TolsianR

Background

Tolsian Revisited is an attempt at revamping much of that old conlang created something like 15 years ago by a child so that it becomes a slightly more consistent language. It is somewhat influenced by French and Latin but still an a priori conlang. It has its own alphabet which was actually created before the language itself.

Phonology

Consonants

		Bilabial		Labio-dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Glottal
Nasal		m				n						ɲ		ŋ
Plosive		pʰ p b				tʰ t̚ t d								kʰ k g
Fricative		ɸ β		f v		θ ð		s z		ʃ ʒ				x ɣ		χ ʁ		h
Approximant												j		w
Trill																ʀ
Flap						ɾ
Lateral approx.						l
Prenasalised occlusives		ᵐb				ⁿd								ᵑg

There is also an additional consonant, here transcribed as /h̪/.

Vowels

		Front		Central		Back
Close		i y				u
Close-mid		e ø				o
Open-mid		ɛ ɛ̃				ɔ ɔ̃
Open				ä		ɑ̃

Orthography

Tolsian has its own script and an official, perfectly matching romanization. The alphabet is considered to consist of 36 letters, plus diacritics :

Alphabet

Y y - /jo/, /oj/
Æ æ ; Æ̊ æ̊ - /aj/ ; /ja/
A a - /a/
B b - /b/
Q q - /ʃ/
D d - /d/
E e ; Ê ê ; Ě ě - /e/ ; /ɛ/ ; /ø/
G g ; G̊ g̊ ; Ñ ñ - /g/ ; /ᵑg/ ; /ɲ/
H h - /h/
I i - /i/
Ƶ ƶ ; Ƶ̆ ƶ̆ - /ð/ ; /ʒ/
K k - /k/
L l - /l/
M m - /m/
N n - /n/
O o ; Œ œ - /o/, /ɔ/ ; /o/
P p ; Ƥ ƥ - /p/ ; /ɸ/
R r - /ʁ/
C c ; S s - /s/ ; /θ/
T t ; Ŧ ŧ - /t/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/
U u - /y/
V v ; F f - /v/ ; /f/
Ƿ ƿ - /wi/
Z z - /z/
Ɯ ɯ ; Ɯ̂ ɯ̂ ; Ɯ̌ ɯ̌ - /ɑ̃/ ; /ɛ̃/ ; /ɔ̃/
W w - /u/
X x (ou Ħ ħ) - /χ/
Ƃ ƃ - /bɾa/
Ŋ ŋ - /ŋ/
Ɋ ɋ - /ɧ̙ʷ/
Ƀ ƀ - /β/

Composed graphemes

Tolsian orthography is fairly transparent though there is not always a one to one correspondance between graphemes and phonemes. Some phonemes are not represented in the alphabet above :

/pʰ/ and /kʰ/ are written <ph> and <kh>, respectively
/x/ and /ɣ/ are written <xͪ> and <gͪ>, respectively
/ɾ/ is written <rͪl>
/ʀ/ is written <r̊> (sometimes in old texts, <r̈>)
/j/ is written with the vowel i and the "link", a special diacritic ; for instance, /je/ is written <i͠e>, while /ej/ is written <e͠i>. The grapheme <i͠i> corresponds to /ji/ while /ij/ would be written <i͠ĭ>
/w/ is written in a similar fashion as the other semi-vowel, but with vowels o and u : /wa/ can be written <o͠a> or <u͠a>, /aw/ can be written <a͠o> or <a͠u>. Actually, it is perhaps best described as a non-syllabic [o̯], with a consonant status in the system.
/ɔ/ is written <ò> when there is no coda

The grapheme <y> is ambiguous as there is no way to determine if it corresponds to /jo/ or /oj/. The grapheme <o> also corresponds to two different phonemes, but it is conditioned by its place in the syllable : if there is a consonant coda, it is /ɔ/, if not, then it is /o/, while <œ> is always /o/. But /ɔ/ can also appear without a consonant after ; then, it is written <ò>.

The apostrophe is very rarely used except with articles where it signals the elision of the vowel of the singular feminine articles.

Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes

		Bilabial		Labio-dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Glottal
Nasal		m <m>				n <n>						ɲ <ñ>		ŋ <ŋ>
Plosive		pʰ <ph> p <p> b <b>				tʰ, t̚ <ŧ> t <t> d <d>								kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
Fricative		ɸ <ƥ> β <ƀ>		f <f> v <v>		θ <s> ð <ƶ>		s <c> z <z>		ʃ <q> ʒ <ƶ̆>				x <xͪ> ɣ <gͪ>		χ <x> ʁ <r>		h <h>
Approximant												j cf. above		w cf. above
Trill																ʀ <r̊>
Flap						ɾ <rͪl>
Lateral approx.						l <l>
Prenasalised occlusives		ᵐb <mb>				ⁿd <nd>								ᵑg <g̊>

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ɋ>

		Front		Central		Back
Close		i <i> y <u>				u <w>
Close-mid		e <e> ø <ě>				o <o>, <œ>
Open-mid		ɛ <ê> ɛ̃ <ɯ̂>				ɔ <o>, <ò> ɔ̃ <ɯ̌>
Open				ä <a>		ɑ̃ <ɯ>

New orthography

However, another Latin transliteration has been designed so as to be more phonemic and easier to write on a computer, and is getting more and more popular :

Alphabet

A a /a/
Ä ä /ɛ/
(Â â /ɔ̃/)
(Ã ã /ɑ̃/)
B b /b/
C c /θ/
D d /d/
E e /e/
(Ê ê /ɑ̃/)
(Ẽ ẽ /ɛ̃/)
F f /f/
G g /g/
H h /h/
I i /i/
(Î î /ɛ̃/)
(Ĩ ĩ /ɛ̃/)
J j /ʀ/ (/ʒ/)
K k /k/
L l /l/
M m /m/
N n /n/
(Ñ ñ /ɲ/)
O o /o/
Ö ö /œ/
Ò ò /ɔ/
(Õ õ /ɔ̃/)
P p /p/
(Q q /ʃ/ or /h̪/)
R r /ʁ/
S s /s/
T t /t/
U u /u/
Ü ü /y/
V v /v/
W w /w/
X x /χ/
Y y /j/
Z z /z/

Composed Graphemes

ph, th, kh : /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/
fh, bh (vh), dh, sh, zh, xh, gh : /ɸ/, /β/, /ð/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /x/, /ɣ/
nh : /ɲ/
lh : /ɾ/
mb, nd, ngg, ng : /ᵐb/, /ⁿd/, /ᵑg/, /ŋ/
(rr : /ʀ/)

Tables of phonemes and their corresponding graphemes

		Bilabial		Labio-dental		Dental		Alveolar		Post-alveolar		Palatal		Velar		Uvular		Glottal
Nasal		m <m>				n <n>						ɲ <nh>		ŋ <ng>
Plosive		pʰ <ph> p <p> b <b>				tʰ <th> t <t> d <d>								kʰ <kh> k <k> g <g>
Fricative		ɸ <fh> β <bh>		f <f> v <v>		θ <c> ð <dh>		s <s> z <z>		ʃ <sh> ʒ <zh>				x <xh> ɣ <gh>		χ <x> ʁ <r>		h <h>
Approximant												j <y>		w <w>
Trill																ʀ <j>, <rr>
Flap						ɾ <lh>
Lateral approx.						l <l>
Prenasalised occlusives		ᵐb <mb>				ⁿd <nd>								ᵑg <ngg>

/ɧ̙ʷ/ <ch>

		Front		Central		Back
Close		i <i> y <ü>				u <u>
Close-mid		e <e> ø <ö>				o <o>
Open-mid		ɛ <ä> ɛ̃ <î>				ɔ <ò> ɔ̃ <â>, <õ>
Open				ä <a>		ɑ̃ <ê>

Additionally, an apostrophe is used to disambiguate ambiguous sequences which could be interpreted as either a digraph representing a single phoneme, or two graphemes in a row representing two phonemes. For instance, <lh> denotes /ɾ/, but <l'h> denotes /lh/.

Grammar

Morphology

There are five main parts of speech in TolsianR : nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

Nouns

Nouns have definiteness, gender, number, and case. The case system is actually very reduced, with only three cases : nominative, accusative, and genitive. Definiteness is marked by definite and indefinite articles which agree in gender and number with the nouns. There are two numbers, singular and plural. Finally, the gender system is fairly complicated, as it consists of two dimensions interacting : masculine vs feminine on the one hand and animate vs inanimate on the other. However, different parts of speech agree with these two gender systems : articles and adjectives will take masculine or feminine markings, while verbs are conjugated differently depending upon whether the noun is animate or inanimate. Nouns themselves are marked for gender, and for animatedness when in the accusative or dative case. Also, when an adjective qualifies several nouns which are not all masculine or feminine, they take a neutral plural suffix ; but beyond those special cases, neutral has disappeared from TolsianR.

Definiteness

There are definite and indefinite articles, agreeing in gender and number with the nouns they modify. They undergo morphophonological changes depending on whether the noun they modify begins with a vowel or with a consonant.

Number	Gender	Definite + consonant	Definite + vowel	Indefinite + consonant	Indefinite + vowel
Singular	Masculine	ê / ä [ɛ]	êl / äl [ɛl]	one / one [one]	on / on [on]
	Feminine	la / la [la]	la' / l', la' [l]	ona / ona [ona]	ona' / on', ona' [on]
Plural	Masculine	lecͪ / le, les' [le]	lec / les [les]	onecͪ / one, one' [one]	onec / ones [ones]
	Feminine			onacͪ / ona', onas' [ona]	onac / onas [onas]
	Neutral			dalecͪ / dale', dales' [dale]	dalec / dales [dales]

Gender

On many nouns ending in a vowel, gender is identifiable as -e and -o are masculine markers, while -a and -i are feminine markers. But nouns ending with a consonant don't provide such cues. Besides, there are occasional exceptions to these rules. Animatedness is marked in the accusative case as the prefix will be ke- (or k- before a vowel) in the case of an inanimate noun, and dake- (or dak- before a vowel) in the case of an animate noun ; and in the genitive case, with a suffix -o for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel) and -do for animate nouns (see section on cases for more details). Also, "natural" gender is usually reflected in the grammatical gender (nous which refer to male beings usually are masculine, and vice-versa) ; and "natural" animatedness is usually reflected in grammatical animatedness as well : people, animals and, it is worth noticing, plants, are usually animate, while objects, concepts etc are usually inanimate.

Articles and adjectives agree in gender with nouns depending on their being masculine or feminine, while verbs have a different conjugation depending on the animate vs inanimate opposition, and the accusative and genitive markers differ as well. In the plural there is a neutral form if masculine and feminine nouns are under the scope of the same modifier ; in adjectives, the vowel associated with neutral is -i. If a verb has a complex subject comprised of animate and inanimate nouns, most usually the animate conjugation will be used.

	Masculine	Feminine
Animate	macko / masko (man) kimŧane / kimthane (boy) ƃs / blhas (brother) pa / pa (father)	ƥemæ̊ / fhemya (woman) fati (family) ctaƶ̆ / stazh (life)
Inanimate	sko / cko (bone) ƶ̆it / zhit (foot) mbo (time)	i͠idna / yidna (garden) tqepi / tshepi (misfortune, bad luck) gæc / gays (place, spot)

Number

Nouns can be singular or plural and articles, adjectives and verbs agree in number with the noun (or the subject in the case of the verb). Singular is unmarked, while plural is marked with the prefix /-s/, written <-c> in traditional orthography and <-s> in modern orthography. However, if the noun ends in a consonant, diverse changes happen :

A final palatal nasal becomes velar : /ɲ/ → [ŋ]. This is reflected in the orthography.
In general, nasals are slightly devoiced, and the -s suffix stays voiceless : [m̥s], [n̥s], [ŋ̥s]. This is not reflected in the orthography.
However, prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized but the plural suffix becomes voiced : /ᵐb/+/s/ → [mz] ; /ⁿd/+/s/ → [nz] ; /ᵑg/+/s/ → [ŋz]. This is partially reflected in the orthography (voicing of the plural suffix -s is never reflected in the orthography, it is always spelled <-c> or <-s>).
Aspirated plosives lose their aspiration : /pʰ/ → /p/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/ → /t/ ; /kʰ/ → /k/. This is reflected in the orthography.
The plural suffix is voiced after most voiced obstruents : /b/+/s/ → /bz/ ; /d/+/s/ → /dz/ ; /g/+/s/ → /gz/ ; /v/+/s/ → /vz/ ; /ɣ/+/s/ → /ɣz/ ; /ʁ/+/s/ → /ʁz/. As stated previously, this is not reflected in the orthography.
However, the voiced bilabial fricative becomes /w/ and the plural suffix becomes voiced : /β/+/s/ → /wz/.
After the strident fricatives /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ɧ̙ʷ/, the plural suffix is simply not pronounced, but it is still written.
After the approximants /w/ and /j/, the plural suffix becomes voiced : /wz/, /jz/. Not reflected in the orthography.
The liquids /ʀ/, /ɾ/, /l/ are slightly devoiced : [ʀ̥s], [ɾ̥s], [l̥s]. Not reflected in the orthography.

Case

TolsianR has three cases : nominative, accusative and genitive, which agree with a noun's animatedness. Nominative is unmarked, and corresponds to the functions of subject, attribute of the subject, and all other functions which are not covered by the accusative and dative cases. Accusative corresponds to the function of direct object of a verb and is marked with a prefix : dake- (or dak- before a vowel) in the animate, and ke- (or k- before a vowel) in the inanimate. In more recent developments of the language, dake- has become da- (or d- in front of a vowel). Genitive corresponds to the "possessor" of something and is marked with a suffix -do for animate nouns (with a number of morphophonological changes taking place if the noun ends in a consonant), and -o for inanimate nouns (transformed into /w/ after a vowel). If a noun is in the plural, the mark of the plural is suffixed to the stem as usual in the accusative, but in the genitive it is added after the genitive suffix.

The following table summarizes the language's declensions, where C stands for consonant, V for vowel, and stem includes any plural mark :

Case declension in TolsianR

	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive
Animate	stem	dake-Cstem (dak-Vstem) da-Cstem (d-Vstem)	stem-do
Inanimate	stem	ke-Cstem (k-Vstem)	stemC-o (stemV-w)

Examples of declensions of different substantives

	Nominative	Accusative	Genitive
Masculine Animate	macko / masko kimŧane / kimthane ƃs / blhac	dakemacko / dakemasko alt. damacko / damasko dakekimŧane / dakekimthane alt. dakimŧane / dakimthane dakeƃs / dakeblhac alt. daƃs / dablhac	mackodo / maskodo kimŧanedo / kimthanedo alt. kimŧando / kimthando ƃƶdo / blhadhdo
Masculine Inanimate	sko / cko ƶ̆it / zhit æ̊z / ayz	kesko / kecko keƶ̆it / kezhit kæ̊z / kayz	sko͠ŏ / ckow ƶ̆ito / zhito æ̊zo / ayzo
Feminine Animate	ƥemæ̊ / fhemya fati / fati ctaƶ̆ / stazh	dakeƥemæ̊ / dakefhemya alt. daƥemæ̊ / dafhemya dakefati alt. dafati dakectaƶ̆ / dakestazh alt. dactaƶ̆ / dastazh	ƥemæ̊do / fhemyado fatido ctaƶ̆do / stazhdo
Feminine Inanimate	i͠idna / yidna tqepi / tshepi gæc / gays (place, spot)	kei͠idna / keyidna ketqepi / ketshepi kegæc / kegays	i͠idna͠ŏ / yidnaw tqepi͠ŏ / tshepiw gæco / gayso

Morphophonological adaptations

As we have already seen, the prefix of the accusative is elided in front of a vowel, becoming dak- (or d-) in the animate, and k- in the inanimate. The suffix of the genitive also undergoes a number of changes, depending on whether it follows a consonant or a vowel. In the inanimate, the -o becomes a glide, -w, after a vowel. But the situation is more complex when the animate genitive suffix follows a consonant, and the rules are as follows :

Prenasalized consonants become fully nasalized : /ᵐb/ → /m/ ; /ⁿd/ → /n/ ; /ᵑg/ → /ŋ/.
The palatal nasal becomes dental : /ɲ/ → /n/.
Voiceless plosives become unaspirated and voiced : /pʰ/, /p/ → /b/ ; /tʰ/, /t̚/, /t/ → /dː/ ; /kʰ/, /k/ → /g/.
Bilabial fricatives become /w/ : /ɸ/, /β/ → /w/.
Other voiceless fricatives become voiced, with the exception of the glottal fricative /h/ : /f/ → /v/ ; /s/ → /z/ ; /ʃ/ → /ʒ/ ; /x/ → /ɣ/ ; /χ/ → /ʁ/ ; /ɧ̙ʷ/ → /ɧ̙̬ʷ/.

Pronouns

Pronouns are declined in four cases : nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Except for the genitive, pronouns can be modified to express different politeness registers ; in the following table, the first form is neutral, the second form is casual / informal, and the third form is formal. The 2FORMAL pronouns express a higher degree of politeness, and would be used for instance to address a teacher, an employer, a political or religious figure, etc. It does not have an informal version, but does have an extra formal one, which could be used for instance for a king or a highly placed religious figure, a god, etc. The formal version of the regular 2SG pronoun then is used for instance with strangers, older family members, older coworkers or coworkers with a higher position, etc. The informal versions of the pronouns are usually used to address younger people, or close friends and relatives ; it then has an affectionate meaning. But if used to address a person of perceived lower status or position, despite no or little age difference, it becomes more of a disparaging connotation. In the genitive case, pronouns are not marked for formality levels, but they are marked for number, with the regular plural -c / -s. Pronominal possessive adjectives are marked for both gender and number.

Example

	Nominative (subject)	Accusative	Dative	Genitive	Possessive adjective
1SG	æ̊ / ya æ̊bi / yabi œæ̊ / oya	me mebi (mebe) ome	mi mibi omi	mo, moc / mo, mos	mine, minec / mines mina, minac / minas mini, minic / minis
2SG	tw / tu twbi / tubi œtw / otu	te tebi (tebe) ote	ti tibi (tqibi / tshibi) oti	to, toc / to, tos	tine, tinec / tines tina, tinac / tinas tini, tinic / tinis
3SG.masc	æ / ay æbi / aybi æœ / ayo	wm / um wmbi / umbi wmo / umo	im imbi (bim) imo (oim)	co, coc / so, sos	cine, cinec / sine, sines cina, cinac / sina, sinas cini, cinic / sini, sinis
3SG.fem	mæ / may mæbi / maybi œmæ / omay	am ambi amo	ima imabi (bima) oima
1PL	cæ̊n / syan bicæ̊n / bisyan œcæ̊n / osyan	ne nebi (nebe) one	ni nibi oni	no, noc / no, nos	nine, ninec / nines nina, ninac / ninas nini, ninic / ninis
2PL	vw / vu vwbi / vubi œvw / ovu	ve vebi (vebe) ove	vi vibi ovi	vo, voc / vo, vos	vine, vinec / vines vina, vinac / vinas vini, vinic / vinis
3PL.masc	cæ / say bicæ (cæbi) / bisay (saybi) œcæ (cæœ) / osay (sayo)	ce / se cebi (cebe) / sebi (sebe) oce / ose	ci / si cibi / sibi oci / osi	ico, icoc / iso, isos	icine, icinec / isine, isines icina, icinac / isina, isinas icini, icinic / isini, isinis
3PL.fem	mæcͪ /mays (may) mæbic / maybis mæœc / mayos
3PL.neut	ci / si cibi / sibi œci / osi
2FORMAL	ææ̊ / ayya œææ̊ / oayya	æe / aye œæe / oaye	æi / ayi œæi / oayi	æo, æoc / ayo, ayos	ææ̊ne, ææ̊nec / ayyane, ayyanes ææ̊na, ææ̊nac / ayyana, ayyanas ææ̊ni, ææ̊nic / ayyani, ayyanis

Other types of pronouns

Interrogative pronouns and words

who ? ƿ / wi
what ? kea
whose ? ƿdo / wido
when ? pune / püne
where ? don (dôn)
why ?

Relative pronouns and words

who, whom -
that -
whose - dœte / dote
when -
where -
why -

Verbs

There are two main classes of verbs : (A) those whose stem ends in a vowel, and (B) those whose stem ends in a consonant. Verbs ending with an -a or an -i usually just take an -r to form the infinitive, while the other ones usually take a -ƃ /bɾa/. Verbs agree in person, animatedness and number with their subject. There are formally seven persons in TolsianR : first singular, second singular, third singular, first plural, second plural, third plural, and the "polite" second person used in formal contexts for which number is neutralized.

Tense

TolsianR's tense system is divided into past, present, and future, which are encoded in the conjugation of the verbs in the indicative mode.

Grammatical Aspect

A distinction between perfective and imperfective aspects is marked morphologically in the past tense, while other aspectualities, such as progressive and perfect, are marked with auxiliaries : progressive with the auxiliary cƿƃ "to be" and the present participle, and perfect with the auxiliary vuƃ "to have" and the past participle.

Some aspectual values of the different morphological verb forms :

Indicative present : neutral, habitual
Indicative Imperfect Past : habitual, continuous
Indicative Perfect Past : perfective
Indicative Future : neutral, habitual, inchoative (usually followed by "now" or something indicating it's going to happen very soon)
Conditional, Subjunctive : neutral, habitual. Also, they express a present tense by default.
Absolute : gnomic

Grammatical Mood

Realis

Indicative and so-called Absolutive are the two realis moods of TolsianR. Indicative is used to express statements or facts, and also other modalities not expressed with other moods. Absolutive is traditionally treated as a mood in TolsianR because of its specific grammatical markings, but better corresponds semantically to the gnomic aspect. It can also be used to express a higher degree of certainty than indicative, or to express emphasis.

Irrealis

The two other moods of TolsianR are subjunctive and conditional. Subjunctive is used for instance in dependent clauses whose main clause's verb expresses an opinion, an inference, a belief (verbs such as "to think", "to believe", "to consider", etc), a desire or a wish ("to want", "to hope"). It is also used to express commands, interdictions and requests, as there is no distinct imperative mood in the language. Conditional is used to speak of events whose realization depends on a certain condition ; then, it is used in both the main and the dependent clauses.

Polarity

The default polarity is positive : something is asserted. In order to express negation, the negative adverb ne is placed right before the verb. If a subject pronoun is used, it is inserted between the negative adverb and the verb.

Examples : æ̊ cƿ "I am" ; ne æ̊ cƿ "I am not".

Conjugation

Verbs are inflected for person, mood, tense, and animatedness. There are four moods : indicative, subjunctive, conditional, and so-called "absolute" (gnomic). The indicative mood splits into four tenses : present, imperfect past, perfect past, and future. There are also a present partitive and a past partitive, especially used for progressive aspect and passive voice, respectively.

The following tables illustrate the underlying conjugation paradigms :

Historical conjugation paradigm, Class A

	Class A Animate							Class A Inanimate
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	stemV-∅	stemV-tV	stemV-fV	stemV-rV	stemV-ko	stemV-no	stemV-jo	stemV-jV	stemV-tjV	stemV-fjV	stemV-rjV	stemV-kjo	stemV-jo	stemV-joh
2SG	stemV-s	stemV-tVs	stemV-fVs	stemV-rVs	stemV-kos	stemV-nos	stemV-jos	stemV-jVs	stemV-tjVs	stemV-fjVs	stemV-rjVs	stemV-kjos	stemV-jos	stemV-joθ
3SG	stemV-t	stemV-tVt	stemV-fVt	stemV-rVt	stemV-kot	stemV-not	stemV-jot	stemV-jVt	stemV-tjVt	stemV-fjVt	stemV-rjVt	stemV-kjot	stemV-jot	stemV-jot̚
1PL	stemV-m	stemV-tVmo	stemV-fVmo	stemV-rVmo	stemV-komys	stemV-nomys	stemV-jof	stemV-jVm	stemV-tjVmo	stemV-fjVmo	stemV-rjVmo	stemV-kjomys	stemV-jomys	stemV-joɸ
2PL	stemV-ti	stemV-tVti	stemV-fVti	stemV-rVti	stemV-kotis	stemV-notis	stemV-joz	stemV-jVti	stemV-tjVti	stemV-fjVti	stemV-rjVti	stemV-kjotis	stemV-jotis	stemV-joʒ
3PL	stemV-n	stemV-tVn	stemV-fVn	stemV-rVn	stemV-kona	stemV-nona	stemV-jon	stemV-jVn	stemV-tjVn	stemV-fjVn	stemV-rjVn	stemV-kjona	stemV-jona	stemV-jowi
2FORMAL	stemV-ne	stemV-tVne	stemV-fVne	stemV-rVne	stemV-ke	stemV-ne	stemV-je	stemV-jVjne	stemV-tVjne	stemV-fVjne	stemV-rVjne	stemV-kje	stemV-je	stemV-joð ; stemV-joː

Historical conjugation paradigm, Class B

	Class B Animate							Class B Inanimate
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	stem-a	stem-ita	stem-ifa	stem-ira	stem-iko	stem-o	stem-jo	stem-ja	stem-itja	stem-ifja	stem-irja	stem-ikjo	stem-jo	stem-joh
2SG	stem-as	stem-itas	stem-ifas	stem-iras	stem-ikos	stem-os	stem-jos	stem-jas	stem-itjas	stem-ifjas	stem-irjas	stem-ikjos	stem-jos	stem-joθ
3SG	stem-at	stem-itat	stem-ifat	stem-irat	stem-ikot	stem-ot	stem-jot	stem-jat	stem-itjat	stem-ifjat	stem-irjat	stem-ikjot	stem-jot	stem-jot̚
1PL	stem-im	stem-itimo	stem-ifimo	stem-irimo	stem-ikomys	stem-omys	stem-jof	stem-jim	stem-itjimo	stem-ifjimo	stem-irjimo	stem-ikjomys	stem-jomys	stem-joɸ
2PL	stem-iti	stem-iti	stem-ifiti	stem-iriti	stem-ikotis	stem-otis	stem-joz	stem-jiti	stem-itjiti	stem-ifjiti	stem-irjiti	stem-ikjotis	stem-jotis	stem-joʒ
3PL	stem-an	stem-itan	stem-ifan	stem-iran	stem-ikona	stem-ona	stem-jon	stem-jan	stem-itjan	stem-ifjan	stem-irjan	stem-ikjona	stem-jona	stem-jowi
2FORMAL	stem-ine	stem-itine	stem-ifine	stem-irine	stem-ike	stem-e	stem-je	stem-jine	stem-itje	stem-ifje	stem-irje	stem-ikje	stem-je	stem-joð ; stem-joː

Modern conjugation paradigm, Class A

	Class A Animate							Class A Inanimate
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	stemV-∅	stem-tV	stem-fV	stem-rV	stem-ko	stem-no	stemV-jo	stem-jV	stem-tʃV	stem-fjV	stem-rjV	stem-kjo	stem-jo	stem-joh
2SG	stemV-s	stem-tVs	stem-fVs	stem-rVs	stem-kos	stem-nos	stem-jos	stem-jVs	stem-tʃVs	stem-fjVs	stem-rjVs	stem-kjos	stem-jos	stem-joθ
3SG	stemV-t	stem-tVt	stem-fVt	stem-rVt	stem-kot	stem-not	stem-jot	stem-jVt	stem-tʃVt	stem-fjVt	stem-rjVt	stem-kjot	stem-jot	stem-jot̚
1PL	stemV-m	stem-to	stem-fo	stem-ro	stem-kus	stem-nus	stem-jof	stem-jVm	stem-tʃVmo	stem-fjVmo (-fimo)	stem-rjVmo (-rimo)	stem-kjomys	stem-jomys	stem-joɸ
2PL	stemV-ts	stem-tVts	stem-fVts	stem-rVts	stem-kis	stem-nis	stem-joz	stem-jVts	stem-tʃVts	stem-fjVti (-fiti)	stem-rjVti (-riti)	stem-kjots	stem-jots	stem-joʒ
3PL	stemV-n	stem-tVn	stem-fVn	stem-rVn	stem-ka	stem-na	stem-jon	stem-jVn	stem-tʃVn	stem-fjVn	stem-rjVn	stem-kjona (-ka?)	stem-jona (-ja?)	stem-jowi
2FORMAL	stem-e	stem-te	stem-fe	stem-re	stem-ke	stem-ne	stem-je	stem-jVjne (-jine)	stem-tʃe	stem-fje	stem-rje	stem-kje	stem-je	stemV-joð ; stem-joː

Note : In the table above, stem represents the stem of the verb minus its final vowel.

Modern conjugation paradigm, Class B

	Class B Animate							Class B Inanimate
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	stem-a	stem-i	stem-iv	stem-ir	stem-ik	stem-o	stem-jo	stem-ja	stem-itʃa	stem-ivja	stem-irja	stem-ikjo	stem-jo	stem-joh
2SG	stem-as	stem-its	stem-ifs	stem-irz	stem-iks	stem-os	stem-jos	stem-jas	stem-itʃas	stem-ivjas	stem-irjas	stem-ikjos	stem-jos	stem-joθ
3SG	stem-at	stem-it	stem-ift	stem-ixt	stem-ikt	stem-ot	stem-jot	stem-jat	stem-itʃat	stem-ivjat	stem-irjat	stem-ikjot	stem-jot	stem-jot̚
1PL	stem-im	stem-itʃmo	stem-ivmo	stem-irmo	stem-ikus	stem-us	stem-jof	stem-jim	stem-itʃmo	stem-ivimo	stem-irimo	stem-ikjomys	stem-jomys	stem-joɸ
2PL	stem-its	stem-itʃi	stem-ifi	stem-iri	stem-iki	stem-i	stem-joz	stem-jits	stem-itʃi	stem-ivits	stem-irits	stem-ikjotis	stem-jotis	stem-joʒ
3PL	stem-an	stem-in	stem-ivna	stem-irna	stem-ikna	stem-ona	stem-jon	stem-jan	stem-itʃan	stem-ivjan	stem-irjan	stem-ikjona	stem-jona	stem-jowi
2FORMAL	stem-ine	stem-itʃne	stem-ivne	stem-irne	stem-ike	stem-e	stem-je	stem-jine	stem-itʃe	stem-ivje	stem-irje	stem-ikje	stem-je	stem-joð ; stem-joː

Examples of conjugated verbs

Note : in the original alphabet, and its corresponding traditional transliteration, endings that contain the sound /jo/ are written with the letter <y> if they belong to the absolute, but a digraph <i͠o> elsewhere ; for instance, the absolute animate 1SG, 2SG and 3SG persons are differentiated in writing from their inanimate conditional counterparts, despite being the same in phonic realization. In the modern transliteration, there is no difference.

Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb barinir, to want

	Class A Animate : barinir "to want"							Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	barini	bariniti	barinifi	bariniri	bariniko	barinino	bariniy / bariniyo	barinii͠i / bariniyi	bariniti͠i / barinityi	barinifi͠i / barinifyi	bariniri͠i / bariniryi	bariniki͠o / barinikyo	barinii͠o / bariniyo	bariniyh / bariniyoh
2SG	barinic / barinis	barinitic / barinitis	barinific / barinifis	bariniric / bariniris	barinikoc / barinikos	barininoc / barininos	bariniyc / bariniyos	barinii͠ic / bariniyis	bariniti͠ic / barinityis	barinifi͠ic / barinifyis	bariniri͠ic / bariniryis	bariniki͠oc / barinikyos	barinii͠oc / bariniyos	bariniys / bariniyoc
3SG	barinit	barinitit	barinifit	barinirit	barinikot	barininot	bariniyt / bariniyot	barinii͠it / bariniyit	bariniti͠it / barinityit	barinifi͠it / barinifyit	bariniri͠it / bariniryit	bariniki͠ot / barinikyot	barinii͠ot / bariniyot	bariniyŧ / bariniyoth or bariniyott
1PL	barinim	barinitimo	barinifimo	barinirimo	barinikomuc / barinikomüs	barininomuc / barininomüs	bariniyf / bariniyof	barinii͠im / bariniyim	bariniti͠imo / barinityimo	barinifi͠imo / barinifyimo	bariniri͠imo / bariniryimo	bariniki͠omuc / barinikyomüs	barinii͠omuc / bariniyomüs	bariniyƥ / bariniyofh
2PL	bariniti	barinititi	barinifiti	bariniriti	barinikotic / barinikotis	barininotic / barininotis	bariniyz / bariniyoz	barinii͠iti / bariniyiti	bariniti͠iti / barinityiti	barinifi͠iti / barinifyiti	bariniri͠iti / bariniryiti	bariniki͠otic / barinikyotis	barinii͠otic / bariniyotis	bariniyƶ̆ / bariniyozh
3PL	barinin	barinitin	barinifin	barinirin	barinikona	barininona	bariniyn / bariniyon	barinii͠in / bariniyin	bariniti͠in/ barinityin	barinifi͠in / barinifyin	bariniri͠in / bariniryin	bariniki͠ona / barinikyona	barinii͠ona / bariniyona	bariniyƿ / bariniyowi
2FORMAL	barinine	barinitine	barinifine	barinirine	barinike	barinine	barinii͠e / bariniye	barinii͠iĭne / bariniyiyne	bariniti͠ĭne / barinitiyne	barinifi͠ĭne / barinifiyne	bariniri͠ĭne / bariniriyne	bariniki͠e / barinikye	barinii͠e / bariniye	bariniyƶ, bariniyœ / bariniyodh, bariniyoo

Modern conjugation table for the verb barinir, to want

	Class A Animate : barinir "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	barini	bariniti → barinti	barinifi → barinfi → barimfi	bariniri → barinri	bariniko → barinko → bariŋko / baringko	barinino → barinno → barino	bariniy → bariny → bariño / barinho
2SG	barinic / barinis	barinitic → barintic / barintis	barinific → barinfic → barimfic / barimfis	bariniric → barinric / barinris	barinikoc → barinkoc → bariŋkoc / baringkos	barininoc → barinnoc → barinoc / barinos	bariniyc → barinyc → bariñoc / barinhos
3SG	barinit	barinitit → barintit	barinifit → barinfit → barimfit	barinirit → barinrit	barinikot → barinkot → bariŋkot / baringkot	barininot → barinnot → barinot	bariniyt → barinyt → bariñot / barinhot
1PL	barinim	barinitimo → barintimo → barinto	barinifimo → barinfimo → barimfimo → barimfo	barinirimo → barinrimo → barinro	barinikomuc → barinkomuc → bariŋkomuc → bariŋkwc / baringkus	barininomuc → barinnomuc → barinnwc → barinwc / barinus	bariniyf → barinyf → bariñof / barinhof
2PL	bariniti → barinitc / barinits	barinititi → barinititc → barintitc / barintits	barinifiti → barinfiti → barimfiti → barimfitc/barimfits	bariniriti → barinriti → barinritc/barinrits	barinikotic → barinkotic → bariŋkotic → bariŋkic / baringkis	barininotic → barinnotic → barinnic → barinic / barinis	bariniyz → barinyz → bariñoz / barinhoz
3PL	barinin	barinitin → barintin	barinifin → barinfin → barimfin	barinirin → barinrin	barinikona → barinkona → bariŋkona → bariŋka / baringka	barininona → barinnona → barinna → barina	bariniyn → barinyn → bariñon / barinhon
2FORMAL	barinine → barinne → barine	barinitine → barintine → barinte	barinifine → barinfine → barimfine → barimfe	barinirine → barinrine → barinre	barinike → barinke → bariŋke / baringke	barinine → barinne → barine	barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe

Modern conjugation table for the verb barinir, to want

	Class A Inanimate : barinir "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	barinii͠i → barini͠i → bariñi / barinhi	bariniti͠i → barinitqi → barintqi / barintshi	barinifi͠i → barinfi͠i → barimfi͠i / barimfyi	bariniri͠i → barniri͠i / barniryi	bariniky → barinky → bariŋky / baringkyo	barinii͠o → barini͠o → bariño / barinho	bariniyh → barinyh → bariñoh / barinhoh
2SG	barinii͠ic → barini͠ic → bariñic / barinhis	bariniti͠ic → barinitqic → barintqic / barintshis	barinifi͠ic → barinfi͠ic → barimfi͠ic / barimfyis	barniri͠ic / bariniri͠ic → barniryis	barinikyc → barinkyc → bariŋkyc / baringkyos	barinii͠oc → barini͠oc → bariñoc / barinhos	bariniys → barinys → bariños / barinhoc
3SG	barinii͠it → barini͠it → bariñit / barinhit	bariniti͠it → barinitqit → barintqit / barintshit	barinifi͠it → barinfi͠it → barimfi͠it / barimfyit	bariniri͠it → barniri͠it / barniryit	barinikyt → barinkyt → bariŋkyt / baringkyot	barinii͠ot → barini͠ot → bariñot / barinhot	bariniyŧ → barinyŧ → bariñoŧ / barinhoth or barinhott
1PL	barinii͠im → barini͠im → bariñim / barinhim	bariniti͠imo → barinitqimo → barintqimo / barintshimo	barinifi͠imo → barinfi͠imo → barimfi͠imo → barimfimo	bariniri͠imo → barniri͠imo → barnirimo	barinikymuc → barinkymuc → bariŋkymuc / baringkyomüs	barinii͠omuc → barini͠omuc → bariñomuc / barinhomüs	bariniyƥ → barinyƥ → bariñoƥ or bariñyƥ / barinhofh
2PL	barinii͠iti → barini͠itc → bariñitc / barinhits	bariniti͠iti → barinitqitc → barintqitc / barintshits	barinifi͠iti → barinfi͠iti → barimfi͠iti → barimfiti / barimfiti	bariniri͠iti → barniri͠iti → barniriti / barniriti	barinikytic → barinkytic → bariŋkytic → bariŋkytc / baringkyots	barinii͠otic → barini͠otic → bariñotic → bariñotc / barinhots	barinyƶ̆ → barinyƶ̆ → bariñoƶ̆ or bariñyƶ̆ / barinhozh
3PL	barinii͠in → barini͠in → bariñin / barinhin	barintqin / barintshin	barinifi͠in → barinfi͠in → barimfi͠in / barimfyin	bariniri͠in → barniri͠in / barniryin	barinikyna → barinkyna → bariŋkyna / baringkyona (→ bariŋkæ̊,bariŋki͠a/baringkya)	barinii͠ona → barini͠ona → bariñona / barinhona (→ bariña/barinha)	bariniyƿ → barinyƿ → bariñoƿ / barinhowi
2FORMAL	barinii͠iĭne → barini͠iĭne → bariñine / barinhine	barintqe / barintshe	barinifi͠ĭne → barinfi͠ĭne → barimfi͠ĭne → barimfii͠e → barimfi͠e / barimfye	bariniri͠ĭne → barniri͠ĭne → barnirii͠e → barniri͠e / barnirye	bariniki͠e → barinki͠e → bariŋki͠e / baringkye	barinii͠e → barini͠e → bariñe / barinhe	bariniyƶ, bariniyœ → barinyƶ, barinyœ → bariñoƶ, bariñoœ / barinhodh, barinhoo

Historical or canonical conjugation of the verb vekƃ, to help

	Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"							Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	veka	vekita	vekifa	vekira	vekiko	veko	veky / vekyo	veki͠a / vekya	vekiti͠a / vekitya	vekifi͠a / vekifya	vekiri͠a / vekirya	vekiki͠o / vekikyo	veki͠o / vekyo	veky / vekyo
2SG	vekac / vekas	vekitac / vekitas	vekifac / vekifas	vekirac / vekiras	vekikoc / vekikos	vekoc / vekos	vekyc / vekyos	veki͠ac / vekyas	vekiti͠ac / vektyas	vekifi͠ac / vekifyas	vekiri͠ac / vekiryas	vekiki͠oc / vekikyos	veki͠oc / vekyos	vekys / vekyoc
3SG	vekat	vekitat	vekifat	vekirat	vekikot	vekot	vekyt / vekyot	veki͠at / vekyat	vekiti͠at / vekityat	vekifi͠at / vekifyat	vekiri͠at / vekiryat	vekiki͠ot / vekikyot	veki͠ot / vekyot	vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
1PL	vekim	vekitimo	vekifimo	vekirimo	vekikomuc / vekikomüs	vekomuc / vekomüs	vekyf / vekyof	veki͠im / vekyim	vekiti͠imo / vekityimo	vekifi͠imo / vekifyimo	vekiri͠imo / vekiryimo	vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs	veki͠omuc / vekyomüs	vekyƥ / vekyofh
2PL	vekiti	vekititi	vekifiti	vekiriti	vekikotic / vekikotis	vekotic / vekotis	vekyz / vekyoz	veki͠iti / vekyiti	vekiti͠iti / vekityiti	vekifi͠iti / vekifyiti	vekiri͠iti / vekiryiti	vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis	veki͠otic / vekyotis	vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
3PL	vekan	vekitan	vekifan	vekiran	vekikona	vekona	vekyn / vekyon	veki͠an/ vekyan	vekiti͠an / vekityan	vekifi͠an / vekifyan	vekiri͠an / vekiryan	vekiki͠ona / vekikyona	veki͠ona / vekyona	vekyƿ / vekyowi
2FORMAL	vekine	vekitine	vekifine	vekirine	vekike	veke	veki͠e / vekye	veki͠ine / vekyine	vekiti͠e / vekitye	vekifi͠e / vekifye	vekiri͠e / vekirye	vekiki͠e / vekikye	veki͠e / vekye	vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo

Modern conjugation of the verb vekƃ, to help

	Class B Animate : vekƃ "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	veka	vekita → veki	vekifa → vekiva → vekiv	vekira → vekir	vekiko → vekik	veko	veky / vekyo
2SG	vekac / vekas	vekitac → vekitc →vekic / vekis	vekifac → vekifc / vekifs	vekirac → vekirc → vekirz	vekikoc → vekikc / vekiks	vekoc / vekos	vekyc / vekyos
3SG	vekat	vekitat → vekit	vekifat → vekift	vekirat → vekirt → vekixt	vekikot → vekikt	vekot	vekyt / vekyot
1PL	vekim	vekitimo → vekitʃimo → vekitʃmo	vekifimo → vekifmo → vekivmo	vekirimo → vekirmo	vekikomuc → vekikwc / vekikus	vekomuc → vekwc / vekus	vekyf / vekyof
2PL	vekiti → vekitc / vekits	vekititi → vekitʃitc → vekitʃi	vekifiti → vekifits → vekifi	vekiriti → vekirits → vekiri	vekikotic → vekikitc → vekiki	vekotic → vekitc → veki	vekyz / vekyoz
3PL	vekan	vekitan → vekitn → vekin	vekifan → vekifn → vekivn → vekivna	vekiran → vekirn → vekirna	vekikona → vekikon → vekikn → vekikna	vekona	vekyn / vekyon
2FORMAL	vekine	vekitine → vekitʃne	vekifine → vekifne → vekivne	vekirine → vekirne	vekike	veke	veki͠e / vekye

Modern conjugation of the verb vekƃ, to help

	Class B Inanimate : vekƃ "to want"
Person	Indicative Present	Indicative Imperfect Past	Indicative Perfect Past	Indicative Future	Subjunctive	Conditional	Absolute (Gnomic)
1SG	veki͠a / vekya	vekiti͠a → vekitqa / vekitsha	vekifi͠a → vekivi͠a / vekivya	vekiri͠a / vekirya	vekiki͠o / vekikyo	veki͠o / vekyo	veky / vekyo
2SG	veki͠ac / vekyas	vekiti͠ac → vekitqac / vekitshas	vekifi͠ac → vekivi͠ac / vekivyas	vekiri͠ac / vekiryas	vekiki͠oc / vekikyos	veki͠oc / vekyos	vekys / vekyoc
3SG	veki͠at / vekyat	vekiti͠at → vekitqat / vekitshat	vekifi͠at → vekivi͠at / vekivyat	vekiri͠at / vekiryat	vekiki͠ot / vekikyot	veki͠ot / vekyot	vekyŧ / vekyoth or vekyott
1PL	veki͠im / vekyim	vekiti͠imo → vekitqmo / vekitshmo	vekifi͠imo → vekivi͠imo → vekivimo	vekiri͠imo → vekirimo	vekiki͠omuc / vekikyomüs	veki͠omuc / vekyomüs	vekyƥ / vekyofh
2PL	veki͠iti → veki͠itc / vekyits	vekiti͠iti → vekitqi / vekitshi	vekifi͠iti → vekivi͠itc → vekivits / vekivits	vekiri͠iti → vekiri͠itc → vekiritc / vekirits	vekiki͠otic / vekikyotis	veki͠otic / vekyotis	vekyƶ̆ / vekyozh
3PL	veki͠an/ vekyan	vekiti͠an → vekitqan / vekitshan	vekifi͠an → vekivi͠an / vekivyan	vekiri͠an / vekiryan	vekiki͠ona / vekikyona	veki͠ona / vekyona	vekyƿ / vekyowi
2FORMAL	veki͠ine / vekyine	vekiti͠e → vekitqe / vekitshe	vekifi͠e → vekivi͠e / vekivye	vekiri͠e / vekirye	vekiki͠e / vekikye	veki͠e / vekye	vekyƶ, vekyœ / vekyodh, vekyoo

Participles

Verbs have present and past participles :

	Class A - Animate	Class A - Inanimate	Class B - Animate	Class B - Inanimate
Present Participle	stemV-tɑ̃	stemV-taɲ	stem-ɑ̃	stem-aɲ
Past Participle	stemV-d	stemV-ʒ	stem-id	stem-iʒ

Illustration : barinitɯ, barinitañ, barinid, bariniƶ̆ ; vekɯ, vekañ, vekid, vekiƶ̆.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree in number and gender (masculine/feminine) with the noun they qualify. They're usually derived from nouns, but sometimes from verbs as well.

There are three main ending patterns, identified by their singular neutral form :

1. -il : -il(c), -el(c), -ela(c) are the neutral, masculine and feminine endings, respectively. In the masculine, the pronunciations [el] and [ɛl] are in free variation, but it is rarely reflected in the orthography, even in the new standard. This type of ending is usually added to a stem ending in a consonant.
2. -li : -li(c), -le(c), -la(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a vowel.
3. -i : -i(c), -e(c), -a(c). Usually added to a stem ending in a consonant. This is a common ending for adjectives derived from past participles of verbs.
4. -iC : -iC(c), -eC(c), -aC(c), where C stands for some stem consonant. In this case, a gender thematic vowel is inserted before the last consonant of the stem, rather than added to it. Like in the first type of ending, there is free variation in the pronunciation of the masculine form between [eC] and [ɛC]. This is a rarer type of adjective ending.

The neutral form is almost only used in the plural, when qualifying several nouns of diverging gender. An exception is that, in dictionaries, adjectives are usually listed under their singular neutral form. Also, recent speech developments have seen a revival of the singular neutral when talking about individuals who don't follow binary gender conventions.

Adjectives are almost always placed after the noun they qualify.

Comparative and superlative

The comparative is formed with the prefix ha- before a consonant, hak- before a vowel. The superlative is formed with the prefix su- and the definite article.

Adverbs

Adverbs are invariable and are usually formed from the old singular neutral form of an adjective by adding the suffix -ƿn /win/. Thus, an adjective derived from a noun will yield such adverbs as stemV-lƿn (historically, stemV-liƿn) or stem-ilƿn, depending on the stem ending with a vowel or a consonant, and an adjective derived from a past participle will yield such adverbs as stemV-dƿn, stemV-ƶ̆ƿn, stem-idƿn or stem-iƶ̆ƿn. Adverbs are usually placed directly after the word (verb or adjective) they modify.

Prepositions

To express many spatial or temporal relations and mark some diverse semantic roles, TolsianR relies on several function words which are placed before their complement and are thus prepositions. Here is a non-exhaustive list of prepositions :

al - "to, towards" (direction)
ao - "at" (position)
alnit - "near, next to, around"
aldig - "around"
ante - "before" (temporal)
danæ̊ - "after" (temporal), "behind" (spatial)
dafac - "before, in front of" (spatial)
apratke - "so, in order to"
vek - "with"
meko - "home, at someone's home"
di - "in"
da - "of, from"
dal - "some" (partitive)
damêr - "since"
uduc - "under"
duc - "on, over"
ceda - "up to, until, till"
pur - "towards, to, till, for"

Derivative Morphology

TolsianR makes use of both prefixes and suffixes to derive new words from older ones ; some suffixes can change a word's grammatical category, whereas both suffixes and prefixes can be used to alter the meaning of a word. Word compounding also exists but is less prevalent in modern Tolsian.

Here is a non-exhaustive list of prefixes and suffixes :

Prefixes
a- turns a verb into a reflexive verb
u- creates an antonym
u- masculine (found mostly in animal names)
ki-, k- diminutive
go-, go͠- aumentative
nda- controll, will

Suffixes
-r turns a noun or an adjective into a verb (after an -a- or an -i-)
-ƃ turns a noun or an adjective into a verb
- æ̊ noun
- product

Syntax

Declarative Sentences

Word order in simple declarative sentences can be SVO or SOV. It is thought SVO order is used to highlight the object more, while SOV would emphasize the process instead. Anyway, the important point is that the verb be placed after its subject in the sentence. In complex sentences with a main sentence and a dependent sentence, the order of the constituents is Subject - Verb- Dependent sentence. I suck at syntax. Inside the dependent sentence, the word order can be SOV or SVO as well, but is also commonly OSV.

Questions

In yes-no questions, the order can be VSO or OVS ; there is an inversion between subject and verb. In open questions ("wh-questions"), an interrogative pronoun is used and placed before the verb and the subject : Pronoun - Verb - Subject. If the question is precisely about the subject, then the order is Verb - Pronoun (like in "Says who ?").