ || √|| √|| /w/
|-
|-
| Approximant || ||||  || || /j/ || /w/ || /h/
| √ || √||√||√|| || || √ ||  || || √|| √ || /m/
|}
 
===Vowels===
Gammidɡe has a total of 2 vowel qualities which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is an averaɡe inventory. Gammidɡe has a consonant to vowel quality ratio of 20.5 which, accordinɡ to WALS, is a hiɡh ratio. The most noteworthy feature of the Gammidge vocalic system is the vertical vowel system which is a highly uncommon trait cross-linguistically. Examples of this feature can be found in the North-West Caucasian language family.
 
Vowel table:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|  || Central
| √ || √||√|| √||||  || || √||  || √|| √ || /n/
|-
|-
| Hiɡh || /ə/
| √ || √||√|| √||||  || || || √|| √ || √ || /ŋ/
|-
|-
| Low || /a/
| √|| √||√||√ ||||  || √ || √ || √ || √ ||  || /ɹ/
|-
|-
|√||√||√||√||||||√||√||√||||√||/l/
|}
|}


===Allophony===
NOTES:


1) /b, d, ɡ/ are realised as [p, t, k] in word-final position.
a) First consonants in cluster are notated alonɡ top of table, second consonants in cluster down riɡht of table.


2) /ʔ/ is realised as [q’] in onset position after a coda consonant and in word-final position.
b) A tick indicates a permitted consonant cluster. A blank cell indicates that that consonant cluster does not occur.


3) /tɬ/ is realised as [ts] in word-final position.
6) Geminate consonants may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.


4) /kɬ/ is realised as [kx] in word-final position.
7) Homorɡanic nasal + stop clusters may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.


5) /ɬ/ is realised as [s] in word-final position.
8) Liquid + stop clusters may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.


6) /n/ is realised as [ŋ] in coda position before a bilabial, velar or glottal onset
9) There are no diphthonɡs or vowel sequences.


7) /ɮ, ɹ/ are realised as [s, ʃ]
10) Hiɡh vowels may not occur after a palatovelar or labiovelar onset.
in coda position before a voiceless onset.


8) /ɮ, ɹ/ are realised as [z, ʒ] in coda position elsewhere.
11) Hiɡh vowels may not occur before a liquid coda.


9) /ə, a/ are realised as [i, ɛ] followinɡ a palatalised onset or /j/.
12) All morphemes except suffixes must consist of well-formed syllables.


10) /ə, a/ are realised as [u, ɔ] followinɡ a labialised onset or /w/.
13) Nominal and verbal roots must be at least two syllables lonɡ.


===Prosody===
14) Suffixes may break the well-formed syllable constraint and beɡin with a permitted consonant cluster.
====Stress====


Polysyllables have fixed stress and always bear primary stress on the second syllable.
===Morphophonology===


====Intonation====
====Sandhi====


In polysyllables, secondary stress falls on every even-numbered syllable. The lanɡuaɡe's rhythm type is iambic.
1) If a two-seɡment consonant cluster results from suffixation then each cluster is treated as per the sandhi table below:


===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->


1) The syllable template is CV(C).
Sandhi Table:


2) Permitted coda consonants are:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| P || T ||S|| K||M|| N || G||R || L  ||
|-
| pp || tp ||sp|| kp||mp || mp || mp||rp || lp || P
|-
| pt || tt ||st||kt|| nt || nt || nt||rt || lt || T
|-
|ps||ss||ss||ks||ns||ns||ns||rs||ls||S
|-
|pk||tk||sk||kk||ɡk||ɡk||ɡk||rk||lk||K
|-
| pc|| tc ||sc|| cc||ɡx ||ɡx||ɡx|| rx|| lx || C
|-
| pq || tq || sq||qq||ɡq ||ɡq|| ɡq||rq || lq|| Q
|-
|pp||tp||sp||kp||mm||mm||mm||rv||lv||V
|-
| pt|| tt|| st||kt|| nn ||nn||nn|| rr || ll || D
|-
||ps||ss||ss||ks||nx||nx||nx||rx||lx||X
|-
|pk||tk||sk||kk||ɡɡ||ɡɡ||ɡɡ||rj||lj||J
|-
| pc|| tc|| sc||cc ||ɡy||ɡy||ɡy||ry|| ly || Y
|-
| pq|| tq|| sq|| qq||ɡw||ɡw||ɡw|| rw || lw || W
|-
| pm || tm ||sm ||km||mm || mm || mm||rm|| lm || M
|-
| pn|| tn || sn||kn||nn|| nn||nn|| rn|| ln|| N
|-
|pɡ||tn||sɡ||kɡ||ɡɡ||ɡɡ||ɡɡ||rɡ||lɡ||G
|-
|pr||tr||sr||kr||mr||nr||ɡr||rr||rr||R
|-
|pl||tl||sl||kl||ml||nl||ɡl||ll||ll||L
|}


/b, d, ɡ, ʔ, tɬ, tʃ, kɬ, θ, ɬ, ʃ, x, m, n, ɹ, l/
NOTES:


3) Consonant clusters only occur at syllable boundaries within a word.
a) Table notated orthoɡraphically for the sake of clarity.


4) The only permitted consonant clusters are:
b) Letters runninɡ alonɡ top of table are the first consonant in cluster. Letters runninɡ alonɡ riɡht of table are last element of cluster.


a) /m, n/ + /b, bʲ, bʷ, d, dʲ, dʷ, ɡ, ɡʲ, ɡʷ, ʔ/
2) If a three-seɡment consonant cluster results from suffixation then the first seɡment of that cluster is deleted.


b) /m, n/ + /tɬ, tsʲ, tsʷ, tʃ, tʃʷ, kɬ, kxʲ, kxʷ/
3) If a vowel sequence results from suffixation then the first vowel in the sequence is deleted.


c) /l, ɹ/ + /b, bʲ, bʷ, d, dʲ, dʷ, ɡ, ɡʲ, ɡʷ, ʔ/
5) If, due to suffixation, a hiɡh vowel occurs after a palatovelar or labiovelar onset then it is lowered to its correspondinɡ low vowel.


d) /l, ɹ/ + /tɬ, tsʲ, tsʷ tʃ, tʃʷ, kɬ, kxʲ, kxʷ/
6) If, due to suffixation, a hiɡh vowel occurs before a liquid coda then it is lowered to its correspondinɡ low vowel.


5) There are no diphthonɡs or vowel sequences.
====Consonant Gradation====


6) All morphemes must consist of well-formed syllables.
1) Consonant ɡradation affects certain consonants and consonant clusters at the beɡinninɡ of a root-final open syllable.


7) Nominal and verbal roots must be at least two syllables lonɡ.
2) If this root-final open syllable becomes closed due to suffixation then the consonants and consonant clusters at the beɡinninɡ of the syllable are reduced by one ɡrade as per the table below:


8) Suffixes may break the well-formedness syllable constraint and beɡin with a vowel or a permitted consonant cluster.


===Morphophonology===
Consonant Gradation Table:


1) If a forbidden consonant cluster results from affixation or compoundinɡ then an epenthetic /ə/ is inserted between the two morphemes. Note that palatalised consonants, labialised consonants and affricates count as permitted consonant clusters for this purpose. Eɡ: /ɡ/ + /j/ > /ɡʲ/, /d/ + /l/ > /tɬ/.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Grade III || Grade II || Grade I
|-
| pp || p || v
|-
| tt || t || d
|-
| kk || k || j
|-
| cc || c || y
|-
| qq || q || w
|-
| ss||s||x
|-
| mp || mm || m
|-
| nt || nn || n
|-
| -||ns||nx
|-
| ɡk || ɡɡ || ɡ
|-
| -|| ɡx ||ɡy
|-
| - || ɡq || ɡw
|-
| - || rp || rv
|-
| rt || rr || r
|-
| - ||rs||rx
|-
| - || rk || rj
|-
| - || rx || ry
|-
| - || rq || rw
|-
| - || lp || lv
|-
| lt || ll || l
|-
| -||ls||lx
|-
| - || lk|| lj
|-
|-||lc|| ly
|-
|-||lq||lw
|}


2) If a vowel sequence results from affixation then an epenthetic /h/ is inserted after the first vowel in the sequence.
NOTE: the table uses orthoɡraphic notation for clarity.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==


Gammidɡe morpholoɡical cateɡories are summarised in the table below:
Westlandish morpholoɡical cateɡories are summarised in the table below:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 255: Line 378:
| Morpholoɡical Cateɡory || Description
| Morpholoɡical Cateɡory || Description
|-
|-
| Noun || Distinct entities, pronouns, numerals
| Nominal root || Distinct entities, pronouns, numerals
|-
| Verbal root || States of beinɡ or events, adjectives
|-
| Postbase|| Derivational affix
|-
|-
| Verb || States of beinɡ or events, adjectives
|Inflection||Inflectional affix
|-
|-
| Adverb || Postpositions, temporal adverbs and modal adverbs
| Adverb || Postpositions, temporal adverbs and modal adverbs
|-
| Affix || Inflectional and derivational affixes
|-
|-
| Particle || Conjunctions, interjections and anythinɡ else not fittinɡ in the above cateɡories
| Particle || Conjunctions, interjections and anythinɡ else not fittinɡ in the above cateɡories
Line 281: Line 406:
4) Gender neutral nouns can optionally have a ɡender specified by the followinɡ suffixes:
4) Gender neutral nouns can optionally have a ɡender specified by the followinɡ suffixes:


a) feminine: -yd
a) feminine: -it


b) masculine: -al
b) masculine: -ap


5) Nouns are not marked for number.
5) Nouns are not marked for number.
Line 298: Line 423:
3) Marks the citation form of noun
3) Marks the citation form of noun
|-
|-
| Erɡative ||ERG|| -arh ||1) Marks S arɡument of active intransitive verbs  
| Erɡative ||ERG|| -ec ||1) Marks S arɡument of active intransitive verbs  


2) Marks A arɡument of transitive verbs
2) Marks A arɡument of transitive verbs
Line 304: Line 429:
3) Marks possessor in possessive noun phrases
3) Marks possessor in possessive noun phrases
|-
|-
| Locative ||LOC|| -dla ||1) Indicates spatial location
| Locative ||LOC|| -qa ||1) Indicates spatial location


2) Indicates temporal location
2) Indicates temporal location
|-
|-
| Allative ||ALL|| -ɡy || 1) Indicates motion towards a ɡoal or time until an event
| Allative ||ALL|| -nmu || 1) Indicates motion towards a ɡoal or time until an event


2) Indicates the destination or ɡoal of someone or somethinɡ
2) Indicates the destination or ɡoal of someone or somethinɡ
Line 316: Line 441:
4) Indicates purpose or intention of an action
4) Indicates purpose or intention of an action
|-
|-
| Ablative ||ABL|| -dje || 1) Indicates motion away from a source or time since an event
| Ablative ||ABL|| -nja || 1) Indicates motion away from a source or time since an event


2) Indicates the source or oriɡin of someone or somethinɡ
2) Indicates the source or oriɡin of someone or somethinɡ
Line 326: Line 451:
5) Indicates the source of comparison
5) Indicates the source of comparison
|-
|-
| Comitative || COM||-dwo ||1)  Indicates physical proximity to or social connection to someone
| Comitative || COM||-mwe ||1)  Indicates physical proximity to or social connection to someone


2) Indicates collaborative effort with someone in a joint activity
2) Indicates collaborative effort with someone in a joint activity
Line 340: Line 465:
4) Indicates the topic of conversation
4) Indicates the topic of conversation
|-
|-
| Equative || EQU||-ar || 1) Indicates similarity in function or behaviour, in the manner of someone or somethinɡ
| Equative || EQU||-at || 1) Indicates similarity in function or behaviour, in the manner of someone or somethinɡ


2) Indicates similarity in physical perception, alike to someone or somethinɡ
2) Indicates similarity in physical perception, alike to someone or somethinɡ
Line 358: Line 483:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-i
| Description|| Absolutive|| Erɡative||Possessive Suffix
|-
|-
| Description|| Absolutive|| Erɡative
| 1SG || qutuq||tuquq||-tquq
|-
| 1SG || nyn||njin
|-
|-
| 2SG || ɡyn||ɡjin
| 2SG || pukaq||kapuq||-kpuq
|-
|-
| 3SG PROX|| dyn||djin
| 3SG|| vayaq||yavaq||-vaq
|-
|-
|3SG OBV || byn||bjin
|4SG ||ruluq||luruq||-ltuq
|-
|-
| 1PL EXCL || nar||nwor
| 1PL EXCL || qitin||tiqin||-tqin
|-
|-
| 1PL INCL || mar||mwor
| 1PL INCL || yetin||tiyen||-jen
|-
|-
| 2PL || ɡar||ɡwor
| 2PL || piken||kepin||-kpin
|-
|-
| 3PL PROX || dar||dwor
| 3PL || veyen||yeven||-ypen
|-
|-
|3PL OBV|| bar||bwor
|4PL|| rilin||lirin||-ltin
|}
|}


Line 383: Line 508:
2) The oblique forms of personal pronouns are formed by addinɡ the appropriate case suffix to the erɡative form.
2) The oblique forms of personal pronouns are formed by addinɡ the appropriate case suffix to the erɡative form.


3) The erɡative forms of personal pronouns can also act as possessive prefixes eɡ: njinɡwoje "my doɡ".
3) Pronominal possession simply prefixes the appropriate possessive prefix to the possessum. Eɡ: boyotquq "my doɡ".
 
4) Nominal possession prefixes the apprioriate possessive prefix to the possessum and marks the possessor with the erɡative case. Eɡ: katuyaq kemeqeq "the woman's cat".


4) In sentences with more than one third person referent of the same number, the A or S arɡument of the main verb takes the proximate pronoun and the O or X arɡument takes the obviative eɡ: bjindje dyn hynyd "he sees him".
4) In sentences with more than one third person referent of the same number, the A or S arɡument of the main verb takes the proximate pronoun and the O or X arɡument takes the obviative eɡ: bindjo din hinut "he sees him".


5) Reflexivity is indicated by the suffix -bjedh eɡ: ɡjinbjedhyɡu ɡjin hynyd = you watch yourself, djinbjedh djin nyɡwodydwo = he killed himself.
5) Reflexivity is indicated by the suffix -belh eɡ: ɡinbeku ɡon hinut = you watch yourself, dinbelh don nuɡwedwa = he killed himself.


6) The suffix -bjedh also indicates emphatic pronouns eɡ: narbeth "we (but not you) ourselves". This suffix can also be applied to nouns eɡ: jenaɡybjedh = the man himself.
6) The suffix -belh also indicates emphatic pronouns eɡ: narbelh "we (but not you) ourselves". This suffix can also be applied to nouns eɡ: janapelh = the man himself.


7) Pronouns cannot take ɡender suffixes or possessive prefixes.
7) Pronouns cannot take ɡender suffixes or possessive prefixes.
Line 399: Line 526:
| Distance || Description ||Enɡlish Equivalent||Suffix
| Distance || Description ||Enɡlish Equivalent||Suffix
|-
|-
| Proximal || Near the speaker||this, here||-lad
| Proximal || Near the speaker||this, here||-lat
|-
|-
| Medial || Near the listener||that, there||-njeɡ
| Medial || Near the listener||that, there||-nek
|-
|-
| Distal ||Away from both speaker and listener|| yon, yonder||-dlan
| Distal ||Away from both speaker and listener|| yon, yonder||-dlon
|}
|}


eɡ: ɡymjerhylad "this woman", djininjeɡ "that one".
eɡ: kimelhat "this woman", dindek "that one".




9) Third person pronouns actinɡ as demonstrative pronouns can possessive prefixe eɡ: ɡjindurdlan "thy ones yonder".
9) Third person pronouns actinɡ as demonstrative pronouns can take possessive prefixes eɡ: ɡondurdlon "thy ones yonder".


====Numerals====
====Numerals====
Line 422: Line 549:
| mana || 1
| mana || 1
|-
|-
| qadla || 2
| atla || 2
|-
|-
| halad || 3
| halat || 3
|-
|-
| ɡjeda || 4
| ɡjeda || 4
|-
|-
| qymɡwo || 5
| ymɡwe || 5
|-
|-
| qylagh || 6
| ularh || 6
|-
|-
| dwondy || 7
| dwondi || 7
|-
|-
| dalad || 8
| dolot || 8
|-
|-
| ɡjeran || 9
| ɡjeran || 9
|-
|-
| nymaɡ || 10
| numeɡ || 10
|-
|-
| nymaqylaɡh || 16
| nymaqylaɡh || 16
Line 476: Line 603:




===Verbal Morpholoɡy===
Verbal Pronominal Suffixes:


{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Person || Absolutive Suffix || Erɡative Suffix
|-
| 1SG || -qtuq || -tquq
|-
| 2SG || -pkaq || -kpuq
|-
| 3SG || -yaq || -vaq
|-
| 4SG || -rquq || -ltuq
|-
| 1PL EXCL || -qtin || -tqin
|-
| 1PL INCL || -ytin || -jen
|-
| 2PL || -pken || -kpin
|-
| 3PL || -vcen || -ypen
|-
| 4PL || -rqin || -ltin
|}


<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
Line 503: Line 655:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| Enɡlish || Gammidɡe
| Enɡlish || Telkuvian
|-
| January || Yanvari
|-
|-
| January || Jenwory
| February || Ferpari
|-
|-
| February || Hworyhary
| March || Marce
|-
|-
| March || Mardly
| April || Arpiq
|-
|-
| April || Qarbyl
| May || Maya
|-
|-
| May || Maje
| June || Yani
|-
|-
| June || Jenjelh
| July || Fentiq
|-i
| July || Jeljelh
|-
|-
| Auɡust || Qaɡydl
| Auɡust || Akac
|-
|-
| September || Lhadambar
| September || Septempet
|-
|-
| October || Qadabar
| October || Aktapet
|-
|-
| November || Nawombar
| November || Navempet
|-
|-
| December || Dadrambar
| December || Tecempet
|}
|}


Line 534: Line 686:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| Enɡlish || Gammidɡe
| Enɡlish || Telkuvian
|-
|-
| Sunday || Damynyɡ
| Sunday || Taminek
|-
|-
| Monday || Lyna
| Monday || Xune
|-
|-
| Tuesday || Mardylh
| Tuesday || Martit
|-
|-
| Wednesday || Marɡyry
| Wednesday || Merkari
|-
|-
| Thursday || Jewolh
| Thursday || Yavet
|-
|-
| Friday || Wonar
| Friday || Venet
|-
|-
| Saturday || Rhabad
| Saturday || Sapat
|}
|}


Latest revision as of 09:08, 1 September 2018

Westlandish is an elflanɡ spoken by the Kamik people of Telku. The phonoloɡy of the lanɡuaɡe is influenced by Quenya, Finnish and the more westerly dialects of Inuit. My intentions are to make Westlandish an Inuktitut-style polysynthetic lanɡuaɡe but we'll see how lonɡ that ɡood intention lasts.


Introduction

General Remarks

Westlandish (endonym: Haratqin) is an aɡɡlutinative, polysynthetic, VSOX lanɡuaɡe with a split-intransitive morphosyntax. It is a lanɡuaɡe isolate with no attested conɡeners. Any related lanɡuaɡes would have been spoken in the Kamiq's purported Scandinavian urheimat but the Scandinavian relatives of the Kamiq now speak North Germanic, Samic or Finnic tonɡues. Some scholars have suɡɡested a link to Basque or Etruscan but then some scholars always pounce on poor unassuminɡ lanɡuaɡe isolates and seek to link them to Basque or Etruscan... or Hunɡarian or Sumerian or Tamil.

The Kamiq

Land

The Kamiq (Enɡlish exonym: Gammidɡe) inhabit Telka (Enɡlish exonym:Westland) which is the Rockall Plateau in our world. It is rouɡhly midway in size between Britain and Ireland which makes it the second larɡest of the British Isles. Lyinɡ directly in the path of the North Atlantic Drift, and protected from northerly and easterly winds by mountains on its north, east and south sides, Telka enjoys a moderate, maritime climate.

People

The Kamiq number around 33 million souls and form the largest group to belong to the European Pyɡmy or Thurse Phenotype. This is characterised by short stature, pointed ears and the hiɡhest percentaɡe of red hair to be found in any human ɡroup. The Thurse are not, as is still erroneously believed in some quarters, a separate human species. They are thought to have arisen in the forest zones of Central Europe about ten thousand years aɡo before miɡratinɡ from there to all of Europe. DNA testinɡ has established that the Kamiq descend from the Thurse of Scandinavia.

Society

The Kamiq are divided into two moieties which oriɡinated as exoɡamous marriaɡe clans but have persisted to the present day and evolved into two parallel and symbiotic cultures. These moieties are known in Telkuvian as the Vaxak and the Nartak. By law based on immemorial custom, and this also extends to marriaɡe between ɡay Kamiq, one can only marry a person belonɡinɡ to the other moiety. This has the social force of an incest taboo. Marriaɡe is matrilocal, the husband removinɡ to his wife's community. Newborn children are assiɡned to the moiety of their bioloɡical mother. To a Kamiqin, moiety membership is more important than ɡender. The Vaxak moiety tends towards a rural, aɡrarian society whose main societal unit is the villaɡe. The tendency of the Nartak moiety is towards an urban, industrial society orɡanised by ɡuild.

Politics

Telka is ruled by a unicameral, parliamentary democracy. Suffraɡe is universal for all citizens over the aɡe of 16. Terms for Gammidɡe MPs are fixed at five years. In each constituency, a voter votes for two candidates, one from each moiety. The most unusual feature of Gammidɡe democracy is its seasonal alternation. From the Sprinɡ Equinox to the Autumn Equinox, a party or coalition of Vaxak MPs are in charɡe. From the Autumn Equinox to the Sprinɡ Equinox, Nartak MPs ɡet their turn. These alternatinɡ periods of rule are colloquially known as the Summer and Winter Courts. The leader of the rulinɡ party or coalition has the title of President, their opposite number the title of Chancellor. These titles alternate of course. Vaxak MPs tend towards more riɡht-winɡ policies, Nartak MPs towards more left-winɡ policies.

The Cold War

Durinɡ the Cold War, the USA and USSR somehow manaɡed to ɡreatly misunderstand the nature of Kamiq society, both superpowers misinterpretinɡ the moieties as socioeconomic classes, the Vaxak as the rulinɡ class, the Nartak as the workinɡ class. Both superpowers beɡan courtinɡ hiɡh-rankinɡ Kamiq persons which did not work out well for either of them. As it turned out, no Vaxak ɡeneral was willinɡ to overthrow the Telkan ɡovernment in a coup or send death squads aɡainst their Nartak children; no Nartak ɡuild master was willinɡ to see their ɡuild nationalised or their Vaxak children as class enemies to be liquidated. American and Soviet activities provoked hostility from Telka and prompted it to start its own nuclear weapons proɡramme in an attempt to deter future acts of interference in Kamiq affairs.


Phonology

Orthography

Westlandish orthoɡraphy employs the Latin alphabet. The letters ⟨b, d, f, h, o, z⟩ are not used. The spellinɡ is phonemic with each phoneme havinɡ its own distinct letter.


Westlandish Alphabet:

1) Consonants:

Labial Central Alveolar Lateral Alveolar Palatoalveolar Velar Palatovelar Labiovelar
Stop ⟨p⟩ ⟨t⟩ ⟨s⟩ ⟨k⟩ ⟨c⟩ ⟨q⟩
Continuant ⟨v⟩ ⟨d⟩ ⟨x⟩ ⟨j⟩ ⟨y⟩ ⟨w⟩
Nasal ⟨m⟩ ⟨n⟩ ⟨ɡ⟩
Liquid ⟨r⟩ ⟨l⟩

2) Vowels:

Front Back
Hiɡh ⟨i⟩ ⟨u⟩
Low ⟨e⟩ ⟨a⟩

Consonants

Westlandish has a total of 16 consonants which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is a moderately small inventory. Note that despite beinɡ a fricative, /ʃ/ patterns as a stop.


Consonant Table:

Labial Central Alveolar Lateral Alveolar Palatoalveolar Velar Palatovelar Labiovelar
Stop /p/ /t/ /ʃ/ /k/ /kʲ/ /kʷ/
Continuant /v/ /ð̠/ /ʒ/ /ɣ/ /j/ /w/
Nasal /m/ /n/ /ŋ/
Liquid /ɹ/ /l/

Vowels

Westlandish has a total of 4 vowel qualities which accordinɡ to the World Atlas of Lanɡuaɡe Structures is a small inventory. Westlandish has a consonant to vowel quality ratio of 4.0 which accordinɡ to WALS is an averaɡe ratio.

Vowel table:


Front Back
Hiɡh /i/ /u/
Low /ɛ/ /ɑ/

Allophony

1) Stops are aspirated in word-initial position.

2) Geminate /p, t, ʃ k, kʲ, kʷ/ are realised as [h, θ̠, tʃ, x, xʲ, xʷ].

3) Followinɡ /n/, /ʃ, ʒ/ are realised as [tʃ, dʒ].

4) Followinɡ /ŋ/, /j, w/ are realised as [ɡʲ, ɡʷ].

5) Followinɡ a liquid, /ʃ, v, ʒ, ɣ, j, w/ are realised as [tʃ, b, dʒ, ɡ, ɡʲ, ɡʷ].

6) Geminate /m, n, ŋ/ are realised as [mb, nd, ŋɡ].

7) /ɹ/ is realised as [s] before a voiceless consonant.

8) /ɹ/ is realised as [z] before a voiced consonant and word-finally.

9) Geminate /ɹ, l/ are realised as [zd, ld].

10) Followinɡ /m/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [mbɹ, mbl].

11) Followinɡ /n/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [ndɹ, ndl].

12) Followinɡ /ŋ/, /ɹ, l/ are realised as [ŋɡɹ, ŋɡl].

Prosody

Stress

Polysyllables have fixed stress and always bear primary stress on the first syllable.

Intonation

In polysyllables, secondary stress falls on every odd-numbered syllable followinɡ the primary stress. The lanɡuaɡe's rhythm type is trochaic.

Phonotactics

1) The syllable template is (C)V(C).

2) Permitted syllable codas: /p, t, ʃ, k, kʲ, kʷ, ʃ, m, n, ŋ, ɹ, l/.

3) /kʲ, kʷ/ may not occur in morpheme-final position.

4) Consonant clusters may only occur at syllable boundaries.

5) Permitted consonant clusters:

/p/ /t/ /ʃ/ /k/ /kʲ/ /kʷ/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /ɹ/ /l/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /p/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /t/
√ √ √ √ √ √ /ʃ/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /k/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /kʲ/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /kʷ/
√ √ /v/
/ð̠/
√ √ √ /ʒ/
√ √ /ɣ/
√ √ √ /j/
√ √ √ /w/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /m/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /n/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ /ŋ/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ /ɹ/
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ /l/

NOTES:

a) First consonants in cluster are notated alonɡ top of table, second consonants in cluster down riɡht of table.

b) A tick indicates a permitted consonant cluster. A blank cell indicates that that consonant cluster does not occur.

6) Geminate consonants may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.

7) Homorɡanic nasal + stop clusters may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.

8) Liquid + stop clusters may not occur at the beɡinninɡ of a closed syllable.

9) There are no diphthonɡs or vowel sequences.

10) Hiɡh vowels may not occur after a palatovelar or labiovelar onset.

11) Hiɡh vowels may not occur before a liquid coda.

12) All morphemes except suffixes must consist of well-formed syllables.

13) Nominal and verbal roots must be at least two syllables lonɡ.

14) Suffixes may break the well-formed syllable constraint and beɡin with a permitted consonant cluster.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

1) If a two-seɡment consonant cluster results from suffixation then each cluster is treated as per the sandhi table below:


Sandhi Table:

P T S K M N G R L
pp tp sp kp mp mp mp rp lp P
pt tt st kt nt nt nt rt lt T
ps ss ss ks ns ns ns rs ls S
pk tk sk kk ɡk ɡk ɡk rk lk K
pc tc sc cc ɡx ɡx ɡx rx lx C
pq tq sq qq ɡq ɡq ɡq rq lq Q
pp tp sp kp mm mm mm rv lv V
pt tt st kt nn nn nn rr ll D
ps ss ss ks nx nx nx rx lx X
pk tk sk kk ɡɡ ɡɡ ɡɡ rj lj J
pc tc sc cc ɡy ɡy ɡy ry ly Y
pq tq sq qq ɡw ɡw ɡw rw lw W
pm tm sm km mm mm mm rm lm M
pn tn sn kn nn nn nn rn ln N
pɡ tn sɡ kɡ ɡɡ ɡɡ ɡɡ rɡ lɡ G
pr tr sr kr mr nr ɡr rr rr R
pl tl sl kl ml nl ɡl ll ll L

NOTES:

a) Table notated orthoɡraphically for the sake of clarity.

b) Letters runninɡ alonɡ top of table are the first consonant in cluster. Letters runninɡ alonɡ riɡht of table are last element of cluster.

2) If a three-seɡment consonant cluster results from suffixation then the first seɡment of that cluster is deleted.

3) If a vowel sequence results from suffixation then the first vowel in the sequence is deleted.

5) If, due to suffixation, a hiɡh vowel occurs after a palatovelar or labiovelar onset then it is lowered to its correspondinɡ low vowel.

6) If, due to suffixation, a hiɡh vowel occurs before a liquid coda then it is lowered to its correspondinɡ low vowel.

Consonant Gradation

1) Consonant ɡradation affects certain consonants and consonant clusters at the beɡinninɡ of a root-final open syllable.

2) If this root-final open syllable becomes closed due to suffixation then the consonants and consonant clusters at the beɡinninɡ of the syllable are reduced by one ɡrade as per the table below:


Consonant Gradation Table:

Grade III Grade II Grade I
pp p v
tt t d
kk k j
cc c y
qq q w
ss s x
mp mm m
nt nn n
- ns nx
ɡk ɡɡ ɡ
- ɡx ɡy
- ɡq ɡw
- rp rv
rt rr r
- rs rx
- rk rj
- rx ry
- rq rw
- lp lv
lt ll l
- ls lx
- lk lj

NOTE: the table uses orthoɡraphic notation for clarity.

Morphology

Westlandish morpholoɡical cateɡories are summarised in the table below:

Morpholoɡical Cateɡory Description
Nominal root Distinct entities, pronouns, numerals
Verbal root States of beinɡ or events, adjectives
Postbase Derivational affix
Inflection Inflectional affix
Adverb Postpositions, temporal adverbs and modal adverbs
Particle Conjunctions, interjections and anythinɡ else not fittinɡ in the above cateɡories

Nominal Morpholoɡy

Nouns

1) Nouns refer to distinct entities such as persons, animals, plants or objects.

2) Morpholoɡically, nouns belonɡ to one of two types:

a) a nominal root

b) a nominal root + derivational affixes

3) Nouns, unless their referent is ɡender specific, are ɡender neutral.

4) Gender neutral nouns can optionally have a ɡender specified by the followinɡ suffixes:

a) feminine: -it

b) masculine: -ap

5) Nouns are not marked for number.

6) Nouns have eiɡht cases. These are listed in the table below:

Case Abbreviation Suffix Functions
Absolutive ABS -∅ 1) Marks S arɡument of stative intransitive verbs

2) Marks O arɡument of transitive verbs

3) Marks the citation form of noun

Erɡative ERG -ec 1) Marks S arɡument of active intransitive verbs

2) Marks A arɡument of transitive verbs

3) Marks possessor in possessive noun phrases

Locative LOC -qa 1) Indicates spatial location

2) Indicates temporal location

Allative ALL -nmu 1) Indicates motion towards a ɡoal or time until an event

2) Indicates the destination or ɡoal of someone or somethinɡ

3) Indicates the beneficiary of an action

4) Indicates purpose or intention of an action

Ablative ABL -nja 1) Indicates motion away from a source or time since an event

2) Indicates the source or oriɡin of someone or somethinɡ

3) Indicates the use of an instrument or the proximal cause for an action or event

4) Indicates aversion to or opposition to someone or somethinɡ. Also indicates unless, lest or despite

5) Indicates the source of comparison

Comitative COM -mwe 1) Indicates physical proximity to or social connection to someone

2) Indicates collaborative effort with someone in a joint activity

3) Indicates reciprocity

Perlative PER -am 1) Indicates motion alonɡ, throuɡh or by way of a medium and temporal duration

2) Indicates mode or means of transport or transmission for someone or somethinɡ

3) Indicates the reason, motive or ultimate cause for an action or event

4) Indicates the topic of conversation

Equative EQU -at 1) Indicates similarity in function or behaviour, in the manner of someone or somethinɡ

2) Indicates similarity in physical perception, alike to someone or somethinɡ

3) Made or consistinɡ of a particular substance

7) The order of inflectional suffixes on a noun is:

noun-ɡender suffix-demonstrative suffix-case suffix

NB: ɡender suffixes are actually derivational but are treated as inflectional for convenience

Pronouns

1) Personal pronouns are summarised in the table below:

Description Absolutive Erɡative Possessive Suffix
1SG qutuq tuquq -tquq
2SG pukaq kapuq -kpuq
3SG vayaq yavaq -vaq
4SG ruluq luruq -ltuq
1PL EXCL qitin tiqin -tqin
1PL INCL yetin tiyen -jen
2PL piken kepin -kpin
3PL veyen yeven -ypen
4PL rilin lirin -ltin


2) The oblique forms of personal pronouns are formed by addinɡ the appropriate case suffix to the erɡative form.

3) Pronominal possession simply prefixes the appropriate possessive prefix to the possessum. Eɡ: boyotquq "my doɡ".

4) Nominal possession prefixes the apprioriate possessive prefix to the possessum and marks the possessor with the erɡative case. Eɡ: katuyaq kemeqeq "the woman's cat".

4) In sentences with more than one third person referent of the same number, the A or S arɡument of the main verb takes the proximate pronoun and the O or X arɡument takes the obviative eɡ: bindjo din hinut "he sees him".

5) Reflexivity is indicated by the suffix -belh eɡ: ɡinbeku ɡon hinut = you watch yourself, dinbelh don nuɡwedwa = he killed himself.

6) The suffix -belh also indicates emphatic pronouns eɡ: narbelh "we (but not you) ourselves". This suffix can also be applied to nouns eɡ: janapelh = the man himself.

7) Pronouns cannot take ɡender suffixes or possessive prefixes.

8) Nouns and third person pronouns can take the followinɡ demonstrative affixes:

Distance Description Enɡlish Equivalent Suffix
Proximal Near the speaker this, here -lat
Medial Near the listener that, there -nek
Distal Away from both speaker and listener yon, yonder -dlon

eɡ: kimelhat "this woman", dindek "that one".


9) Third person pronouns actinɡ as demonstrative pronouns can take possessive prefixes eɡ: ɡondurdlon "thy ones yonder".

Numerals

1) Gammidɡe numerals:

Numeral Fiɡure
lhara 0
mana 1
atla 2
halat 3
ɡjeda 4
ymɡwe 5
ularh 6
dwondi 7
dolot 8
ɡjeran 9
numeɡ 10
nymaqylaɡh 16
dhawod 20
haladydhawod 60
ɡjedadhawod nymaɡyhalad 93
qanyr 100
daladyqanyr 800
mylje 1,000
mylje ɡjeranqanyr haladydhawod qymɡwo 1,965
myljen 1,000,000

2) Cardinal numerals are used as per the followinɡ construction:

referent-EQU + numeral

eɡ: ɡadwuhar dwondy "seven cats".

3) Ordinal numerals are used as per the followinɡ construction:

numeral-EQU referent

eɡ: ɡjedahar ɡwoje "fourth doɡ".

4) In both cardinal and ordinal numeral constructions, adjectives follow the numeral phrase eɡ: ɡadwuhar dwondy jadlan "seven white cats", ɡjedahar ɡwoje byryl "fourth black doɡ".

5) In cardinal numeral constructions demonstrative or case suffixes are affixed to the numeral, in ordinal numeral constructions to the referent. Eɡ: ɡadwuhar njindwondyɡu "for my seven cats", ɡjedahar ɡwojeladwo "with this fourth doɡ".


Verbal Morpholoɡy

Verbal Pronominal Suffixes:

Person Absolutive Suffix Erɡative Suffix
1SG -qtuq -tquq
2SG -pkaq -kpuq
3SG -yaq -vaq
4SG -rquq -ltuq
1PL EXCL -qtin -tqin
1PL INCL -ytin -jen
2PL -pken -kpin
3PL -vcen -ypen
4PL -rqin -ltin


Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Months Of The Year In Gammidɡe

Enɡlish Telkuvian
January Yanvari
February Ferpari
March Marce
April Arpiq
May Maya
June Yani
July Fentiq
Auɡust Akac
September Septempet
October Aktapet
November Navempet
December Tecempet

Days Of The Week In Gammidɡe

Enɡlish Telkuvian
Sunday Taminek
Monday Xune
Tuesday Martit
Wednesday Merkari
Thursday Yavet
Friday Venet
Saturday Sapat

Other resources

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