Gothevian

Gothevian
gušk
Flag of the Republic of Gothevia
Pronunciation	[ɡuʃk]
Created by	Vrianne
Date	2024
Setting	Earth
Native to	Gothevia
Ethnicity	Gothevian
Language family	Indo-European Germanic East Germanic Gothic Gothevian
Early forms	Proto-Indo-European Proto-Germanic Gothic Old Gothevian Middle Gothevian
Standard form	Standard Central Gothevian
Dialects	Central dialects Eastern dialects Southern Dialects Northern dialects Western Dialects Pyre Dialects
Writing system	Gothevian
Official status
Official language in	Gothevia
Recognised minority language in	Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia
Regulated by	Institute for the Gothevian Language
Map of areas where Gothevian is spoken   ...as a majority language   ...as a minority language

Gothevian (gušk, gušk [ɡuʃk], formally róždun gúškun, róždun gúškun [ˈrwɤ̞ʒdun ˈɡuʃkun]) is an East Germanic language descendant from Gothic or a language mutually intelligible with it. Its speakers mainly reside within the borders of Gothevia, though there exist significant Gothevian-speaking communities in Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia. it is the only surviving member of the East Germanic branch of the Germanic languages, though with being a member of Balkan sprachbund, it has evolved to be quite distinct in some aspects of its structure compared to other Germanic languages, with features such as evidentiality and the eradication of the Germanic strong verb.

Old Gothevian shares most of its features with Wulfilan Gothic, likely being descendent from dialects mutually intelligible with it. It was written in a descendant of the Gothic script, which modern Gothevian still uses. Gothevian, however, would begin to diverge from Wulfilan Gothic, with the biggest drivers being the Balkan sprachbund and Slavonic and Greek superstrata.

Classification

Gothevian is an Indo-European language that belongs to the East Germanic branch of the Germanic languages. It is the only surviving member of the East Germanic languages, with its closest living relatives being from other Branches of Germanic, such as Dutch, English, German, and Icelandic. Within the East Germanic branch, its closest relative is Gothic, followed by other East Germanic languages such as Vandalic, Burgundian, and likely Crimean Gothic.

Due to being located within the core Balkan region, it has features that set it apart from other Germanic languages. Such features include post-fixed articles, syncretism of locative and directional expressions, a future-tense particle, an inferential mood, among others. Gothevian was also under Greek and Slavic language influence for most of its history. This influence came with many lexical borrowings, but also several grammatical influences, such as the retention of a synthetic passive voice and creation of a synthetic aorist.

History

The history of Gothevian can be divided into several periods.

• The Migratory period (6th-8th century)...
• Old Gothevian (9th–12th century)...
• Middle Gothevian (13th–16th century)...
• Modern Gothevian (17th century–present)...

Etymology

The exonym "Gothevian" is a Latinized borrowing of the Koine Greek term "Γότθευικος" (Góttheuikos), itself a variant of older "Γότθευδικος" (Góttheudikos), a borrowing from "𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃" (gutþiudisks), from "𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰" (gutþiuda) + "-𐌹𐍃𐌺𐍃" (-isks), thus meaning "of the Goths". The endonym gušk (gušk) is a cognate of the Latin exonym, being a simplification of earlier gútsišk (gútsišk), from Old Gothevian gútsiudišk (gutþiudisk).

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i	ɨ~ə~ɐ	u
Mid	e		o
Open		a

• Gothevian lacks a phonemic length distinction, but vowels in stressed syllables may allophonically be slightly lengthened.
• Mid vowels /e, o/ are mostly true-mid [e̞, o̞]. They may be allophonically pronounced closer to open-mid [e, o] in the vicinity of open vowels /i, u/, or closer to open-mid [ɛ, ɔ] in the vicinity of central vowels /a, ɨ/.
• /o/ consistently unrounds to [ɤ̞] when near [w]. This behavior rarely applies to /u/ however.
• The open vowel /a/ is true-central [ä].
• The non-open central vowel (notated here on out as /ɨ/) takes on a couple of realizations. In stressed positions it is commonly [ɨ]. In unstressed positions it is either also [ɨ], [ə], or, particularly in eastern and far-western dialects, [ɐ].

Consonants

		Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Nasal		m	n
Plosive	voiceless	p	t	t͡ʃ	k
	voiced	b	d	d͡ʒ	ɡ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ	x
	voiced	v~ʋ	z	ʒ
Trill			r
Approximant			l	j	(w)

• /p, t, k/ are unaspirated [p, t, k].
• /s, z/ are denti-alveolar [s̟, z̟].
• /v/ may be a true fricative [v] or an approximant [ʋ].
• /r/ may be pronounced as either a trill [r] or a tap [ɾ]. The trilled pronunciation is commonplace when it is followed by a glide, such as in ⟨róždy⟩ [ˈrwɤ̞ʒdə ~ ˈrʷɤ̞ʒdə].
• In eastern dialects, /l/ is velarized [ɫ].
• Consonant-Glide clusters /Cj, Cw/ may coalesce into a palatalized/labialized consonant /Cʲ, Cʷ/.
• [w] is an allophone of /v/ when directly preceded or followed by a consonant. Compare ⟨oš⟩ [vo̞ʃ] and ⟨šoš⟩ [ʃwɤ̞ʃ ~ ʃʷɤ̞ʃ].

Historical evolution

From Classical Gothic to Pre-Gothevian

• /ɸ/ shifts to /θ/ before a coronal consonant.

  Got. flōdus /ˈfloː.ðus/ → P-G þlṓdus ~ þlōþs /ˈθloː.ðus ~ θloːθs/ ("river")

  Got. *lifnan /ˈlif.nan/ → P-G *líþnan /ˈliθ.nan/ ("to leave")

  Got. afta /ˈaɸ.ta/ → P-G *áþta /ˈaθ.ta/ ("behind")

• /h/, /w/ fortify into /k/, /p/ before /l/, /r/.

  Got. wlits /wlits/ → P-G plits /plits/ ("face")

  Got. hrōþs /hroːθs/ → P-G krōþs /kroːθs/ ("glory")

• /β/ merges into /w/ intervocalically.

  Got. gabei /ˈɡa.βiː/ → P-G gáwɛi(n) /ˈɡa.wiː(n)/ ("wealth")

• /β/, /ɣ/ merge into /w/ before /m/.

  Got. *sib(u)m /ˈsi.β(u)m/ → P-G siwm /siwm/ ("seven")

From Pre-Gothevian to Old Gothevian

• /t, d/, /k, ɡ/ palatalize to /c/, /ɟ/ respectively before /i(ː)/, /eː/, /j/. /kʷ/, /ɡ(ː)ʷ/ are unaffected.

  P-G tɛíhan /ˈtiː.han/ → OG cɛíhan /ˈciː.han/ ("to show")

  P-G gílþa /ˈɡil.θa/ → early OG đílþa /ˈɟil.θa/ ("sickle")

• /ɣ/ is elided intervocalically or in syllable codas if followed by another consonant, without compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel.

  P-G *ígil /ˈi.ɣil/ → OG íǥil, íil /ˈi.il ~ iːl/ ("hedgehog")

  P-G rign /riɣn/ → OG rin /rin/ ("rain")

• /ɣr/, /rɣ/ coalesce into /ɣː/.

  P-G baírgan /ˈbɛr.ɣan/ → OG bɛ́ǥǥan /ˈbɛɣ.ɣan/ ("to keep")

• /ɸ/, /β/ develop into /f/, /v/.
• /l/ is elided in syllable codas if followed by another consonant, with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, if short.

  early OG đílþa /ˈɟil.θa/ → OG đɛíþa /ˈɟiː.θa/ ("sickle")

• /h/ is elided in syllable codas, with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, if short. If /h/ is followed by a consonant, then that consonant is geminated too.

  P-G módah /ˈmoː.dah/ → OG módah, módaa /ˈmoː.daː/ ("angry")

  P-G naht /naht/ → OG nahtt, naatt /naːtt/ ("night")

• /ɟː/ causes nearby non-front vowels /a(ː)/, /ɔ(ː)/, /oː/, /u(ː)/ to front into /ɛ(ː)/, /œ(ː)/, /øː/, /y(ː)/. Non-geminate /ɟ/ does not trigger this shift.

  P-G wadj /waɟɟ/ → OG wɛdj /wɛɟɟ/ ("wall")

• /kʷ/, /ɡ(ː)ʷ/, /ʍ/ cause nearby unrounded vowels /a(ː)/, /ɛ(ː)/, /eː/, /i(ː)/ to round into /ɔ(ː)/, /œ(ː)/, /øː/, /y(ː)/.

  P-G qen /kʷeːn/ → OG qen /kʷøːn/ ("woman")

From Old Gothevian to Middle Gothevian

• /θ/, /ð/ fortify to /t/, /d/ when directly followed by another consonant that is not a glide or a plosive.

  OG þrɛi /θri(ː)/ → early MG trɛi /tri(ː)/ ("three")

  OG þloþ /θloːθ/ → early MG tloþ /tloːθ/ ("river")

• One of /θ, ð/, /s, z/ retracts to /s, z/, /ʃ, ʒ/ respectively, triggering a chain shift that causes the second to also retract.

  OG síwþan /ˈsiw.θan/ → MG šíwsan /ˈʃiw.sɨn/ ("to boil")

  OG seþ /seːθ/ → early MG šes /ʃeːs/ ("seed")

  OG raz /raz/ → MG raž /raʒ/ ("house")

• /ŋk, ŋɡ/, /ŋkʷ, ŋɡʷ/ coalesce into /nː/, /wː/ respectively.

  OG drínkan /ˈdriŋ.kan/ → early MG drínnan /ˈdrin.nan/ ("to drink")

  OG síngwan /ˈsiŋ.ɡʷan/ → early MG šíwwan /ˈʃiw.wan/ ("to sing")

• /kʷ/, /ɡʷ/, /ʍ/ lose their labialization and merge with /k/, /ɡ/, /h/.

  OG qen /kʷøːn/ → early MG qen /køːn/ ("woman")

  OG ƕass /ʍɔss/ → early MG ƕašš /hɔʃʃ/ ("sharp")

• /ɣ/, /w/ are elided before back vowels /u(ː)/, /oː/.

  OG wulkán /wul.ˈkan/ → MG ulkán /ul.ˈkan/ ("volcano")

• Geminate consonants lose their gemination.
• /œ/, /y/ merge into /ɨ~ə/. Unstressed /a/ also develops into /ɨ~ə/. Other short unstressed vowels may also sporadically develop into /ɨ~ə/.

  OG smýrna /ˈsmyr.na/ → MG šmýrna, šmýrny /ˈʃmɨr.nə/ ("myrrh")

• Vowels preceding a nasal consonant coalesce into a long nasalized vowel if followed by a fricative or a liquid. These nasalized vowels lose their nasalization shortly after. /ẽː/, /ø̃ː/, /õː/ develop into /aː/ during this process.

  OG swinþ /swinθ/ → early MG šwinþ, *šwɛiþ /ʃwiːθ/ ("strong")

  late OG ξanθ /skanθ ~ ksanθ/ → early MG ξanθ, ξanþ /ʃkaːs/ ("blond")

• /iː, eː/, /yː, øː/, /uː, oː/ develop into /je̞/, /we̞/, /wo̞/ respectively.

  early MG fimf /fiːf/ → MG fimf, fɛif /fjef/ ("five")

  early MG dówẅa /ˈduː.a/ → MG dow, *do /dwo/ ("dove; bird")

  early MG qen /køːn/ → MG qen /kwen/ ("woman")

  early MG šes /ʃeːs/ → MG šes /ʃjes/ ("seed")

  early MG bóka /ˈboː.ka/ → MG bóka /ˈbwo.kɨ/ ("book")

• /ɛː/, /œː/, /ɔː/, /aː/ develop into /ja/, /wɨ~wə/, /wa/, /a/ respectively.

  early MG klaif /klɛːf/ → MG klaif /kljaf/ ("bread")

  early MG qain /kœːn/ → MG qain /kwɨn/ ("wail")

  early MG šawjl /ʃɔːjl/ → MG šawjl /ʃwajl/ ("sun")

  early MG ahš, aašš /aːʃʃ/ → MG aašš, ašš /aʃ/ ("hand, ear of corn")

• /iu̯/ merges into /wɨ/.

  early MG niwm /niu̯m/ → MG niwm /nwɨm/ ("nine")

  early MG biwž /biu̯ʒ/ → MG biwž /bwɨʒ/ ("beer")

• /ɛ/, /ɔ/ develop into /e̞/, /o̞/.
• /tj, kj, cj/, /dj, ɡj, ɟj/, /sj, zj/, /wj, jw/ coalesce into /c/, /ɟ/, /ʃ, ʒ/, /j, w/.

  MG twai /twja/ → late MG twai, cai, cwai /ca/ ("two")

  MG wínsišk, wɛísišk /wje.siʃk/ → late MG wínsišk, wɛísišk /je.siʃk/ ("Macedonian Slav")

From Middle Gothevian to Modern Gothevian

• /h/ is completely lost.
• /c/, /ɟ/ affricate to /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/.

  early mod. Gthv đíštry /ˈɟiʃt.rɨ/ → Gthv đíštry /ˈd͡ʒiʃt.rɨ/ ("tomorrow")

  early mod. Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.cɨ.rɨ/ → early mod. Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.t͡ʃɨ.rɨ/ ("sword")

• /t͡ʃ/, /d͡ʒ/ de-affricate in unstressed and/or coda positions.

  early mod. Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.t͡ʃɨ.rɨ/ → Gthv mécyry /ˈmje.ʃɨ.rɨ/ ("sword")

  early mod. Gthv kácky /ˈkat͡ʃ.kɨ/ → Gthv kácky /ˈkaʃ.kɨ/ ("spoon")

• /sc/, /ʃc/ develop into /st/, /ʃt/.

  early mod. Gthv šcányn /ʃca.nɨn/ → Gthv šcányn /ʃta.nɨn/ ("to shine")

• /w/, /ɣ/ merge into /v/, except when within a consonant cluster, then they merge into /w/.
• Final fricatives devoice.

Orthography

Gothevian is written primarily in the Gothevian script. It is an alphabet and at its core a variant of the Wulfilan Gothic alphabet, augmented by letters borrowed from the nearby Greek and Cyrillic scripts. The modern Gothevian spelling convention is based on the reformed Central Gothevian literary norms, and as such the Modern Gothevian Script contains some archaic features, such as the vowel-modifying consonants ⟨q, ƕ⟩ (q, ƕ), and ditched others, such as the obsolete letters ⟨θ, ξ, ψ⟩ (θ, ξ, ψ).

The modern Gothevian script contains 31 letters in common use. Most letters are mapped to a single phoneme, with a few others mapped onto more than one phoneme but in regular and predictable contexts.

Letter	Translit.	Name	IPA	Source
a	a	áfy (áfy)	/a/	Gothic 𐌰 (a)
b	b	béty (béty)	/b/	Gothic 𐌱 (b)
g	g	gámy (gámy)	/ɡ/	Gothic 𐌲 (g)
d	d	déty (déty)	/d/	Gothic 𐌳 (d)
ɛ	ɛ	ècy (ɛ́cy)	/e/	Gothic 𐌴 (ē)
q	q	qèrsy (qɛ́rsy)	/k/1	Gothic 𐌵 (q)
ž	ž	žéty (žéty)	/ʒ/	Gothic 𐌶 (z)
z	z	zéty (zéty)	/z/	Cyrillic З (z)
e	e	éty (éty)	/je/	Greek Η (ē)
đ	đ	đèty (đɛ́ty)	/d͡ʒ/, /ʒ/2	see below
h	h	hály (hály)	/Ø/	Gothic 𐌷 (h)
s	s	séty (séty)	/s/	Gothic 𐌸 (þ)
i	i	íöty (íöty)	/i/	Gothic 𐌹 (i)
k	k	kápy (kápy)	/k/	Gothic 𐌺 (k)
l	l	léty (léty)	/l/	Gothic 𐌻 (l)
m	m	mvɛ (mvɛ)	/m/	Gothic 𐌼 (m)

Letter	Translit.	Name	IPA	Source
n	n	nvɛ (nvɛ)	/n/	Gothic 𐌽 (n)
j	j	éry (éry)	/j/	Gothic 𐌾 (j)
ɔ	ɔ	òmy (ɔ́my)	/o/	Greek or Cyrillic Ο (o)
u	u	úry (úry)	/u/	Gothic 𐌿 (u)
p	p	pe (pe)	/p/	Gothic 𐍀 (p)
r	r	ro (ro)	/r/	Gothic 𐍂 (r)
š	š	šíwmy (šíwmy)	/ʃ/	Gothic 𐍃 (s)
t	t	taw (taw)	/t/	Gothic 𐍄 (t)
y	y	ýcy (ýcy)	/ɨ/	Gothic 𐍅 (w)
v	v	vècy (vɛ́cy)	/v~w/	derived from y (y)
f	f	fe (fe)	/f/	Gothic 𐍆 (f)
x	x	xe (xe)	/x/	Gothic 𐍇 (x)
ƕ	ƕ	ƕaíry (ƕaíry)	/Ø/1	Gothic 𐍈 (ƕ)
c	c	cèty (cɛ́ty)	/t͡ʃ/, /ʃ/2	see below
o	o	ómy (ómy)	/vo~wo/	Gothic 𐍉 (ō)

1. Qɛ́rsy and ƕaíry are pronounced identically to kápy and hály respectively but alter the pronunciation of the following vowel (see below).
2. Đɛ́ty and cɛ́ty are pronounced as /ʒ/ and /ʃ/ in unstressed and/or coda positions.

Apart from zéty ⟨z⟩, éty ⟨e), đɛ́ty ⟨đ⟩, ɔ́my ⟨ɔ⟩, and cɛ́ty ⟨c⟩, all Gothevian letters can be directly traced to a Gothic-script source. The source of đɛ́ty and cɛ́ty specifically is a point of contention, as no unambigious source has been identified. The many theories include the following:

1. Current mainstream theories argue for a Coptic source for cɛ́ty, citing čima ⟨ϭ⟩ as the most likely candidate, followed by ti ⟨ϯ⟩. A Coptic source for đɛ́ty is more dubious, with the likeliest candidate, janjia ⟨ϫ⟩, bearing less of a resemblance than the candidates for cɛ́ty.
2. Likewise, đɛ́ty is near-unanimously believed to be derived from a Cyrillic source, with most mainstream theories putting forward tse ⟨ц⟩ or che ⟨ч⟩ as probable sources. Less supported theories instead propose djerv ⟨ꙉ⟩ due to its alphabetical order being nearer to that of đɛ́ty. Djerv has also been proposed as a source for cɛ́ty as a more fringe position, alongside an adaptation of a yer ⟨ь~ъ⟩.
3. A popular yet unsupported theory proposes Gothic 𐍁 (90) based wholly on its similar form. This comes with a host of unexplained inconsistencies, such as its sudden shift in alphabetical and numeric order, and its missing usage as a numeral. Others point to 𐍊 (900) as another Gothic source, but those are even less supported and outright rejected.
4. Cɛ́ty is also sometimes argued to be a simplification of a ligature, such as ⟨tj⟩ (tj), though this is not backed by historic manuscripts.
5. An Armenian source can also be argued for, with letters such as tsa ⟨ծ⟩ and che ⟨ճ⟩ being put forward for cɛ́ty, and cha ⟨չ⟩ and je ⟨ջ⟩ for đɛ́ty.

Digraphs and letter combinations

Additionally, Gothevian contains several letter combinations that have phonetic values different from those of their single components. These include vocalic digraphs from historic long vowels and consonants that modify certain vowels.

Vocalic diphthongs take the form ⟨VG⟩ and phonetically represent /GV/ sequences. Most of these formerly represented long vowels /Vː/ which had later broken up into their current forms.

Letter	Translit.	IPA	IPA (hist.)
ai	ai	/ja/	/ɛː/
aw	aw	/va~wa/	/ɔː/
ɛi	ɛi	/je/	/iː/
iw	iw	/vɨ~wɨ/	/iu̯/
ow	ow	deprecated	/uː/

The letters qɛ́rsy ⟨q⟩ and ƕaíry ⟨ƕ⟩ can also alter the pronunciation of certain vowels when directly preceding them. Qɛ́rsy and ƕaíry formerly represented labialized consonants /kʷ, ʍ/ and as such triggered the rounding of unrounded vowels, causing them to diverge from their unaffected counterparts.

Letter	Translit.	IPA	IPA (hist.)
qa	qa	/kwa/	/k(ʷ)ɔː/
qai	qai	/kwɨ/	/k(ʷ)œː/
qɛ	qɛ	/kɨ/	/k(ʷ)œ/
qɛi	qɛi	/kwe/	/k(ʷ)yː/
qe	qe		/k(ʷ)øː/
qi	qi	/kɨ/	/k(ʷ)y/

Letter	Translit.	IPA	IPA (hist.)
ƕa	ƕa	/va~wa/	/h(ʷ)ɔː/
ƕai	ƕai	/vɨ~wɨ/	/h(ʷ)œː/
ƕɛ	ƕɛ	/ɨ/	/h(ʷ)œ/
ƕɛi	ƕɛi	/ve~we/	/h(ʷ)yː/
ƕe	ƕe		/h(ʷ)øː/
ƕi	ƕi	/ɨ/	/h(ʷ)y/

Obsolete letters

Letter	Translit.	Name	IPA	Source	Replaced by
θ	θ	θéty (θéty)	/t, s/	Greek θ (th)	t (t), s (s)
ξ	ξ	ξe (ξe)	/kʃ, ʃk, ks/	Greek ξ (x)	kš (kš), šk (šk), ks (ks)
ψ	ψ	ψe (ψe)	/pʃ, ʃp, ps/	Greek ψ (ps)	pš (pš), šp (šp), ps (ps)

History

By the time of the first standardization of the Gothevian script based on the Štoven Dialect, influence from literary Greek had taken its course on vowel glyphs. ɛ would be remapped onto short e, with ē becoming represented by e taken from Greek eta (η). A similar system came about for the mid-back vowels, using native o for ō, due to the perceived similarity of its written form to Greek omega (ω), and Hellenic ɔ for o. Other long vowels would become disambiguated using the digraphs ɛi, ow, ai, aw, and rarely aa for ī, ū, ɛ̄, ɔ̄, and ā respectively. A monotonic system would also be adopted, with vowels in stressed syllables gaining an acute (◌́) and vowels in hiatus gaining a diaeresis (◌̈). θ, ξ, ψ (th, ks, ps) would also begin their usage during this period.

...

Grammar

Syntax

The predominant word order in Gothevian is subject–verb–object (SVO), but in practice, word order exhibits a high degree of flexibility without much ambiguity.

General features

Adjectives commonly precede the noun.

• škázɛiny bóky — ‘leather book’

They can however follow the noun when marked for emphasis.

• ížy bóky škázɛiny — ‘that leather book’

Although not present in the standard variety, a common feature of southern dialects is placing all adjectives after the noun.

• bóky škázɛiny — ‘leather book’

Possessors commonly follow the noun.

• bóky my — ‘my book’
• bóky zy Myxaílen — ‘Mykhail’s book’

For pronominal emphasis however, a genitive phrase with a dative pronoun is used.

• bókun zy min — ‘the book of me’

Possessors are allowed to go before the noun for poetic license without any loss of meaning.

• šcánijus o-dáprun uf — ‘overshone, our bravery’

Subject pronouns are normally dropped, as they can be inferred from verbal endings.

• šócija — ‘I saw’

Though they can be included to emphasize the subject.

• ci šócija — ‘I saw’

Verbs go before participles in compound tenses.

• víšynɔvis túklivyn — ‘he was arrested [reportedly]’

Morphology

Gothevian is a largely synthetic language, in some aspects more so than others. However, it also heavily displays analytic features. Nominal declension was heavily reduced, while verbal conjugation was expanded upon. Most of these innovations were due to the Balkan sprachbund, among them are:

• Lack of an infinitive. Contexts where English would use an infinitive are typically formed with either finite forms or participles.
• Innovation of a post-fixed declining article. The weak adjective declension was re-analyzed and spread to nouns via the old n-stem declensions.
• Syncretism of the dative and genitive cases. Particles are used to form distinct dative and genitive constructions.
• reshaped and expanded compound tenses. The future and perfect tenses were reshaped to be more in line with those of their neighbors. A synthetic aorist was later analogically innovated, and analytic evidential forms later followed.
• Loss of synthetic comparative and superlative forms. The original method of deriving degrees of comparison using suffixation fell out of use in favor of analytic preposed markers.

Nominals

Nouns

Gothevian nouns decline for two cases (direct, dative), three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), two numbers (singular, plural), and two states (indefinite, definite). The original Gothic four cases in nouns synchronized into two cases (nominative-accusative → direct; dative-genitive → dative), and the six strong declensions levelled into three declension, largely correlating with the three genders. The weak declensions were re-analyzed as indicating definiteness and were subsequently joined with the indefinite strong declensions.

Masculine declension

This declension is completely made up of masculine nouns. It came about from a merger of nearly all of the Gothic strong declensions except for the -ō declension, which is the predecessor to the feminine declension.

MASC FEM BOTH	šal (šal, "room")					klaif (klaif, "bread")					ško (ško, "shoe")
	singular		plural			singular		plural			singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	šal šal	šályn šályn	šalš šalš	šálaš šálaš		klaif klaif	klaívyn klaívyn	klaifš klaifš	klaívaš klaívaš		ško ško	škóÿn škóÿn	škoš škoš	škóäš škóäš
dative	šályš šályš		šále šále	šálen šálen		klaívyš klaívyš		klaíve klaíve	klaíven klaíven		škóÿš škóÿš		škóë škóë	škóën škóën

Feminine declension

This declension is completely made up of feminine nouns. It evolved directly from the Gothic -ō declension. As such, all feminine nouns that originally belonged to the -ō declension alongside later-derived nouns end with -y (-y ← -a). All -ōn declension and -ein declension nouns later transitioned into Gothevian feminine declension nouns, gaining the -y (-y) ending as well. A small subset of feminine nouns however lacks the ending.

MASC FEM BOTH	bóky (bóky, "book")					as (as, "age")					do (do, "bird")
	singular		plural			singular		plural			singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	bóky bóky	bókun bókun	bokš bokš	bókaš bókaš		as as	ázun ázun	ázyš ázyš	ázaš ázaš		do do	dóün dóün	doš doš	dóäš dóäš
dative	bókuš bókuš		bóko bóko	bóken bóken		ázuš ázuš		ázo ázo	ázen ázen		dóüš dóüš		dóö dóö	dóën dóën

Anomalous feminine declension

A closed class of feminine nouns declines according to the masculine declension instead of the feminine declension. This is the result of the Gothic -i declension and -jō declension ultimately merging into the Gothevian masculine declension, with the feminine nouns of those declensions adopting the same endings.

MASC FEM BOTH	qen (qen, "woman")					šɛs (šɛs, "seed")					škaft (škaft, "animal")
	singular		plural			singular		plural			singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	qen qen	qényn qényn	qenš qenš	qénaš qénaš		šɛs šɛs	šèzyn šɛ́zyn	šèzyš šɛ́zyš	šèzaš šɛ́zaš		škaft škaft	škáftyn škáftyn	škaftš škaftš	škáftaš škáftaš
dative	qényš qényš		qéne qéne	qénen qénen		šèzyš šɛ́zyš		šèze šɛ́ze	šèzen šɛ́zen		škáftyš škáftyš		škáfte škáfte	škáften škáften

Neuter declension

This declension is completely made up of neuter nouns. It evolved directly from the neuter -a declension, -ja declension, and -u declension. It mirrors the masculine declension in the indefinite singular, but mirrors the feminine indefinite singular direct and plural dative in its indefinite plurals. It also mirrors the feminine declension in the definite singular.

MASC FEM BOTH	hairt (hairt, "heart")					biwš (biwš, "beer")					raš (raš, "house")
	singular		plural			singular		plural			singular		plural
	indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite		indefinite	definite	indefinite	definite
direct	hairt hairt	haírtun haírtun	haírty haírty	haírtaš haírtaš		biwš biwš	bíwžun bíwžun	klaify bíwžy	bíwžaš bíwžaš		raš raš	rážun rážun	rážy rážy	rážaš rážaš
dative	haírtyš haírtyš		haírto haírto	haírten haírten		bíwžyš bíwžyš		bíwžo bíwžo	bíwžen bíwžen		rážyš rážyš		rážo rážo	rážen rážen

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

number	person		nominative	accusative (long)	dative (long)	acc./dat./poss. (short)
singular	first		ci ci	mic mic	min min	my my
	second		so so	suk suk	sun sun	sy sy
	third	masculine	ša ša	šic šic	šin šin	šy šy
		neuter
		feminine	šo šo		šɛj šɛj
plural	first		ɛiš ɛiš	oš oš		o o
	second		oš oš	ɛiš ɛiš		ɛi ɛi
	third	masculine	šai šai
		neuter	šoš šoš			šo šo
		feminine

Demonstrative and relative pronouns

number	gender	proximal (this)	distal (that)
singular	masculine	iš iš	ai ai
	neuter
	feminine	ížy ížy	aíny aíny
plural	masculine
	neuter	ížo ížo	aíno aíno
	feminine

Interrogative pronouns

gender	personal (who)	possessive (whose)	for quality (what; what kind)	for quantity (how much; how many)	for size (how big)	for place/source (where; from where)	for destination (where to)	for manner (why)	for manner (how)	for time (when)
masculine	ƕɔn ƕɔn	ƕiš ƕiš	ƕɔr ƕɔr	ƕaf ƕaf	ƕel ƕel	ƕɔrs ƕɔrs	ƕɔt ƕɔt	ƕe ƕe	ƕɔm ƕɔm	ƕɔmán ƕɔmán
neuter
feminine	ƕin ƕin		ƕòry ƕɔ́ry	ƕávy ƕávy	ƕély ƕély	ƕòrzy ƕɔ́rzy	ƕòty ƕɔ́ty

Prepositions and particles

Particles

Gothevian employs the use of particles for various purposes.

Function particles

Function particles in Gothevian are grammaticalized particles that form multiword constructions, aiding with tenses and moods, and take on the uses of auxiliary verbs. Unlike discourse particles, they cannot be left out of a sentence. Below are some function particles.

dy (dy, "dative particle") — Placed before a noun to mark it as an indirect object of a verb.

• gycáhiva d'Ášto cánty my — ‘I showed my bag to Ášty’

zy (zy, "possessive/partitive particle") — Placed before a noun to express possession, origin, or partitivity, or attributively in relation to the noun preceding it.

• iš i katt zy Somáë — ‘that is Somá’s cat’

vy (vy, "interrogative particle") — Placed after the main verb to form a yes–no question.

• dránnivɛš vy vat? — ‘have you drunk water?’

ny (ny, "negation particle") — Placed before a noun, verb, adjective, or another particle to negate its meaning.

• n'yrèš dɛ suk! — ‘I don’t like you!’
• oš'ƕɔn qízɛis jy, nyšɛísyn? — ‘who's talking, the not-strong?’

o (o, "vocative particle") — Placed before a noun to form a vocative expression.

• o'Ázlyfe! aš èly! — ‘O Ázlyf! Come here!’

ɛísy (ɛísy, "optative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express wish, hope, or desire. Also placed before a verb in the indicative to express general want or desire.

• ɛísy ƕaílaw dot Iwrópo — ‘I wish to travel around Europe’
• ɛísy ƕail dot Iwrópo — ‘I want to travel around Europe’

ma (ma, "dynamic particle") — Placed before a verb in the indicative to express ability. Also placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express permission.

• ma kawš — ‘I can try’
• ma káwšaw vy? — ‘may I try?’

á (á, "hortative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to form a hortative expression.

• á-žepaiš , saíƕyniš mójivyn — ‘it'd be better if you sleep, you look tired’

daw (daw, "affection particle") — Placed before a verb to express habitual enjoyment or affection.

• daw šívɛis áđby žóvvivny — ‘I heard she used to like to draw’

sar (sar, "jussive particle") — Placed before a verb in the indicative to express requirement, necessity, or urgency. Also placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express a more urgent or prioritized hortative expression.

• sar vándɛiš! — ‘you have to leave!’
• sar vándaiš — ‘you probably should leave’

aw (aw, "desiderative particle") — Placed before a verb in the subjunctive to express desire towards the verb. Also placed before a verb in the indicative to express general want or desire.

• aw m'ai búđaw 'aparátyn — ‘I would love to be able to buy the camera’
• aw buđ 'aparátyn — ‘I want to buy the camera’

Discourse particles

Discourse particles in Gothevian are contextual, optional particles used to highlight the mood or the attitude of the speaker or to highlight the sentence's focus. These particles are mainly present in spoken, informal standard Gothevian or throughout its many dialects. In formal, written contexts, they are mostly seen as unprofessional. Below are some discourse particles.

jy (jy) — Used as a general intensifying particle.

• ...

ɛi (ɛi) — Used to indicate that the utterance happened as a consequence to an earlier even or action.

• ...

nušt (nušt) — Used to indicate something is being offered to the listener.

• ...

níjy (níjy) — Used to intensify a negative or opposing utterance. Also used before nouns, adjectives, adverbs, or verbs for stronger negation.

• ...

aš (aš) — Used to intensify imperatives.

• ...

dɛ (dɛ) — Used as indicate haste or urgency. Also used to indicate the speaker is in a state of haste, or in a state of anger or hatred towards the listener or a third party.

• ...

mis (mis) — Used to intensify adjectives and adverbs.

• ...

hax (hax) — Used as a indicate a sudden shift or deviation of topic.

• ...

áđby (áđby) — Used to indicate that the speaker has been ignorant of newly-provided information or fact.

• ...

ɛx (ɛx) — Used to indicate dissatisfaction or disgust.

• ...

óšy (óšy) — Used to add a sense indeterminateness to interrogative pronouns or to add a sense greater indeterminateness to indefinite pronouns. Also used insultingly to add a sense of diminutivity.

• ...

bɛ (bɛ) — Used to indicate frustration or anger.

• ...

Verbs

Gothevian lost many of the complex verbal conjugations it inherited from Gothic, such as dual forms, the old passive conjugation, and strong verb classes. Nevertheless, Gothevian verb conjugation is the most complex out of any surviving Germanic language, due to the acquisition of an aorist, a new synthetic passive, and other analytic moods such as the inferential and conditional moods.

Irregular stems

Irregular verbs in Gothevian are verbs whose stems either slightly alter or completely change across the paradigm. These changes mostly occur across tense-aspect-mood forms, but two verbs (to have, to be) also alter their stems depending on person.

While most strong verbs would regularize by applying one form throughout the whole paradigm, some common verbs would retain reduced stem vowel alternation in their "past" (imperfect and aorist) conjugations. These verbs include ícyn (ícyn, "to eat") (past stem éc-, éc-), qízyn (qízyn, "to talk") (past stem qòz-, qɔ́z-), qímyn (qímyn, "to come") (past stem qòm-, qɔ́m-), and ályn (ályn, "to grow") (past stem ól-, ól-).

Another source of irregular verbs are Gothic weak irregular verbs that have also resisted full regularization. Instead, these verbs underwent partial regularization, by reforming the present stems with the consonantism of the past stem (which mostly would have followed a CV̄̆ht- pattern) and the vocalism of the present stem, thus in a way appearing to mimic the previous class of irregular verbs. These verbs include sútyn (sútyn, "to seem") (past stem sót-, sót-), bútyn (bútyn, "to buy") (past stem báwt-, báwt-), and vòtyn (vɔ́tyn, "to make") (past stem vát-, vát-), alongside the verb drítyn (drítyn, "to drink") (past stem drɛít-, drɛít-).

The last category of irregular verbs, specifically the two verbs ain (ain, "to have") and víšyn (víšyn, "to be") use multiple different stems throughout their paradigm (aí-, á-, aíc-; v-, š-, ší-).

Synthetic forms

Approximately one third of verbal conjugations in Gothevian are synthetic, meaning they indicate grammatical information via bound affixation rather than by unbound morphemes. With the exception of participles and the aorist, synthetic forms all represent direct evolutions from old Gothic conjugations.

Participles

Gothevian verbs have five participles based on aspect and voice, declining for 2 gender categories (masculine-neuter, feminine).

	šócyn (šócyn, "to see")
	present active participle	present passive participle	imperfect active participle	imperfect passive participle	aorist participle
masculine (+ neuter)	šócyn šócyn	šócynyn šócynyn	šócis šócis	šócinɔs šócinɔs	šócivyn šócivyn
feminine	šócny šócny	šócnyny šócnyny	šócizy šócizy	šócinɔzy šócinɔzy	šócivny šócivny

Present

The present tense is used for:

• Events happening in the present,
• Current states of being,
• Facts that are always true.

Present Indicative

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gaf gaf	gávyn gávyn	èö ɛ́ö	èön ɛ́ön		ai ai	avn avn	im im	šin šin
	2nd person	gávɛiš gávɛiš	gávyniš gávyniš	èöêiš ɛ́öɛ̈iš	èöniš ɛ́öniš		aiš aiš	ávniš avniš	iš iš	šíniš šiniš
	3rd person	gávɛis gávɛis	gávynis gávynis	èöêis ɛ́öɛ̈is	èönis ɛ́önis		ais ais	ávnis avnis	i i	šínis šinis
plural	1st person	gávym gávym	gávynym gávynym	èöm ɛ́öm	èönym ɛ́önym		aim aim	ávnym avnym	šam šam	šínym šinym
	2nd person	gávyš gávyš	gávynyš gávynyš	èöš ɛ́öš	èönyš ɛ́önyš		ajš ajš	ávnyš avnyš	šu šu	šínyš šinyš
	3rd person	gávyn gávyn	gávynyn gávynyn	èön ɛ́ön	èönyn ɛ́önyn		ain ain	ávnyn avnyn	šan šan	šínyn šinyn

Present Subjunctive

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gávaw gávaw	gávynaw gávynaw	èöäw ɛ́öäw	èönaw ɛ́önaw		aícaw aícaw	ávnaw ávnaw	šaw šaw	šínaw šínaw
	2nd person	gávaiš gávaiš	gávynaiš gávynaiš	èöäiš ɛ́öäiš	èönaiš ɛ́önaiš		aícaiš aícaiš	ávnaiš ávnaiš	šaiš šaiš	šínaiš šínaiš
	3rd person	gávais gávais	gávynais gávynais	èöäis ɛ́öäis	èönais ɛ́önais		aícais aícais	ávnais ávnais	šais šais	šínais šínais
plural	1st person	gávaim gávaim	gávynaim gávynaim	èöäim ɛ́öäim	èönaim ɛ́önaim		aícaim aícaim	ávnaim ávnaim	šaim šaim	šínaim šínaim
	2nd person	gávawš gávawš	gávynawš gávynawš	èöäwš ɛ́öäwš	èönawš ɛ́önawš		aícawš aícawš	ávnawš ávnawš	šawš šawš	šínawš šínawš
	3rd person	gávain gávain	gávynain gávynain	èöäin ɛ́öäin	èönain ɛ́önain		aícain aícain	ávnain ávnain	šain šain	šínain šínain

Imperfect

The Imperfect fuses the past tense (and marginally the present tense) with imperfective aspect and is used for:

• Ongoing events that happened in the past,
• States of being in the past that still have some sort of effect in the present,
• Events or states of being that started in the past and are still ongoing in the present, if context is clear.

Imperfect Indicative

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gávija gávija	gávynɔva gávynɔva	èöïja ɛ́öïja	èönɔva ɛ́önɔva		ája ája	ávnɔva avnɔva	vam vam	šíja šija
	2nd person	gávijɛš gávijɛš	gávynɔvɛš gávynɔvɛš	èöïjɛš ɛ́öïjɛš	èönɔvɛš ɛ́önɔvɛš		ájɛš ájɛš	ávnɔvɛš avnɔvɛš	vam vaš	šíjɛš šijɛš
	3rd person	gávijus gávijus	gávynɔvus gávynɔvus	èöïjus ɛ́öïjus	èönɔvus ɛ́önɔvus		ájus ájus	ávnɔvus avnɔvus	vam vas	šíjus šijus
plural	1st person	gávijym gávijym	gávynɔvym gávynɔvym	èöïjym ɛ́öïjym	èönɔvym ɛ́önɔvym		ájym ájym	ávnɔvym avnɔvym	vam éšym	šíjym šijym
	2nd person	gávijyš gávijyš	gávynɔvyš gávynɔvyš	èöïjyš ɛ́öïjyš	èönɔvyš ɛ́önɔvyš		ájyš ájyš	ávnɔvyš avnɔvyš	vam éšyš	šíjyš šijyš
	3rd person	gávijyn gávijyn	gávynɔvyn gávynɔvyn	èöïjyn ɛ́öïjyn	èönɔvyn ɛ́önɔvyn		ájyn ájyn	ávnɔvyn avnɔvyn	vam éšyn	šíjyn šijyn

Imperfect Subjunctive

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gávija gávija	gávynɔvaw gávynɔvaw	èöïja ɛ́öïja	èönɔvaw ɛ́önɔvaw		aícija aícija	ávnɔvaw avnɔvaw	šíja šíja	šínɔvaw šinɔvaw
	2nd person	gáviêiš gáviɛ̈iš	gávynɔvɛiš gávynɔvɛiš	èöïêiš ɛ́öïɛ̈iš	èönɔvɛiš ɛ́önɔvɛiš		aíciêiš aíciɛ̈iš	ávnɔvɛiš avnɔvɛiš	šíêiš šíɛ̈iš	šínɔvɛiš šinɔvɛiš
	3rd person	gáviêis gáviɛ̈is	gávynɔvis gávynɔvis	èöïêis ɛ́öïɛ̈is	èönɔvis ɛ́önɔvis		aíciêis aíciɛ̈is	ávnɔvis avnɔvis	šíêis šíɛ̈is	šínɔvis šinɔvis
plural	1st person	gáviêim gáviɛ̈im	gávynɔvɛim gávynɔvɛim	èöïêim ɛ́öïɛ̈im	èönɔvɛim ɛ́önɔvɛim		aíciêim aíciɛ̈im	ávnɔvɛim avnɔvɛim	šíêim šíɛ̈im	šínɔvɛim šinɔvɛim
	2nd person	gáviöš gáviöš	gávynɔvoš gávynɔvoš	èöïöš ɛ́öïöš	èönɔvoš ɛ́önɔvoš		aíciöš aíciöš	ávnɔvoš avnɔvoš	šíöš šíöš	šínɔvoš šinɔvoš
	3rd person	gáviêin gáviɛ̈in	gávynɔvɛin gávynɔvɛin	èöïêin ɛ́öïɛ̈in	èönɔvɛin ɛ́önɔvɛin		aíciêin aíciɛ̈in	ávnɔvɛin avnɔvɛin	šíêin šíɛ̈in	šínɔvɛin šinɔvɛin

Aorist

The Aorist differs from the imperfect in that is expresses the perfective aspect. It is used for:

• Event that began and ended in the past, viewed as a single whole rather than a process,
• States of being in the past that do not have any effect in the present,
• Events or states of being that are fully contained within a certain timeframe, such as when storytelling.

The Gothevian aorist has no passive forms. Instead, imperfect or perfect passives may be used.

Aorist Indicative

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")	èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")		ain (ain, "to have")	víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gáviva gáviva	èöïva ɛ́öïva		áva áva	šíva šíva
	2nd person	gávivɛš gávivɛš	èöïvɛš ɛ́öïvɛš		ávɛš ávɛš	šívɛš šívɛš
	3rd person	gávivus gávivus	èöïvus ɛ́öïvus		ávus ávus	šívus šívus
plural	1st person	gávivym gávivym	èöïvym ɛ́öïvym		ávym ávym	šívym šívym
	2nd person	gávivyš gávivyš	èöïvyš ɛ́öïvyš		ávyš ávyš	šívyš šívyš
	3rd person	gávivyn gávivyn	èöïvyn ɛ́öïvyn		ávyn ávyn	šívyn šívyn

Aorist Subjunctive

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")	èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")		ain (ain, "to have")	víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	gávivaw gávivaw	èöïvaw ɛ́öïvaw		aícivaw aícivaw	šívaw šívaw
	2nd person	gávivɛiš gávivɛiš	èöïvɛiš ɛ́öïvɛiš		aícivɛiš aícivɛiš	šívɛiš šívɛiš
	3rd person	gávivɛis gávivɛis	èöïvɛis ɛ́öïvɛis		aícivɛis aícivɛis	šívɛis šívɛis
plural	1st person	gávivɛim gávivɛim	èöïvɛim ɛ́öïvɛim		aícivɛim aícivɛim	šívɛim šívɛim
	2nd person	gávivoš gávivoš	èöïvoš ɛ́öïvoš		aícivoš aícivoš	šívoš šívoš
	3rd person	gávivɛin gávivɛin	èöïvɛin ɛ́öïvɛin		aícivɛin aícivɛin	šívɛin šívɛin

Analytic forms

The other two thirds of verbal conjugations in Gothevian are analytic, meaning they are contructed via unbound particles accompanying the main verb.

Future

The future tense is used for events or states of being occurring in the future. It is formed by adding the particle šta (šta) directly before the simple present form of a verb.

In less formal speech or writing, šta may contract to št' (št'). This is especially prevalent if the main verb begins with a vowel (šta èö → št'èö).

Future Indicative

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	šta gaf šta gaf	šta gávyn šta gávyn	šta èö šta ɛ́ö	šta èön šta ɛ́ön		šta ai šta ai	šta avn šta avn	šta im šta im	šta šin šta šin
	2nd person	šta gávɛiš šta gávɛiš	šta gávyniš šta gávyniš	šta èöêiš šta ɛ́öɛ̈iš	šta èöniš šta ɛ́öniš		šta aiš šta aiš	šta ávniš šta avniš	šta iš šta iš	šta šíniš šta šiniš
	3rd person	šta gávɛis šta gávɛis	šta gávynis šta gávynis	šta èöêis šta ɛ́öɛ̈is	šta èönis šta ɛ́önis		šta ais šta ais	šta ávnis šta avnis	šta i šta i	šta šínis šta šinis
plural	1st person	šta gávym šta gávym	šta gávynym šta gávynym	šta èöm šta ɛ́öm	šta èönym šta ɛ́önym		šta aim šta aim	šta ávnym šta avnym	šta šam šta šam	šta šínym šta šinym
	2nd person	šta gávyš šta gávyš	šta gávynyš šta gávynyš	šta èöš šta ɛ́öš	šta èönyš šta ɛ́önyš		šta ajš šta ajš	šta ávnyš šta avnyš	šta šu šta šu	šta šínyš šta šinyš
	3rd person	šta gávyn šta gávyn	šta gávynyn šta gávynyn	šta èön šta ɛ́ön	šta èönyn šta ɛ́önyn		šta ain šta ain	šta ávnyn šta avnyn	šta šan šta šan	šta šínyn šta šinyn

Future Subjunctive

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	šta gávaw šta gávaw	šta gávynaw šta gávynaw	šta èöäw šta ɛ́öäw	šta èönaw šta ɛ́önaw		šta aícaw šta aícaw	šta ávnaw šta ávnaw	šta šaw šta šaw	šta šínaw šta šínaw
	2nd person	šta gávaiš šta gávaiš	šta gávynaiš šta gávynaiš	šta èöäiš šta ɛ́öäiš	šta èönaiš šta ɛ́önaiš		šta aícaiš šta aícaiš	šta ávnaiš šta ávnaiš	šta šaiš šta šaiš	šta šínaiš šta šínaiš
	3rd person	šta gávais šta gávais	šta gávynais šta gávynais	šta èöäis šta ɛ́öäis	šta èönais šta ɛ́önais		šta aícais šta aícais	šta ávnais šta ávnais	šta šais šta šais	šta šínais šta šínais
plural	1st person	šta gávaim šta gávaim	šta gávynaim šta gávynaim	šta èöäim šta ɛ́öäim	šta èönaim šta ɛ́önaim		šta aícaim šta aícaim	šta ávnaim šta ávnaim	šta šaim šta šaim	šta šínaim šta šínaim
	2nd person	šta gávawš šta gávawš	šta gávynawš šta gávynawš	šta èöäwš šta ɛ́öäwš	šta èönawš šta ɛ́önawš		šta aícawš šta aícawš	šta ávnawš šta ávnawš	šta šawš šta šawš	šta šínawš šta šínawš
	3rd person	šta gávain šta gávain	šta gávynain šta gávynain	šta èöäin šta ɛ́öäin	šta èönain šta ɛ́önain		šta aícain šta aícain	šta ávnain šta ávnain	šta šain šta šain	šta šínain šta šínain

Present Perfect

The present perfect tense is used for events or states of being occurring wholly in the past, viewed as a single whole, with a lasting effect on the present state. It also refers to a past event that happened fully before another event in the present. It is formed by using the simple present tense of ain (ain, "to have") alongside the imperfect active participle of the main verb. Both active and passive constructions use the imperfect active participle, with the voice distinction being codified into the auxiliary's conjugation.

Present Perfect Indicative

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	ai gávis ai gávis	avn gávis avn gávis	ai èöïs ai ɛ́öïs	avn èöïs avn ɛ́öïs		ai ait ai ait	avn ait avn ait	ai vɛis ai vɛis	avn vɛis avn vɛis
	2nd person masculine/neuter	aiš gávis aiš gávis	ávniš gávis ávniš gávis	aiš èöïs aiš ɛ́öïs	ávniš èöïs ávniš ɛ́öïs		aiš ait aiš ait	ávniš ait ávniš ait	aiš vɛis aiš vɛis	ávniš vɛis ávniš vɛis
	2nd person feminine	aiš gávizy aiš gávizy	ávniš gávizy ávniš gávizy	aiš èöïzy aiš ɛ́öïzy	ávniš èöïzy ávniš ɛ́öïzy		aiš ait aiš ait	ávniš ait ávniš ait	aiš vɛis aiš vɛis	ávniš vɛis ávniš vɛis
	3rd person masculine/neuter	ais gávis ais gávis	ávnis gávis ávnis gávis	ais èöïs ais ɛ́öïs	ávnis èöïs ávnis ɛ́öïs		ais ait ais ait	ávnis ait ávnis ait	ais vɛis ais vɛis	ávnis vɛis ávnis vɛis
	3rd person feminine	ais gávizy ais gávizy	ávnis gávizy ávnis gávizy	ais èöïzy ais ɛ́öïzy	ávnis èöïzy ávnis ɛ́öïzy		ais ait ais ait	ávnis ait ávnis ait	ais vɛis ais vɛis	ávnis vɛis ávnis vɛis
plural	1st person	aim gávis aim gávis	ávnym gávis ávnym gávis	aim èöïs aim ɛ́öïs	ávnym èöïs ávnym ɛ́öïs		aim ait aim ait	ávnym ait ávnym ait	aim vɛis aim vɛis	ávnym vɛis ávnym vɛis
	2nd person masculine/neuter	ajš gávis aiš gávis	ávnyš gávis ávnyš gávis	ajš èöïs aiš ɛ́öïs	ávnyš èöïs ávnyš ɛ́öïs		ajš ait aiš ait	ávnyš ait ávnyš ait	ajš vɛis aiš vɛis	ávnyš vɛis ávnyš vɛis
	2nd person feminine	ajš gávizy aiš gávizy	ávnyš gávizy ávnyš gávizy	ajš èöïzy aiš ɛ́öïzy	ávnyš èöïzy ávnyš ɛ́öïzy		ajš ait aiš ait	ávnyš ait ávnyš ait	ajš vɛis aiš vɛis	ávnyš vɛis ávnyš vɛis
	3rd person masculine/neuter	ain gávis ain gávis	ávnyn gávis ávnyn gávis	ain èöïs ain ɛ́öïs	ávnyn èöïs ávnyn ɛ́öïs		ain ait ain ait	ávnyn ait ávnyn ait	ain vɛis ain vɛis	ávnyn vɛis ávnyn vɛis
	3rd person feminine	ain gávizy ain gávizy	ávnyn gávizy ávnyn gávizy	ain èöïzy ain ɛ́öïzy	ávnyn èöïzy ávnyn ɛ́öïzy		ain ait ain ait	ávnyn ait ávnyn ait	ain vɛis ain vɛis	ávnyn vɛis ávnyn vɛis

Present Perfect Subjunctive

ACT PASS		gávyn (gávyn, "to give")		èön (ɛ́ön, "to blow")			ain (ain, "to have")		víšyn (víšyn, "to be")
singular	1st person	aícaw gávis aícaw gávis	ávnaw gávis ávnaw gávis	aícaw èöïs aícaw ɛ́öïs	ávnaw èöïs ávnaw ɛ́öïs		aícaw ait aícaw ait	ávnaw ait ávnaw ait	aícaw vɛis aícaw vɛis	ávnaw vɛis ávnaw vɛis
	2nd person masculine/neuter	aícaiš gávis aícaiš gávis	ávnaiš gávis ávnaiš gávis	aícaiš èöïs aícaiš ɛ́öïs	ávnaiš èöïs ávnaiš ɛ́öïs		aícaiš ait aícaiš ait	ávnaiš ait ávnaiš ait	aícaiš vɛis aícaiš vɛis	ávnaiš vɛis ávnaiš vɛis
	2nd person feminine	aícaiš gávizy aícaiš gávizy	ávnaiš gávizy ávnaiš gávizy	aícaiš èöïzy aícaiš ɛ́öïzy	ávnaiš èöïzy ávnaiš ɛ́öïzy		aícaiš ait aícaiš ait	ávnaiš ait ávnaiš ait	aícaiš vɛis aícaiš vɛis	ávnaiš vɛis ávnaiš vɛis
	3rd person masculine/neuter	aícais gávis aícais gávis	ávnais gávis ávnais gávis	aícais èöïs aícais ɛ́öïs	ávnais èöïs ávnais ɛ́öïs		aícais ait aícais ait	ávnais ait ávnais ait	aícais vɛis aícais vɛis	ávnais vɛis ávnais vɛis
	3rd person feminine	aícais gávizy aícais gávizy	ávnais gávizy ávnais gávizy	aícais èöïzy aícais ɛ́öïzy	ávnais èöïzy ávnais ɛ́öïzy		aícais ait aícais ait	ávnais ait ávnais ait	aícais vɛis aícais vɛis	ávnais vɛis ávnais vɛis
plural	1st person	aícaim gávis aícaim gávis	ávnaim gávis ávnaim gávis	aícaim èöïs aícaim ɛ́öïs	ávnaim èöïs ávnaim ɛ́öïs		aícaim ait aícaim ait	ávnaim ait ávnaim ait	aícaim vɛis aícaim vɛis	ávnaim vɛis ávnaim vɛis
	2nd person masculine/neuter	ajawš gávis aícawš gávis	ávnawš gávis ávnawš gávis	ajawš èöïs aícawš ɛ́öïs	ávnawš èöïs ávnawš ɛ́öïs		ajawš ait aícawš ait	ávnawš ait ávnawš ait	ajawš vɛis aícawš vɛis	ávnawš vɛis ávnawš vɛis
	2nd person feminine	ajawš gávizy aícawš gávizy	ávnawš gávizy ávnawš gávizy	ajawš èöïzy aícawš ɛ́öïzy	ávnawš èöïzy ávnawš ɛ́öïzy		ajawš ait aícawš ait	ávnawš ait ávnawš ait	ajawš vɛis aícawš vɛis	ávnawš vɛis ávnawš vɛis
	3rd person masculine/neuter	aícain gávis aícain gávis	ávnain gávis ávnain gávis	aícain èöïs aícain ɛ́öïs	ávnain èöïs ávnain ɛ́öïs		aícain ait aícain ait	ávnain ait ávnain ait	aícain vɛis aícain vɛis	ávnain vɛis ávnain vɛis
	3rd person feminine	aícain gávizy aícain gávizy	ávnain gávizy ávnain gávizy	aícain èöïzy aícain ɛ́öïzy	ávnain èöïzy ávnain ɛ́öïzy		aícain ait aícain ait	ávnain ait ávnain ait	aícain vɛis aícain vɛis	ávnain vɛis ávnain vɛis