Efenol: Difference between revisions

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Efenol (view source)

Revision as of 07:09, 16 July 2018

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Morphology
(Consonant evolution)
(Morphology)
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| Represents a mutated <pw> /p/ (descended from a Spanish /kw/).
| Represents a mutated <pw> /p/ (descended from a Spanish /kw/).
Not used in North-Western Efenol. The pronunciations /xw/ and /x/ are in free
Not used in North-Western Efenol. The pronunciations /xw/ and /x/ are in free
variation in Western and Central Efenol, with /xw/ being preferred in the former
variation in Western and Central Efenol, with /xw/ being preferred in the former
and /x/ in the latter.
and /x/ in the latter.
|-
|-
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| Non-syllabic pronunciation when next to another vowel. Pronounced as a non-syllabic
| Non-syllabic pronunciation when next to another vowel. Pronounced as a non-syllabic
/e/ in North-Western Efenol and in some Western Efenol subdialects and as a /j/ or a
/e/ in North-Western Efenol and in some Western Efenol subdialects and as a /j/ or a
non-syllabic /i/ in most Western Efenol varieties (including Standard Efenol) and in
non-syllabic /i/ in most Western Efenol varieties (including Standard Efenol) and in
Central Efenol. May be written 'i' in Central Efenol.
Central Efenol. May be written 'i' in Central Efenol.
|-
|-
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| Represents a lenited, lexeme-initial <g> /g/. Pronounced as either a glottal stop or as a
| Represents a lenited, lexeme-initial <g> /g/. Pronounced as either a glottal stop or as a
null phoneme (silent) in Western and North-Western Efenol and as a voiced velar
null phoneme (silent) in Western and North-Western Efenol and as a voiced velar
fricative /ɣ/ in Central Efenol.
fricative /ɣ/ in Central Efenol.
|-
|-
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| /b/
| /b/
| Represents a word-final /b/ descended from a Spanish /mb/ that alternates with the
| Represents a word-final /b/ descended from a Spanish /mb/ that alternates with the
digraph <mm> /m/. Not used in North-Western Efenol.
digraph <mm> /m/. Not used in North-Western Efenol.
|-
|-
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| /d/
| /d/
| Represents a word-final /d/ descended from a Spanish /nd/ that alternates with the
| Represents a word-final /d/ descended from a Spanish /nd/ that alternates with the
digraph <nn> /n/. Not used in North-Western Efenol.
digraph <nn> /n/. Not used in North-Western Efenol.
|-
|-
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| /g/
| /g/
| Represents a word-final /g/ descended from a Spanish /ng/ that alternates with the
| Represents a word-final /g/ descended from a Spanish /ng/ that alternates with the
digraph <ng> /ŋ/ (or <nn> /n/ in Central Efenol). Not used in North-Western Efenol
digraph <ng> /ŋ/ (or <nn> /n/ in Central Efenol). Not used in North-Western Efenol
|-
|-
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| /yː/
| /yː/
| Orthographic equivalent to <ŷ>; preferred for long /y/ in Western and North-Western
| Orthographic equivalent to <ŷ>; preferred for long /y/ in Western and North-Western
Efenol; <ŷ> is preferred in Central Efenol.
Efenol; <ŷ> is preferred in Central Efenol.
|-
|-
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| Also <ó> (not to be confused with <ò>) if stressed and not in the final syllable.
| Also <ó> (not to be confused with <ò>) if stressed and not in the final syllable.
Pronounced as a true mid-vowel [o̞] in Central Efenol and in regional varieties of
Pronounced as a true mid-vowel [o̞] in Central Efenol and in regional varieties of
Western Efenol which merge /o/ and /ɔ/ (it should be noted that, despite featuring such
Western Efenol which merge /o/ and /ɔ/ (it should be noted that, despite featuring such
a merger, North-Western Efenol keeps the upper-mid pronunciation [o]).
a merger, North-Western Efenol keeps the upper-mid pronunciation [o]).
|-
|-
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| Represents a /p/ that descends from a Spanish /kw/. This distinction is relevant in
| Represents a /p/ that descends from a Spanish /kw/. This distinction is relevant in
Western and Central Efenol as <pw> behaves different than <p> under consonant
Western and Central Efenol as <pw> behaves different than <p> under consonant
mutation. In North-Western Efenol /p/ behaves in the same way regardless of its origin
mutation. In North-Western Efenol /p/ behaves in the same way regardless of its origin
and the digraph <pw> isn't used.
and the digraph <pw> isn't used.
|-
|-
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| Preceding a vowel. The phoneme /s/ palatalizes to /ʃ/ in North-Western Efenol and in
| Preceding a vowel. The phoneme /s/ palatalizes to /ʃ/ in North-Western Efenol and in
most Western varieties while the sequence is just interpreted as /sj/ in Central Efenol or
most Western varieties while the sequence is just interpreted as /sj/ in Central Efenol or
in other Western Efenol varieties.
in other Western Efenol varieties.
|-
|-
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| Represents the phoneme /tʃ/ in North-Western Efenol.
| Represents the phoneme /tʃ/ in North-Western Efenol.
In Western Efenol, <tc> is used sparingly and may be pronounced as /ʃ/ or /s/.
In Western Efenol, <tc> is used sparingly and may be pronounced as /ʃ/ or /s/.
In Central Efenol the digraph is replaced with the letter <S> /s/.
In Central Efenol the digraph is replaced with the letter <S> /s/.
|-
|-
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| Also <á> if stressed and not in the final syllable. In Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol,
| Also <á> if stressed and not in the final syllable. In Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol,
an stressed short <a> will be pronounced as a central [ä] while an unstressed short <a>
an stressed short <a> will be pronounced as a central [ä] while an unstressed short <a>
is reduced to a frontal [a] or, in some North-Eastern varieties, a schwa [ə].
is reduced to a frontal [a] or, in some North-Eastern varieties, a schwa [ə].
|-
|-
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| In Northern, North-Eastern and Central dialects, <c> always  represents a /k/ sound
| In Northern, North-Eastern and Central dialects, <c> always  represents a /k/ sound
(other than in digraphs), unlike English or Spanish <c>.
(other than in digraphs), unlike English or Spanish <c>.


In Eastern Efenol, however, the letter <c> represents the phoneme /tʃ/ before front
In Eastern Efenol, however, the letter <c> represents the phoneme /tʃ/ before front
vowels and /k/ elsewhere. A large number of Eastern speakers prefer to sidestep this
vowels and /k/ elsewhere. A large number of Eastern speakers prefer to sidestep this
ambiguity by always using the letter <ç> for /tʃ/ and spelling all remaining /k/'s as <k>.
ambiguity by always using the letter <ç> for /tʃ/ and spelling all remaining /k/'s as <k>.
|-
|-
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| As /g/ (or [ɰ] in Eastern Efenol): represents a lenited <c> /k/ unless the word is preceded by
| As /g/ (or [ɰ] in Eastern Efenol): represents a lenited <c> /k/ unless the word is preceded by
a determiner or possessive, in that case the /g/ sound is spelled as <g>.
a determiner or possessive, in that case the /g/ sound is spelled as <g>.


In Eastern Efenol, a lenited <c> before a front vowel (pronounced /tʃ/) yields /dʒ/ which may
In Eastern Efenol, a lenited <c> before a front vowel (pronounced /tʃ/) yields /dʒ/ which may
also be spelled as <j>. In this dialect, the digraph <cg> when pronounced /dʒ/ cannot be
also be spelled as <j>. In this dialect, the digraph <cg> when pronounced /dʒ/ cannot be
reduced to <g>, even if the word was preceded by a determiner or a possessive.
reduced to <g>, even if the word was preceded by a determiner or a possessive.
|-
|-
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| Only used in Eastern Efenol (although North-Eastern Efenol may also use it for
| Only used in Eastern Efenol (although North-Eastern Efenol may also use it for
Eastern Efenol borrowings).
Eastern Efenol borrowings).


In Eastern Efenol <ç> may be used either to supplement <c> when /tʃ/ does not
In Eastern Efenol <ç> may be used either to supplement <c> when /tʃ/ does not
immediately precede a front vowel or as the only representation of /tʃ/, replacing <c>.
immediately precede a front vowel or as the only representation of /tʃ/, replacing <c>.


The digraph <tç> is preferred in word-final position.
The digraph <tç> is preferred in word-final position.
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Also used in Central Efenol to represent a word-final /d/ descended from a Spanish /nd/,
Also used in Central Efenol to represent a word-final /d/ descended from a Spanish /nd/,
corresponds to Western -hd.
corresponds to Western -hd.
|-
|-
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| Also <é> when stressed if not in the final syllable of a word. In Northern Efenol, the
| Also <é> when stressed if not in the final syllable of a word. In Northern Efenol, the
phoneme is pronounced as a mid vowel [e̞], in Central Efenol  <e> is always an upper-mid
phoneme is pronounced as a mid vowel [e̞], in Central Efenol  <e> is always an upper-mid
[e] while in Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol the vowel is upper-mid [e] when stressed or
[e] while in Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol the vowel is upper-mid [e] when stressed or
lower-mid [ɛ] when unstressed.
lower-mid [ɛ] when unstressed.
|-
|-
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| Represents a lenited, lexeme-initial <g> /g/. Pronounced as a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ in
| Represents a lenited, lexeme-initial <g> /g/. Pronounced as a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ in
Central Efenol; as a voiceless velar fricative [x] in Northern Efenol (with [h] and [ħ] as
Central Efenol; as a voiceless velar fricative [x] in Northern Efenol (with [h] and [ħ] as
regional variants), as a voiceless palatal fricative /ç/ in North-Eastern Efenol and as a voiced
regional variants), as a voiceless palatal fricative /ç/ in North-Eastern Efenol and as a voiced
palatal fricative /ʝ/ in Eastern Efenol.
palatal fricative /ʝ/ in Eastern Efenol.
|-
|-
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| Used in Eastern, Central and certain North-Eastern Efenol varieties to represent a
| Used in Eastern, Central and certain North-Eastern Efenol varieties to represent a
mutated <pw> or <p> /p/ descended from a Spanish /kw/.
mutated <pw> or <p> /p/ descended from a Spanish /kw/.
/x/ is the prevailing pronunciation in Central Efenol (where /xw/ can nonetheless also
/x/ is the prevailing pronunciation in Central Efenol (where /xw/ can nonetheless also
be found); /xw/ is more commonly found in Eastern Efenol although some speakers
be found); /xw/ is more commonly found in Eastern Efenol although some speakers
may use /x/ or /ʍ/ instead. Meanwhile, some North-Eastern speakers may use the
may use /x/ or /ʍ/ instead. Meanwhile, some North-Eastern speakers may use the
phoneme /ʍ/ although <f> /f/ remains the most usual alternative in this dialect group.
phoneme /ʍ/ although <f> /f/ remains the most usual alternative in this dialect group.


Some Eastern Efenol may conflate /kw/-derived /p/ and inherited Spanish /p/ entirely
Some Eastern Efenol may conflate /kw/-derived /p/ and inherited Spanish /p/ entirely
and use <ph> /f/ instead in case of rhotic or nasal mutation.
and use <ph> /f/ instead in case of rhotic or nasal mutation.
|-
|-
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this phoneme with /l/.
this phoneme with /l/.


The letters may also be read individually as /lx/; an apostrophe may be used to unambiguously break the digraph.
The letters may also be read individually as /lx/; an apostrophe may be used to unambiguously
 
break the digraph.
|-
|-
| li
| li
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| Also <ó> if stressed and not in the final syllable. Pronounced as a true mid-vowel [o̞] in
| Also <ó> if stressed and not in the final syllable. Pronounced as a true mid-vowel [o̞] in
Central and Northern Efenol and as either [o] or [ɔ] (depending on whether it is stressed or
Central and Northern Efenol and as either [o] or [ɔ] (depending on whether it is stressed or
not, respectively) in the Eastern and North-Eastern dialects.
not, respectively) in the Eastern and North-Eastern dialects.
|-
|-
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| Not used in Central Efenol. In Northern Efenol, <ö> is pronounced as a mid vowel [ø̞] while
| Not used in Central Efenol. In Northern Efenol, <ö> is pronounced as a mid vowel [ø̞] while
in Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol it is an upper-mid [ø] when stressed and either an [ɛ] or
in Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol it is an upper-mid [ø] when stressed and either an [ɛ] or
an [œ] when unstressed (with the former realization being far more common).
an [œ] when unstressed (with the former realization being far more common).
|-
|-
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| Represents a lenited <p> /p/ unless the word is preceded by a determiner or a
| Represents a lenited <p> /p/ unless the word is preceded by a determiner or a
possessive, in that case the /b/ sound is spelled <b>.
possessive, in that case the /b/ sound is spelled <b>.
Pronounced [β̞] in Eastern Efenol.
Pronounced [β̞] in Eastern Efenol.
|-
|-
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| Represents a lenited <p> or <pw> /p/ that was originally a Spanish <kw>.
| Represents a lenited <p> or <pw> /p/ that was originally a Spanish <kw>.
Using <v> is a permissible (though not as popular) alternative spelling
Using <v> is a permissible (though not as popular) alternative spelling
The digraph isn't used in Eastern Efenol where <b> or <pb> are used instead.
The digraph isn't used in Eastern Efenol where <b> or <pb> are used instead.
|-
|-
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| Represents a /p/ that descends from a Spanish /kw/. Not used in Northern or Eastern
| Represents a /p/ that descends from a Spanish /kw/. Not used in Northern or Eastern
Efenol and rarely used (and optional) in North-Eastern Efenol. The digraph remains
Efenol and rarely used (and optional) in North-Eastern Efenol. The digraph remains
common (although also optional) in Central Efenol.
common (although also optional) in Central Efenol.
|-
|-
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speakers may replace all instances of <rg> with <r> (if word-initial) or <rr> (otherwise).
speakers may replace all instances of <rg> with <r> (if word-initial) or <rr> (otherwise).


The letters may also be read individually as /ɾx/; an apostrophe may be used to unambiguously break the digraph.
The letters may also be read individually as /ɾx/; an apostrophe may be used to unambiguously
 
break the digraph.
|-
|-
| rr
| rr
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| Represents a lenited <S> /s/. Pronounced /h/ in Northern and Central Efenol and /x/ in
| Represents a lenited <S> /s/. Pronounced /h/ in Northern and Central Efenol and /x/ in
Eastern Efenol; North-Eastern varieties may have either pronunciation although the latter is
Eastern Efenol; North-Eastern varieties may have either pronunciation although the latter is
slightly more typical.
slightly more typical.


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| Represents a lenited <t> /d/ unless the word is preceded by a determiner or a
| Represents a lenited <t> /d/ unless the word is preceded by a determiner or a
possessive, then the /d/ sound is spelled <d>.
possessive, then the /d/ sound is spelled <d>.
Pronounced [ð̞] in Eastern Efenol.
Pronounced [ð̞] in Eastern Efenol.
|-
|-
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Examples; graznar > ''rhathnar'', tizne > ''títhen'', hartazgo > ''artháthog'', juzgar > ''chuthagar'' (also simplified to ''chuthâr'').
Examples; graznar > ''rhathnar'', tizne > ''títhen'', hartazgo > ''artháthog'', juzgar > ''chuthagar'' (also simplified to ''chuthâr'').
==Grammar==
Being based on (and intrafictionally descended from) Spanish, Efenol retains much of Spanish grammar. Typical Romance features, such as arbitrary feminine vs masculine gender in nouns and verbs conjugating for person and tense intermix with less usual developments such as nominal plural formation based on ablaut or the usage of lenition to form genitives.
As its the case for the natural languages that inspirated it, Efenol features several irregularities and exceptions. Many irregular Spanish words are simplified and brought into a regular paradigm (for instance, all future tense verbs are regular in Efenol, something that cannot be said of Spanish) but at the same time many verbs which used to be regular in Spanish (such as 'hablar') evolve to be irregular in Efenol.
As in the preceding sections, statements and examples can be assumed to apply to the standard form of the language, Western Efenol, unless otherwise noted.
===Morphology===
====Nouns====
Just as in Spanish, Efenol nouns are divided into two nominal classes or genders: feminine and masculine. While these grammatical genders may correspond to the biological/sociological gender of their referents for some nouns, grammatical gender is mostly arbitrary even for words describing people (for instance, ''perzon'', from Spanish 'persona' and meaning 'a person' is feminine even when describing male individuals). Terms for professions, on the other hand, typically shift genders to agree with their referent: ''pechadhor'' is masculine for a fisherman and feminine for a fisherwoman. In these cases, masculine is used as the default gender, as it is also the case in Spanish.
Whereas grammatical gender can usually be guessed in Spanish nouns looking at their endings (such as -a for feminine nouns and -o for masculine), Efenol nouns, having lost those endings during its evolution, typically show no indication of their grammatical gender. It is often the case that two different Spanish nouns may be conflated into a pair of homophones in Efenol which are distinguished by gender alone. For instance, 'mesa' (table) and 'mes' (month) both yield ''mes'', but the noun is feminine when meaning 'a table' and masculine when meaning 'a month'. Similarly, 'casa' (house) and 'caso' (case, as in a lawsuit) yield feminine and masculine ''cas'' respectively. With little to no exception Efenol nouns retain the same grammatical gender than their Spanish equivalent which, in turn, typically agrees with the respective case in other Romance languages and in Latin.
The main effect of grammatical gender is determining which set of definite articles must be used for each noun. In singular, feminine nouns take the article ''a·'' (derived from Spanish 'la', triggers lenition on the following consonant) while masculine nouns take the article ''e·'' (derived from Spanish 'el', triggers rhotic mutation on the following consonant). Nouns which begin with a vowel sound always use ''l''' as a singular article regardless of gender, although the underlying gender may still show up in other circumstances.
Examples: Es. casa (feminine) > ''cas'' (house), ''a·gas'' (the house); Es. caso (masculine) > ''cas'' (case), ''e·chas'' (the case); Es. herencia (feminine) > ''erînth'' (inheritance), ''l'erînth'' (the inheritance); Es. árbol (masculine) > ''árvol'' (tree), ''l'árvol'' (the tree); pescador, pescadora (masculine and feminine, respectively) > ''pechadhor'' (fisherman or fisherwoman), ''e·phechadhor'' (the fisherman), ''a·bechadhor'' (the fisherwoman).
As in Spanish, Efenol nouns also inflect for number: singular or plural. As in other Romance languages, plural marking is mandatory, may be used alongside numerals and plural number is preferred for zero. Singular is considered the base form of a noun while plural is formed through apophony, that is, a change within the sounds of the stem. More specifically, '''the plural form of a noun is formed by applying i-ablaut to its vowels'', strong i-ablaut in the case of a stressed vowel and weak i-ablaut otherwise. This pluralization strategy, although far from usual Romance usage, actually descends from the Spanish plural-marker '-es' as mentioned in the above section about the evolution of Spanish S.
Examples: ''cas'' (house, case) > ''ceis'' (houses, cases), ''erînth'' (inheritance) > ''irînth'' (inheritances), ''árvol'' (tree) > ''éirvël'' (trees), ''pechadhor'' (fisherman or fisherwoman) > ''pichedhër'' (fishermen~fishers or fisherwomen).
The results of applying i-ablaut can be found in the section titled 'Vowel mutation'. Since i-ablaut works differently depending on whether a vowel is stressed or not nouns that only differ by stress position may become more distinct in plural:
Example: ''sávan'' (bedsheet, from Spanish 'sábana') > ''seiven'' (bedsheets); ''savan'' (savanna, from Spanish 'sabana') > ''sevein'' (savannas).
This synchronic i-ablaut does not necessarily affect all the syllables of an Efenol noun. Standard Western Efenol follows the '''''3-syllable rule''''': only the three last syllables of a noun are affected by i-ablaut when forming a plural. Other dialects may apply different rules, such as a '2-syllable rule' found in Central Efenol (and some close non-standard forms of Western Efenol) or the 'all syllables rule'' mostly found in Northern dialects. Since most Efenol words are three syllables long or shorter, the 3-syllable rule has a limited effect.
Examples: ''alvirantháthog'' (admiralty, the office of being an admiral, from Spanish 'almirantazgo') > ''alvirenthéithëg'' (standard 3-syllable rule plural), ''alviranthéithëg'' (non-standard 2-syllable rule plural; cf. Central: ''alvirantháthag'' > ''alviranthéitheg''), ''elvirenthéithëg'' (non-standard all syllables plural; cf. Northern: ''alviranzázog'' > ''elvirenzéizög'').
For some nouns, the plural form coincides with the singular after the ablaut. One such example is ''pî'' (foot, from Spanish 'pie'), whose only vowel remains a long <î> after i-ablaut. The difference in number may be conveyed through differences in definite article (''e·phî'' for 'the foot' but ''o·pî'' for 'the feet') but it may just be ambiguous in other contexts.
Western Efenol (the basis for Standard Efenol) features a limited amount of irregular plurals for nouns ending in ''-mm'', ''-ng'' or ''-nn'' whose finals become ''-hb'', ''-hg'' and ''-hd'' respectively, in addition to going through the usual i-ablaut: ''munn'' (world, from Spanish mundo) > ''mijhd'' (worlds), ''bomm'' (bomb, from Spanish bomba) > ''bëhb'' (bombs), ''mang'' (mango) > ''meihg'' (mangoes).
In addition to inflecting nouns for number, Efenol innovates what might be considered a simple case system, contrasting a nominative case (the base form) with a '''genitive or attributive case'' formed by applying lenition to the first consonant of the noun. This genitive forms corresponds to a now lost Spanish 'de' (a preposition similar in usage to English 'of') that triggered the lenition and which remains as a prefixed <d'> for nouns which start with a vowel. It should be noted that some consonants remain the same after lenition, in that case an apostrophe might be used in writing to indicate that the genitive case was intended.
Example: ''cóver'' (copper.NOM) > ''cgóver'' (copper.GEN); ''or'' (gold.NOM) > ''d'or'' (gold.GEN); ''falth'' (silver.NOM)>'' 'falth'' (silver.GEN); ''peanith'' (pianist.NOM.SG), ''pêinith'' (pianist.NOM.PL) > ''pbeanith'' (pianist.GEN.SG), ''pbêinith'' (pianist.GEN.PL).
The usage of this genitive case is limited to the following scenarios:
* For proper nouns only, indicating possession or origin: ''cët Cgárol'' for "Cárol's car", ''a·gabital Pbanamâ'' for "the capital of Panama", ''dipërthith Dhinamarch'' (sportspeople from Denmark). For other nouns, the possessive will be expressed through a determiner.
* For indicating the material of an object: ''anîl d'or'' (golden ring), ''cável cgóver'' (copper wire), ''aburhês pbechadh'' (fishburger, hamburguer made of fish), ''thum mhang'' (mango juice).
* After a quantifier: ''dos líthir bhin'' (two litters of wine), ''u·monthôn pbichedër'' (a lot of fishers).
* When forming compounds, with the genitive noun serving as a descriptor: ''chòl pbeicher'' (a cage of birds ~ a birdcage), ''galerî pbinthyr'' (a gallery of paintings ~ an art gallery), ''minithîr bhivînn'' (ministry for housing), ''cytîl cges'' (knife for cutting cheese), ''aitër tdâthor'' (theatre actors), ''curz bheolochî'' (biology course), ''mein pbeanith'' (pianist-like hands), ''eth animal ehtéiron tîn pic pbad i col cgathor'' (this strange animal has a duck's beak and a beaver's tail).
* With certain prepositions (whose Spanish equivalent also requires "de"): ''therch mhar'' (near the sea or near a sea), ''anth cgënfer'' (before the purchases). In this contexts it is also possible to use articles with genitive marking, which might add clarity (''therch de·mhar'' for near the sea versus ''therch du·mhar'' for near a sea) but the determiner-less form is allowed in all dialects and distinctly preferred in Western Efenol.
It should be noted that lenition may also be found in nouns in other than when marking this genitive case, such as when preceded by certain determiners (such as the feminine singular definite article 'a·' or singular possessive pronouns such as ''mi'' or ''su''). The genitive case forms explained above are not found when the noun is affected by a determiner although the determiners themselves may be made genitive through the same strategy: lenition (''mi'' ~ my > ''mhi'' ~ of my) and <d'> (''eth'' ~ this, ''d'eth'' ~ of this): ''S'ërîch d'eth elefanth son ma rhan cas'ërîch mhi elefanth'' ~ "The ears of this elephant are bigger than the ears of my elefant".
A limited number of nouns may also be affected by nasal mutation to form adverbs with a roughly locative meaning resulting from an elided ''en'' (in). These are however few in number and aren't found in all Efenol varieties (being completely absent from Northern and North-Eastern dialects). Examples include ''mbidh'' (from ''bidh'', life, roughly meaning 'in life' ~ 'while living') or shortened ''ndeil'' (from ''en dedeil'', 'in detail', detailedly).
====Proper nouns====
Proper nouns, such as personal names, work similarly personal names in English or Spanish. One main difference between proper and common nouns are that the former do not need a determiner in contexts a regular name would.
Like in Spanish, names are written with a capitalized first letter but words derived from names are not. Thus ''Franth'' (France) but ''franthê'' (French); ''Markov'' (Ма́рков, foreign names may keep their original spelling or internationally accepted transcriptions) but ''cedhîn markovean'' (Markov chains). Names (even if foreign) may be affected by lenition to indicate possession: ''cedhîn Mharkov'' (another alternative rendering for 'Markov chain'), ''governadhor Kgansas'' (the governor of Kansas).
Days of the week, months, seasons and religions aren't considered proper nouns for orthographical purposes and aren't capitalized other than at the beginning of a sentence. Languages are capitalized only if their name isn't understood as being a descriptive adjective (such as ''fanthê'', French, seen as describing the language as being from France); capitalized languages include ''Ladîn'' (Latin, as the name is no longer commonly used for Lazio natives anymore), ''Sánchirth'' (Sanskrit) and most constructed languages (such as ''Eferanth'' for 'Esperanto'). In case of doubt, it is permissible to capitalize tha language name. Titles for books, films, and other media are typically capitalized in the first word and in each content word although other styles (such as only capitalizing the first word and any other proper noun) may be used as well: ''L'Ethéiron Cas de·Dhotor Jekyll i e·Shinor Hyde'' or ''L'ethéiron cas de·dhotor Jekyll i e·shinor Hyde'' for "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde".
Unlike English, surnames are never pluralized in Efenol. A family consisting of several individuals with the surname 'Péreth' wouldn't be referred to as 'o·Pîrith' (the corresponding plural form, 'the Pérethes') but rather as 'o·Péreth' ('the Péreth') or, more commonly, ''a·famîl Péreth'' (the Péreth family).
====Articles and other determiners====
As in Spanish, Efenol differentiates definite and indefinite articles, both singular and plural. Definite articles agree with the gender of the corresponding noun while indefinite articles have lost this distinction.
In Western Efenol, definite articles (corresponding to English 'the' or Spanish 'el', 'la', 'los' and 'las') involve two of the language's signature features: interpuncts (the middle dot <·>) and consonant mutation. For nouns with an initial consonant all articles consist of a single vowel separated from the noun itself by an interpunct and, in the case of singular ''"a·"'' and ''"e·"'', the first consonant of the noun is mutated as shown in the consonant mutation table in the 'Mutation' section. Nouns with an initial vowel, on the other hand, are preceded by an <l'> (in singular) or an <s'>.
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Singular
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Plural
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Feminine
| style="text-align: center;" | a·
(triggers lenition)
| style="text-align: center;" | a·
(no consonant mutation)
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Masculine
| style="text-align: center;" | e·
(triggers rhotic mutation)
| style="text-align: center;" | o·
(no consonant mutation)
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Before a vowel
| style="text-align: center;" | l'
| style="text-align: center;" | s'
|}
The intervening consonant mutations might be the only way to tell the number of a noun, as seen in the feminine noun ''pîth'' (piece, from Spanish 'pieza'): lenited ''a·bîth'' for singular and non-lenited ''a·pîth'' for plural.
Definite articles vary slightly in other dialects. Most notably, Northern Efenol preserves the Spanish <l> in the articles, yielding feminine ''la'' (with lenition for singular, lenition-less for plural), singular masculine ''el'' (with rhotic mutation) and plural masculine ''lo'' (no lenition). While <l'> is used in all dialects for vowel-initial singular nouns, its plural equivalent becomes <as'> or <os'> in Northern and North-Eastern Efenol (depending on the gender of the noun) while North-Western Efenol has <ah·> and <oh·> instead. There is also a certain orthographic variation concerning the usage of interpuncts: Northern Efenol doesn't use interpuncts at all while Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol (as well as Central Efenol if using the alternate northern-like orthography) only use an interpunct for singular articles which could trigger consonant mutation (even if the mutation does not have an effect in the noun that follows, such as mutation-invariant <f> /f/).
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" |
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Singular
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Plural
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Feminine
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Masculine
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Feminine
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Masculine
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Spanish
| style="text-align: center;" | la pieza
| style="text-align: center;" | la oveja
| style="text-align: center;" | el perro
| style="text-align: center;" | el hombre
| style="text-align: center;" | las piezas
| style="text-align: center;" | las ovejas
| style="text-align: center;" | los perros
| style="text-align: center;" | los hombres
|-
| Translation
| style="text-align: center;" | the piece
| style="text-align: center;" | the sheep
| style="text-align: center;" | the dog
| style="text-align: center;" | the man
| style="text-align: center;" | the pieces
| style="text-align: center;" | the sheeps
| style="text-align: center;" | the dogs
| style="text-align: center;" | the men
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîth
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ovech
| style="text-align: center;" | e·phêr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ómber
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pîth
| style="text-align: center;" | ah·ëvîch
| style="text-align: center;" | o·pîr
| style="text-align: center;" | oh·ëmbir
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std.)
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîth
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ovech
| style="text-align: center;" | e·phêr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ónver
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pîth
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ëvîch
| style="text-align: center;" | o·pîr
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ënvir
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''Central'''
(W and N
orthographies)
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîth
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ovech
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pherr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ónver
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pîth
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ëvîch
| style="text-align: center;" | o·pirr
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ënvir
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîz
| style="text-align: center;" | l'oveh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pherr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ónver
| style="text-align: center;" | a pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ëvîh
| style="text-align: center;" | o pirr
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ënvir
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîz
| style="text-align: center;" | l'oveh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·phêr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ómber
| style="text-align: center;" | a pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | s'övîh
| style="text-align: center;" | o pîr
| style="text-align: center;" | s'ömbir
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
| style="text-align: center;" | a·bîz
| style="text-align: center;" | l'oveh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·phêr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ônver
| style="text-align: center;" | a pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | as'övîh
| style="text-align: center;" | o pîr
| style="text-align: center;" | os'óinvir
|-
| style="font-weight:bold;" | Northern
| style="text-align: center;" | la bîz
| style="text-align: center;" | l'oveh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pherr
| style="text-align: center;" | l'ônver
| style="text-align: center;" | la pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | as'övîh
| style="text-align: center;" | lo pîr
| style="text-align: center;" | os'óinvir
|}
Indefinite articles (corresponding to English 'a' and Spanish 'un', 'una' in singular and roughly to English 'some' and Spanish 'unos', 'unas' in plural) remain the same for nouns of either grammatical gender but their exact form varies depending on the initial sound of the following noun:
* For nouns whose first consonant is either a nasal or a consonant that would be affected by nasal mutation, the singular indefinite article becomes <u·> and triggers nasal mutation: ''munn'' (world) > ''u·munn'' (a world), ''pan'' (bread) > ''u·phan'' (a bread).
* For nouns which begin with a vowel or a non-nasal consonant that wouldn't be affected by consonant mutation, the singular indefinite article becomes <un>: ''árvol'' (tree) > ''un árvol'' (a tree), ''rî'' (king) > ''un rî'' (a king).
* Indefinite plural articles always become <yn> and do not trigger nasal mutation: ''yn mijhd'' (a few worlds), ''yn pein'' (some bread), ''yn éirvël'' (some trees), ''yn rî'' (some kings).
In northern-like orthographies (used in Northern, North-Eastern, and Eastern Efenol and optionally in Central Efenol) the singular indefinite article is always written as <un> as exemplified by Northern ''un mund'' (a world), ''un phan'' (a bread), etc. In these orthographies, initial <mb>, <nd> and <ng> is avoided as well: ''un barh'' (a boat, Western: ''u·mbarch''), ''un demoin'' (a demon, Western: ''u·ndemoin''), ''un gad'' (a cat, Western: ''u·ngad'').
Efenol usage of articles lies somewhere in between those of Spanish and English. All three languages mostly agree on when to use definite articles although Spanish also uses definite articles for generalized statements while English doesn't: "Los gatos son animales" or "el gato es [un] animal" (literally 'the cats are animals') for "Cats are animals". Efenol, however, deviates from Spanish usage and dispenses with articles for these general statements: ''"Geid son enimeil."'' (literally 'cats are animals'). However, Efenol usage is closer to Spanish when it comes to abstract nouns: ''l'amor ê bîl'' for "love is beautiful" (literally 'the love is beautiful', cf. Spanish "el amor es bello"). Another Spanish-like usage is found with body parts and articles of clothing (when worn) which are often marked with definite articles rather than a possessive as an English-speaker may expect. The possessor may be expressed in dative case or be left to context:
Examples: ''Me dël a·gaveth'' (my heart aches, literally 'the head hurts to me'), ''Tîn roch a·gar'' (he/she is blushing, literally '(he/she) has the face red'), ''Sòg o·thebeid'' (I take my shoes off, literally '(I) remove the shoes').
Singular indefinite articles remain similar in usage to English 'a'~'an'. The plural indefinite article ''yn'' (closest to English 'some' or 'a few') is mostly optional yet still commonly used for referring to a bunch of previously unadressed objects (it should be noted however that ''yn'' is somewhat less common than its Spanish equivalents 'unos' and 'unas'). Adding indefinite articles is often required to prevent a statement from looking like a generalization: ''Geid son beloth'' (cats are fast)vs ''Yn geid son beloth'' (some cats are fast).
Although nouns immediatly following articles is the norm, it is acceptable to place adjectives between. This is found in poetic usage (''o bîl ëch'' as a variation of ''s'ëch bîl'', 'the beautiful eyes') and with the adjectie ''rhan'' often precedes the noun if meaning ''grand~great'' rather than literally ''big~large'' (''e rhan ónver'' for 'the great man' but ''l'ónver rhan'' for 'the big man' although also valid for the former). In these cases the form of the article is chosen according to the following adjective (observe the change in ''l'ónver'' > ''e rhan ónver'', ''e·mharidh'' > ''l'anthij maridh'') and any consonant mutation affects the first consonant in the adjective rather than the noun as usual. In western-like orthographies interpunct is left out if an adjective lies between the article and the noun; in northern-like orthographies (other than in Northern Efenol itself which doesn't use interpuncts) interpuncts are still only used if the article is not 'un' and triggers consonant mutation.
Other than nouns, articles are also used for predicative superlatives (in the English sense, 'the most X'), expressed as 'definite_article + ''ma'' + adjective' (literally 'the most ADJ') or, in the case of 'good' and 'bad', with the irregular comparatives ''mechor'' (better) and ''pëur'' (worse). The word ''ma'' is excempted from the usual consonant mutations, but ''mechor'' and ''pëur'' may still be mutated if preced by singular articles.
Examples: ''e ma rhan'' (the largest; a singular masculine noun), ''a ma beloth'' (the fastest; feminine, ambiguosly singular or plural), ''o pëur'' (the worst ones; plural masculine), ''a mhechor'' (the best, feminine singular as indicated by the presence of lenition).
The genitive form of personal pronouns also works as a determiner: ''mi·'' (my), ''tu·'' (your; belonging to singular you), ''su·'' (belonging to 3s or 3p: his, her, its or their), ''nëthor'' and ''nëthar'' (our) and ''bëthor'' and ''bëthar'' (your, belonging to plural you, y'all, blopt). In Western and Central Efenol ''nëthor''/''nëthar'' and ''bëthor''/''bëthar'' agree with the gender of the noun they apply to (o-forms for masculine, a-forms for feminine and ''usually'' o-forms for mixed or unknown gender); other varieties use the equivalent to ''nëthor'' and ''bëthor'' in all cases. While none of these possessive determiners changes form according to number, '''singular-referent ''mi'', ''tu'' and ''su'' trigger lenition''' while they do not trigger any lenition when applied to plural nouns. Interpunct usage follows the same rules as with articles. Some speakers may add a final /s/ to ''mi'', ''tu'' and ''su'' when followed by a plural noun as long as it begins in a vowel.
Examples: ''mi·gas'' (my house), ''mi·ceis'' (my houses), ''nëthor cas'' (our case), ''nëthar cas'' (our house), ''mi emî'' or ''mis'emî'' (my friends).
Less commonly, possessive determiners may come after the noun, taking the forms ''mhî'' (mine), ''tdî'' (yours), ''nëthor/nëthar'' (ours), ''bëthor/bëthar'' (yours) and ''de'' + third person pronouns (''del'', ''delha'' and ''delho'' for his, hers and theirs). This usage is stereotypically linked to a somewhat archaic vocatives. These words may also be used as adjectives, along with other determiners.
Examples: ''pádher nëthor'' (our father ~ father ours), ''Echytar, ich mhî!'' (Listen, my children!), ''yn emî tdî'' (some friends of yours).
Other determiners include the demonstrative ''eth'' ('this', from Spanish 'este' but also equivalent to Spanish 'ese'), the considerably rarer distal demonstrative ''cel'' ('that one yonder'; most instances of English 'that' would use ''eth'' instead), negative ''nigûn'' (none; always followed by singular nouns), its correlative ''alwun'' ('some~any', also found in the plural form ''elwyn''), ''myt'' (many), ''pog'' (few), ''cadh'' (each) and ''thîrth'' (certain). Notably, ''óthor'' (other, from Spanish 'otro') does not really work as a determiner on its own and it's often used along proper determiners: ''un óthor gad'' (another cat), ''l'óthor geid'' (the other cats). None of the demonstratives mentioned in this paragraph display any gender agreement nor do they trigger any consonant mutation (including ''nigûn'' and ''alwun'', despite their similarity with indefinite article ''u·/un'').
Determiners often form contractions with preposition. Apostrophes separate consonants belonging to prepositions from the demonstratives themselves except for articles where both words are fully merged.
* The genitive preposition <de> contracts to <d'> before vowels, becomes ''del'' and ''des'' (dialectally ''dos'', ''das'') when contracted with <l'> and <s'> and is reflected as lenition otherwise: ''da·gas'' (of the house), ''d'eth lwar'' (of/from this place), ''d'elwyn paî'' (from/of some countries), ''del'etheidh'' (of the stadium), ''mhi amî'' (of my friend),'' 'nëthar chenth'' (of our people).
* The dative preposition <a>, used to mark indirect objects, forms contractions with true articles but is otherwise preserved as 'a' (''a eth perzon'' ~ to this person, ''a tu irmein'' ~ to your siblings). Notice that ''a'' + ''e'' only differs from regular feminine singular article ''a'' in triggering rhotic mutation rather than lenition. It should be noted that, unlike Spanish, Efenol never uses ''a'' for direct objects.
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Article
! style="text-align: center;" | "A" + article
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | e· (triggers rhotic mutation)
| style="text-align: center;" | a· (triggers rhotic mutation)
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | a· (triggers lenition)
| style="text-align: center;" | â· (triggers lenition)
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | l'
| style="text-align: center;" | al'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | o·
| style="text-align: center;" | au·
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | a·
| style="text-align: center;" | â·
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | s'
| style="text-align: center;" | as'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | u· (triggers nasal mutation)
| style="text-align: center;" | nu· (triggers nasal mutation)
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | un
| style="text-align: center;" | nun
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | yn
| style="text-align: center;" | nyn
|}
* The locative preposition ''en'' becomes <n'> before determiners which begin with a vowel; otherwise remains as ''en'' but triggers nasal mutation on the following word: ''na·gas'' (in the house), ''n'eth lwar'' (in this place), ''n'elwyn paî'' (in some countries), ''en chel cas'' (in that house), ''en thu·bheir'' (in your neighbourhood).
* In Western and North-Western Efenol only, ''con'' (with, either associative or instrumental) becomes <ng'> before vowels: ''nga·berzon'' (with the person), ''ng'eth chenth'' (with this people).
* The preposition ''pâr'' (equivalent to English 'for') is informally abbreviated to <p'> in all dialects but this is only considered standard in Central, Northern and North-Eastern Efenol.
In Western Efenol speakers will often use gendered contractions before the genderless articles <l'> and <s'>: ''ngo s'emî'' (with the friends, rather than), ''na l'ofithin'' (in the office). This requires speakers to also learn the gender of vowel-initial nouns which wouldn't show up otherwise (the possessives ''nëthor/nëthar/bëthor/bëthar'' being another exception). Most other dialects use ''con s'emî'' or ''en l'ofithin'' (or equivalent wordings) instead.
Efenol lacks an equivalent to the Spanish "ese/esa/esos/esas" demonstrative pronoun series (merged with the "este/esta/estos/estas" series as ''eth'') and the 'neuter pronoun' "lo" which is usually paraphrased with ''cos, cës'' (thing, things): "lo bueno" (the good) > ''a·gos bën'', ''a·cës bën'' (literally: the good thing, the good things), "lo que siempre quisiste" (that which you always wanted) > ''a·gos shînfer cerith'' (lit. the thing you always wanted).
====Personal pronouns====
Efenol pronouns are based on the set of informal pronouns found in European Spanish: "yo" (I), "tú" (you, 2s), "él" (he), "ella" (she), "nosotros" (we; 'nosotras' is used if all the referents in the group are grammatically feminine), "vosotros" (plural you, 'vosotras' is used in all addressed people are gramatically feminine) and "ellos" (they, "ellas" if all referents are feminine). Formality distinctions such as the usage of "usted" and "ustedes" is no longer manteined. Gender differences in pronouns (aside from third person singular) are lost in most Efenol varieties. The nominative pronouns in each Efenol dialect are:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Pronouns
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center;" | Western (std)
! style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | Northern
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 1s - I - "yo"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | seo
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | seo
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | io
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | jo
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | gho
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | io
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 2s - you - "tú"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tu
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tû
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tû
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | tû
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3s - he - "él"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | el
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | el
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | el
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | êl
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | êl
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | êl
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3s - she - "ella"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lha
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lha
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lha
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lia
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lia
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lia
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 1p - we - "nosotros"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nóthor
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noth, nóthor
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nóthor
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 1p - we - "nosotras"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | nóthar
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz, noz'r
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 2p - you - "vosotros"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bóthor
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | both, bóthor
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | both, bóthor
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | boz
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | boz
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | boz
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 2p - you - "vosotras"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | both, bóthar
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | boz, boz'r
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3p - they - "ellos"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3p - they - "ellas"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho, lha
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lia
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lia
|}
''Noth'' and ''nóthor'' are in free variation in Western Efenol; it's not uncommon for speakers to even alternate them. The same can be said for Western ''both'' and ''bóthor'' and Central ''both'' vs the gendered forms ''bóthor'' and ''bóthar''. Some Eastern Efenol speakers observe a distinction between masculine ''noz'' and ''boz'' vs feminine ''noz'r'' and ''boz'r'' but many use ''noz'' and ''boz'' in all cases (using ''noz'r'' and ''boz'r'' for non-masculine referents is not unheard of either although it is considerably rarer). A similar situation is found for third person plural in Central Efenol where some speakers may use ''lha'' for groups of feminine referents while others may use ''lho'' in all cases. Varieties which distinguish 3p.MASC ''lho~lio'' and 3p.FEM ''lha~lia'' merge the latter with the singular feminine 3s pronoun ''lha~lia''.
This nominative case forms are mostly found as the subjects of a verb: ''Seo ávol Efenol'' (I speak Efenol). It should be noted, however, that Efenol is a pro-drop language and speakers are encouraged to drop pronouns if verb conjugation and context are enough for the other part to understand the result: ''Ávol Efenol'' (I speak, the verb conjugation already indicates that the subject must be 1s). Eastern Efenol speakers have a tendency not to drop their pronouns even if context renders them unnecessary. Otherwise, using a nominative pronoun may provide a certain sense of emphasis: ''Seo ávol Efenol'' ~ '''''I''''' speak Efenol (not someone else).
As in most Romance languages, Efenol pronouns retain a more extensive case system than nouns. This includes an accusative case used when the pronoun is the direct object of the sentence. In this case, most gender distinctions are lost but speakers come to distinguish between reflexive third person (if the third-person object coincides with the subject) and regular third person (if the third-person subject does not coincide with the subject).
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align: center;" | Accusative pronouns
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center;" | Western (std)
! style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | Northern
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 1s - me - "me"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | me, m'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 2s - you - "te"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | te, t'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3s - him - "lo"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | le, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lo, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lo, l'
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | le, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | le, lo, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lo, l'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3s - her - "la"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | la, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lha, lh', l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lha, la, lh', l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | le, la, l'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | la, l'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3s/3p REFL - "se"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | se, s'
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 1p - us- "nos"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noth
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noth
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noth, nô
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz, nô
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | noz, nô
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 2p - you - "os"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | bo, b'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | both
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | ô
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | boz, os
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | os
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | os
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | 3p - them - "los~las"
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho, lh'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho, lh'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lho, lh'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio, li'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio, li'
| style="text-align: center; font-style:italic;" | lio, lia, li'
|}
As in most other Romance languages, acusative pronouns precede verbs in Efenol rather than coming after them as most direct objects. Forms with an apostrophe are used before vowel-initial verbs ''unless'' they are only one syllable long, in which case the full pronoun may be used for euphony: ''te cijr'' (I'm fond of you) vs ''t'adhor'' (I adore you) but ''te òm'' (I love you). Some forms are in free variation such as ''nô'' and ''noz'' for 'us' in some varieties (''noz'' is increasingly common and displacing ''nô'' in all such varieties). Northern Efenol ''lio'' vs ''lia'' correspond to accusative non-reflexive forms of masculine and feminine third person plural respectively.
Efenol pronouns also feature an ''oblique'' form used along prepositions. These oblique forms only differ from the nominative for first person singular (I) and second person singular (you): ''mî'' and ''tî'' respectively. Reflexive may be expressed through ''sî'' or, far more commonly, by a regular third person pronoun (Spanish "para sí" meaning 'for himself', may be reflected as ''pâr sî'' but is more likely to shift to "pâr el"). A large number of Eastern Efenol speakers (as well as a minority of Northern Efenol speakers), however, use the nominative forms for all pronouns along prepositions. Additionally, dialectal Western Efenol, Central Efenol and some forms of Eastern Efenol use ''mij/mŷ'' and ''thij/thŷ'' along with the preposition ''con'' (preserving Spanish 'conmigo' and 'contigo'). It should be noted that prepositions may form contractions with vowel-initial pronouns.
Examples: ''pâr mî'' (for me; Eastern ''pâr jo'' or ''pâr mî''), ''pâr el'' (for him; also contracted to ''p'el''), ''con mî'' (with me, also ''con mij'', Eastern ''con jo'' or ''con mŷ'').
Proper dative pronouns (used for indirect objects) are identical to the corresponding accusative forms except in Northern Efenol (and for some speakers of Central and North-Eastern Efenol) were the third person non-reflexive dative forms become ''le'': Northern ''lo doi'' (I give it) vs ''le doi'' (I give to him); Western ''lo doi'' for both. In case both an accusative and a dative form co-occur on verb then they shall be written in that order (direct object first, then indirect object): ''(tu) lo me dith'' (you say it to me, unlike Spanish 'tú me lo dices'). A combination of two non-reflexive third person pronouns is replaced by the contracted pronoun ''sël'' (from Spanish 'se lo'): ''(tu) sël dith'' (you say it to him/her, Spanish 'tú se lo dices'). '''However''', most speakers use 'improper' dative pronouns formed by the dative particle 'a' and the oblique form of the pronoun (or, for third person pronouns alone, the oblique form on its own, which coincides with the nominative). This is particularly common to avoid a combination multiple pronominal preclitics before a verb: "you say it to me" > ''(tu) lo me dith'' > ''(tu) lo dith a mî''; "you say it to him" > ''(tu) sël dith'' > ''(tu) lo dith el''. The latter example shows that pronoun-verb order is relevant: in ''el dith'' (he says) ''<el>'' is unambiguously the subject while in ''dith el'' (you/he/she says to him), ''<el>'' is necessarily the indirect object.
Efenol pronouns also have possessive forms which were explained in the 'Articles and determiners' section. Attent readers may notice that some post-nominal possessives such as ''mhî'' and ''tdî'' are actually lenition-based genitive-case variants of the corresponding oblique pronouns.
====Other pronouns====
In addition to personal pronouns and its inflections, Efenol features the following pronouns:
* One demonstrative pronoun ''eth'' (this, this one), identical to the demonstrative determiner ''eth''. The distal demonstrative ''cêl'' might also be used as a pronoun but is much rarer.
* Other determiner on their own such as ''nigûn'' (none), ''alwun'' and ''elwyn'' (someone and some), ''todh'' (everyone), etc.
* Relative pronouns:
** ''Ce'' (''ke'' in Eastern Efenol), from Spanish 'que', equivalent to English 'that/which' in relative clauses. Contracted to <c'> before vowels. Examples: ''a perzôn ce bë'' (the person [that] I see), ''a perzôn ce me bë'' (the person that sees me). May sometimes be elided entirely and expressed through lenition, particularly when followed by an adverb: ''a·gos [ce] shînfer dij'' (the thing which I always say).
** ''Cîn'' (''çîn'' in Eastern Efenol), from Spanish 'quien', equivalent to 'who/whom', seen as a more formal replacement to ''ce'' when applied to people: ''a perzôn cîn bë'' (the person whom I see). Also used in genitive form as ''cgîn'' (replacing Spanisih 'cuyo'): ''a perzôn cgîn pàdher ê mi amî'' (the person whose father is my friend). Unlike Spanish,
** ''Don'', ''dhon'', ''com'', ''pwanth'' and ''pwann'', corresponding to Spanish '(a) donde', 'de donde', 'como', 'cuan/cuanto/cuantos' and 'cuando' (where, from where, how, how many/how much and when): ''e·phaî don nathî'' (the country where I was born), ''e·phaî don bë'' (the country where I am going), ''e·phaî dhon bëng'' (the country where I come from), ''a·mhaner com seo l'òth'' (the way [how] ''I'' do it), ''pwann irê a Madhirth'' (when I [shall] go to Madrid), ''gatharâ pwanth darâs el'' (he will spend however much you give him).
* Interrogative pronouns (identical to relative pronouns except for ''cê'' vs ''ce''):
** ''Cê'' (''kê'' in Eastern Efenol), never contracted to <c'>: 'what' as in ''Cê dith?'' (What do you say?). Never applies to people (where ''cîn'', 'who', is used instead).
** ''Cîn'' (who), ''cgîn'' (whose), ''don'' (where, where to), ''dhon'' (where from), ''com'' (how), ''pwanth'' (how much, how many), ''pwann'' (when): ''Cîn ê a·berzon ma beloth?'' (Who is the fastest person?), ''Cgîn son eth lheibh?'' (Whose keys are those?), ''Pwann i don serâ a·fîth?'' (When and where will the party be?), ''Dhon bînz i don bas?'' (Where do you come from and where are you going?), ''Com lh'arâs?'' (How will you make them?), ''Pwanth în tînz?'' (How old are you?, literally 'how many years do you have?').
** In Eastern, North-Eastern and Northern Efenol: ''pwal''/''pal'' (plural ''pweil''/''peil'') for 'whose', from Spanish 'cuales'. Merged with 'cê' in Western, North-Western and Central Efenol. Western ''Cê pethîl prefîrz?'' vs Northern ''Peil pezîl prefîrs?'' for 'Which cakes do you prefer?'.
====Adjective and adverbs====
Unlike Spanish, where adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender, adjectives are invariant in Efenol: ''a·mhanthan delithô'' (the delicious apple, a feminine noun; Spanish "la manzana deliciosa"), ''a·menthein delithô'' (the delicious apples; Spanish "las manzanas deliciosas"), ''e·mhelôn delithô'' (the delicious melon, a masculine noun; Spanish "el melón delicioso"), ''o·miloin delithô'' (the delicious melons; Spanish "los melones deliciosos"). Adjectives typically come after the noun they describe although they precede their nouns in poetic usage or in the case of ''rhan'' when meaning 'grand/great' rather than literally 'large'. The adjective ''anthij'' (old, ancient, antique; not used for elderly people) may also precede its noun.
Examples: ''l'ónver alth'' (the tall man), ''**l'alth ónver'' (the tall man; this wording wouldn't be used in the ordinary language but may occur in poetry), ''l'ónver rhan'' (the large man), ''e rhan ónver'' (the great man), ''Rhîth anthij''~''l'anthij Rhîth'' (Ancient Greece).
Adjectives which would have yielded different forms for feminine and masculine use the form derived from the Spanish masculine: Spanish "macabro"~"macabra" (gruesome) > ''magávor''~''*magávar'' > ''magávor''.
With the exception of the adjectives ''bën'' (good, from Spanish "bueno") and ''mal'' (from Spanish "malo"), adjectives form comparatives and English-like superlatives with the word ''ma'' (more, most; from Spanish ''más''; also doubles as meaning 'plus'). Definite articles are needed to form superlatives.
Examples: ''e·chët ê rhan'' (the car is large), ''u·chët rhan'' (a large car), ''e·chët ê ma rhan'' (the car is larger), ''u·chët ma rhan'' (a larger car), ''eth cët ê e ma rhan'' (this car is the largest), ''e·chët ma rhan'' (either 'the larger car' or 'the largest car').
Comparisons use 'ce' (never contracted to <c'>): ''e·chët ê ma rhan '''ce''' a·bithilchet'' (the car is larger than the bicyle).
The adjectives ''bën'' and ''mal'' use the irregular comparative forms ''mechor'' and ''pëur'' instead of ''*ma bën'' or ''*ma mal''. Additionally, the irregular comparativse ''meisor'' and ''menor'' may be used for 'larger/greater' and 'smaller/lesser', coexisting with the synthetic forms ''ma rhan'' and ''ma pegîn''.
Examples: ''e·chët ê mechor'' (this car is better), ''e pëur cët'' (the worst car), ''eth cët ê e meisor'' (this car is the largest; equivalent to ''eth cët ê e ma rhan''), ''u·chët menor'' (a smaller car; equivalent to ''u·chët ma pegîn'').
Other historical irregular Spanish comparatives and superlatives may be preserved as adjectives on their own: ''ótim'' (optimal, from Spanish "óptimo", originally a superlative of 'bueno'), ''pòpérhim'' (lacking quality, originally a superlative of Spanish "pobre", poor), ''supiror'' (superior, originally a comparative form of Spanish "alto" ~ high/tall).
The suffix ''-îm'' (from the old Spanish superlative ending '-ísimo') may be used to intensify an adjective: ''rhan'' (large), ''rhanîm'' (very large, huge); ''fërth'' (strong) > ''fërthîm'' (very strong).
Adjectives can be turned into adverbs by adding the suffix ''-menth'' (or ''-venth'' if the adjective ends in /l/). The adverbial forms of ''bën'' and ''mal'' (good and bad; from Spanish "bueno" an "malo") are ''bîn'' and ''mal'' (from Spanish "bien" y "mal") rather than ''*bënmenth'' and ''*malventh''. Adjectives related to speed are often used as adverbs without any intevening suffix: adjective ''beloth'' (quick) > adverb ''beloth'' or ''belothmenth'' (quickly). ''Mechor'' and ''pëur'' (better/worse) may also be used as adjectives while ''meisormenth'' and ''menormenth'' are used as adverbs meaning 'mostly' and 'least; in a lesser way'.
Examples: ''El cothin delithômenth'' (he cooks deliciously), ''Fë ahî orichinalventh'' (it was like that originally), ''Avalei lenth'' ~ ''Avalei lenthmenth'' (you speak slowly), ''Chwarê mechor'' (I will play better), ''Son meisormenth erthith'' (they are mostly artists).
Adverbs typically precede adjectives and follow verbs: ''imezmenth felith'' (immensely happy), ''lho camínan lenthmenth'' (they walk slowly). However, it's not rare for adverbs which modify an entire clause to appear at the beginning or at the very end: ''Orichinalventh, mi erman cith ir a Madhirth'' (originally, my brother wanted to go to Madrid), ''Enthar' â·ceis ineferadhmenth'' (they break into the houses unexpectedly).
Other adverbs include:
* ''My'' for 'very' and ''pog'' for 'litle' (these adverbs correspond to the determiners ''myt'', many, and ''pog'', few): ''my bën'' (very good), ''pog beloth'' (not very fast). Exceptionally, ''myt'' replaces ''my'' for modifying ''mechor'' and ''pëur'': ''Eth ê myt mechor'' (This one is much better).
* ''Sôl'' (only): ''Lha sôl com cáren'' (she only eats meat).
* ''Cgî'' and ''lhî'' for 'here' and 'there': ''E·bhin cgî ê myt mechor ce lhî'' (the wine is better here than there).
* ''Ahî'' meaning 'this way, thus': ''N'eth cas cothinam ahî'' (in this house we cook like this).
* ''Therch'', ''lech'' (near, far). May be followed by a genitive noun: ''therch pbarch'' (near the park), ''lech da·tyhdhadh'' (far from the city).
* ''Enthim''~''sóver'' (above), ''devach''~''bach'' (below), ''fénther'' (in front), ''thâr'' (on the back, behind). May be followed by a genitive noun: ''enthim mhes'' (above [the] table), ''bach tdîr'' (below the ground).
====Verbs====
As in most Romance languages, Efenol verbs feature a somewhat complex conjugation scheme which includes inflections for tense, personal agreement with the subject and, to some extent, aspect and mood. Conjugation is mostly fusional (with affixes which indicate several grammatical categories at the same time). Most verbs belong to one of three 'regular' conjugation classes (''-ar'' verbs like ''canthar'', ''-er'' verbs like ''comer'' and ''-ir'' verbs like ''parthir'') but a significant number of verbs feature irregular paradigms.
Key verbs include ''ser'' and ''thar'' (to be; corresponding to Spanish "ser" and "estar" respectively), ''ir'' (to go, also used as an auxiliary verb for future tense), ''ather'' (to do, to make), ''aver'' (an auxiliary verb roughly matching English 'to have') and ''tener'' (to have something). All of these verbs are notoriously irregular.
The dictionary form of verbs is the infinitive which also works as a nominalization of the verb. As in Spanish, infinitive verbs may end in a stressed ''-ar'', ''-er'' or ''-ir'' or, more rarely, the long equivalents ''-âr'', ''-êr'' and ''-îr'' or, in a handful occassions, ''-yr''.
Examples: ''canthar'' (to sing, Spanish "cantar"), ''comer'' (to eat, Spanish "beber"), ''parthir'' (to leave, Spanish "partir"), ''avytâr'' (to boo, Spanish "abuchear"), ''lêr'' (to read, Spanish "leer"), ''sonrhîr'' (to smile, Spanish "sonreír"), ''conthirvyr'' (to contribute, Spanish "contribuir"); ''Me guth lêr'' ('I like reading'; infinitives are used for nominal usages like this rather than the gerund as in English), ''Fërvidh fumar'' ('Smoking not allowed', literally "forbidden to smoke").
The infinitive is one of three non-finite forms, the others being the gerund (typically formed with ''-ann'' or ''-înn'') and participles (featuring a final ''-dh'' except in North-Western and Central Efenol). Many verbs have irregular participles such as ''ather'' (do, make) > ''ît'' (done, made). All of these forms are used along auxiliary verbs for compound tenses.
The different Efenol dialects feature differences in the number of tenses they include as well as their usage as shown in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center;" | Western (Standard)
! style="text-align: center;" | Central
! style="text-align: center;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center;" | Northern
|-
| '''Habitual present'''
"I sing (often)"
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''cònth''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''cònth''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''conth''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''kanz''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''cánzu''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple present
''canz'' or ''cánzo''
|-
| '''Progressive present'''
"I am singing"
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive present
''thë cganthan''
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive present
''thë canthann''
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive present
''zö canzand''
|-
| '''Present perfect'''
"I have sung"
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | Compound past
''ê·cganthao''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canthê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canthê''
| rowspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''kanzê''
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canzê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Compound past
''ê canzad''
|-
| '''Distant past'''
"I sang (back then)"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Compound past
''ê·cganthau''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canzê''
|-
| '''Near past'''
"I've (just )sang"
| style="text-align: center;" | Compound past
''e·cganthadh''
|-
| '''Imperfective past'''
"I was singing"
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive past
''thabh canthan''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Imperfective past
''canthabh''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canthê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive past
''zav canzan''
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive past
''zav canzand''
|-
| '''Habitual past'''
"I used to sing"
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperfective past
''canthabh''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperfective past
''kanzav''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperfective past
''canzav''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''canzê''
|-
| '''Perfect past'''
"I had sung"
| style="text-align: center;" | Pluperfect
''avî·cganthao''
| style="text-align: center;" | Plup. or S. Past
''avî·cganthadh''
~ ''canthê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Pluperfect
''avî·cganthau''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple past
''kanzê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Progressive perf.
''zuv canzan''
| style="text-align: center;" | Pluperfect
''û canzad''
|-
| '''Near future'''
"I am going to sing"
| style="text-align: center;" | Compound future
''bë cganthar''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Compound future
''bë cganthar''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple and
compound future
in free variation
''bë cganthar''
~ ''cantharê''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple future
''kanzarê''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple future
''canzarê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Compound future
''bö cganzar''
|-
| '''Distant future'''
"I will sing (eventually)"
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Simple future
''cantharê''
| style="text-align: center;" | Simple future
''canzarê''
|-
| '''Conditional'''
"I would sing (if...)"
| style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
''cantharî''
| style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
''cantharî''
| style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
''kanzarî''
| style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
''canzarî''
| style="text-align: center;" | Conditional
''canzarî''
|-
| '''Imperative - 2s'''
"Sing!"
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperative
''Canth!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperative
''Canth!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperative
''Canth!''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Imperative
''Kanz!''
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
''Canzar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperative
''Canz!''
|-
| '''Imperative - 2p'''
"Sing, all of you!"
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
''Canthar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
''Canthar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
''Canthar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Imperative plural
''Canzad!''
|-
| '''Negative imperative'''
"Don't sing!" (2s)
"Don't sing!" (2p)
| style="text-align: center;" | Subjunctive
''No canth!''
''No canthî!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Negation of imp.
''No canth!''
''No canthar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Negative imp.
''No canth!''
''No canth!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Negative imp.
''No kanz!''
''No kanz!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Negative inf.
''No canzar!''
''No canzar!''
| style="text-align: center;" | Negation of imp.
''No canz!''
''No canzad!''
|-
| '''Subjunctive'''
"(if) we sang" vs
indicative "we sing"
| style="text-align: center;" | Subjunctive
''canthem''
vs ''cantham''
| style="text-align: center;" | Same as indicative
''cantham''
| style="text-align: center;" | Same as indicative
''cantham''
| style="text-align: center;" | Same as indicative
''kanzam''
| style="text-align: center;" | Same as indicative
''canzam''
| style="text-align: center;" | Same as indicative
''canzam''
|}
It should be noted that Efenol dialects can be thought as a continuum and thus transitional forms may exist mixing features of two or more varieties. Thus, an Eastern-like dialect may use a Central-like compound past despite such tense not being found in the most common Eastern Efenol varieties.
In the following sub-sections these tenses will be further explained and exemplified. Western Efenol examples will be used for tenses found in the variety.
=====Verb stems and conjugation classes=====
As in Spanish, the stem of an Efenol verb typically coincides with their infinitive form removing the infinitive ending ''-ar'', ''-er'', ''-ir''.
Verbs whose Spanish stem would end in a disallowed Efenol cluster (such "habl-" from "hablar") evolve to form a 'broken' verb class which features a 'broken' stem with an unespecified vowel which varies according to person and tense: "hablar" > ''avalar'' (to speak), stem "habl-" > ''av_l'' (with forms like "hablo" > ''ávol'' and "hablé" > ''avêl''). This is a source of Efenol irregular verbs which might have been regular in Spanish. Conversely, some Spanish irregular verbs such as the 'inchoative' verbs like "aparecer" (with irregular "aparezco" rather than the expected "*aparezo") become regular in Efenol: ''abarether'', ''abarëth'' (corresponding to "*aparezco" instead of "aparezco" > ''*abarëch'').
Some sample infinitives, stems, gerunds and participles (the irregularity of some of verbs may not be apparent for these nonfinite forms):
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | English
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Spanish
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | Efenol
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
| style="text-align: center;" | Stem
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
| style="text-align: center;" | Stem
| style="text-align: center;" | Gerund
| style="text-align: center;" | Participle
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | to sing
| style="text-align: center;" | cantar
| style="text-align: center;" | cant-
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | canth-
| style="text-align: center;" | canthann
| style="text-align: center;" | canthadh
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | to eat
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | com-
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | com-
| style="text-align: center;" | comînn
| style="text-align: center;" | comidh
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | to leave
| style="text-align: center;" | partir
| style="text-align: center;" | part-
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | parth-
| style="text-align: center;" | parthînn
| style="text-align: center;" | parthidh
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | to speak
| style="text-align: center;" | hablar
| style="text-align: center;" | habl-
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | av_l
| style="text-align: center;" | avalann
| style="text-align: center;" | avaladh
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | to think
| style="text-align: center;" | pensar
| style="text-align: center;" | pens-, piens-
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | pez-, pîz-
| style="text-align: center;" | pezann
| style="text-align: center;" | pezadh
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | to roll
| style="text-align: center;" | rodar
| style="text-align: center;" | rod-, rued-
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | rodh-, rëdh-
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhann
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhadh
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | to boo
| style="text-align: center;" | abuchear
| style="text-align: center;" | abuche-
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | avyt(a)
| style="text-align: center;" | avytânn
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâdh
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | to read
| style="text-align: center;" | leer
| style="text-align: center;" | le-
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | l(e)
| style="text-align: center;" | lîsînn
| style="text-align: center;" | lîdh
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | to contribute
| style="text-align: center;" | contribuir
| style="text-align: center;" | contribuy-
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys-
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijnn
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvydh
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | to laugh
| style="text-align: center;" | reír
| style="text-align: center;" | rí-
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | r(i)
| style="text-align: center;" | rînn
| style="text-align: center;" | rîdh
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | to be
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | -
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | -
| style="text-align: center;" | sînn
| style="text-align: center;" | sidh
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | estar
| style="text-align: center;" | est-
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | th-
| style="text-align: center;" | thann
| style="text-align: center;" | thadh
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | to have (aux)
| style="text-align: center;" | haber
| style="text-align: center;" | hab-
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | av-
| style="text-align: center;" | avînn
| style="text-align: center;" | avidh
|-
| Irregular: tener
| style="text-align: center;" | to have
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | ten-, tien-
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | ten-
| style="text-align: center;" | tenînn
| style="text-align: center;" | tenidh
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | to do, to make
| style="text-align: center;" | hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | haz-, hag-
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | ath-
| style="text-align: center;" | athînn
| style="text-align: center;" | ît
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | to go
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | (i)
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | (i)
| style="text-align: center;" | sînn~înn
| style="text-align: center;" | idh
|}
=====Notes on transcription=====
Generalized conjugations use the following symbols:
* '''(ʷ)''': U-ablaut on the stem.
* '''(ʲ)''': I-ablaut on the stem.
* '''Ø''': Null, no ending is added to the stem.
* '''-s''': /s/ or /z/ when forming a valid coda (''ber'' > ''bes'', ''morir'' > ''mërz''), Ø otherwise.
* '''V''': a vowel matching the infinitive ending ('a' for ''-ar'' verbs, 'e' for ''-er'' verbs, etc).
* '''ʲV''': I-ablauted V: ''ei'' for ''-ar'' verbs and ''î'' otherwise.
=====Simple present=====
Simple present is the most basic of Efenol tenses. It is found in all Efenol varieties and mostly corresponds to English present tense.
In Western, North-Western and Central Efenol this tense is unique for using synchronous u-ablaut: first person singular (I) present tense is typically expressed by the stem with an u-ablaut on its last vowel: ''canthar'' > stem ''canth'' > ''cònth'', ''orhanithar'' > ''orhanyth''. Broken verbs use the vowel /o/ instead: ''avalar'' > stem ''av_l'' > ''ávol''.
Regular endings (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''canthar'') are:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | (ʷ)Ø, cònth
| style="text-align: center;" | (ʷ)Ø, cònth
| style="text-align: center;" | (ʷ)Ø, conth
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, kanz
| style="text-align: center;" | -u, cánzu
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø or -o, canz, cánzo
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -s, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | -s, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | -s, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | -s, kanz
| style="text-align: center;" | -s or Vs, canz, cánzas
| style="text-align: center;" | -s, canz
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, canth
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, kanz
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, canz
| style="text-align: center;" | Ø, canz
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, kanzam
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, canzam
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, canzam
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ʲV, canthei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ʲV, canthei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ʲV, canthei
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vs, kanzas
| style="text-align: center;" | -V, -ʲV, canza, canzei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ʲV, canzei
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vn, -', cánthan, canth'
| style="text-align: center;" | -', -Vn, canth', cánthan
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vn, cánthan
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vn, -', kánzan, kanz'
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vn, cánzan
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vn, cánzan
|}
Examples in Western Efenol:
{| class="wikitable"
! Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
! style="text-align: center;" | 1s
! style="text-align: center;" | 2s
! style="text-align: center;" | 3s
! style="text-align: center;" | 1p
! style="text-align: center;" | 2p
! style="text-align: center;" | 3p
! Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | cònth
| style="text-align: center;" | *canths > canth
| style="text-align: center;" | canth
| style="text-align: center;" | cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | canthei
| style="text-align: center;" | canth', cánthan
| style="text-align: center;" | sings
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | com
| style="text-align: center;" | *coms > com
| style="text-align: center;" | com
| style="text-align: center;" | comem
| style="text-align: center;" | comî
| style="text-align: center;" | com', cómen
| style="text-align: center;" | eats
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | pòrth
| style="text-align: center;" | *parths > parth
| style="text-align: center;" | parth
| style="text-align: center;" | parthim
| style="text-align: center;" | parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | parth', parthen
| style="text-align: center;" | leaves
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | ávol
| style="text-align: center;" | *ávals > ával
| style="text-align: center;" | ával
| style="text-align: center;" | avalam
| style="text-align: center;" | avalei
| style="text-align: center;" | ával', ávalan
| style="text-align: center;" | speaks
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | pijz
| style="text-align: center;" | *pîzs> pîs/pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | pîz
| style="text-align: center;" | pezam
| style="text-align: center;" | pezei
| style="text-align: center;" | pîz', pîzan
| style="text-align: center;" | thinks
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh
| style="text-align: center;" | *rëdhs > rëdh
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh
| style="text-align: center;" | rodham
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhei
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh', rëdhan
| style="text-align: center;" | rolls
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | avytë
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâs
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâ
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâm
| style="text-align: center;" | avytai
| style="text-align: center;" | avytân
| style="text-align: center;" | boos
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | lë
| style="text-align: center;" | lês
| style="text-align: center;" | lê
| style="text-align: center;" | lêm
| style="text-align: center;" | lî
| style="text-align: center;" | lên
| style="text-align: center;" | reads
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijm
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvij
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys', conthirvýsen
| style="text-align: center;" | contributes
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | rij
| style="text-align: center;" | rîs
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
| style="text-align: center;" | rîm
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
| style="text-align: center;" | rîn
| style="text-align: center;" | laughs
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | së
| style="text-align: center;" | erz, er
| style="text-align: center;" | ê
| style="text-align: center;" | som
| style="text-align: center;" | soi
| style="text-align: center;" | son
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | is
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | tham
| style="text-align: center;" | thas
| style="text-align: center;" | eth, tha
| style="text-align: center;" | tham
| style="text-align: center;" | thei, thai
| style="text-align: center;" | than
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | ê (+ lenition)
| style="text-align: center;" | a, as
| style="text-align: center;" | a (+lenition)
| style="text-align: center;" | e (+nasal mut.), em, avem
| style="text-align: center;" | ei, avei
| style="text-align: center;" | a (+nasal mut.), an
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | has
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tëng
| style="text-align: center;" | tînz, tîz
| style="text-align: center;" | tîn
| style="text-align: center;" | tenem
| style="text-align: center;" | tenî
| style="text-align: center;" | tîn, tîn', tînen
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | òth
| style="text-align: center;" | *aths > ath
| style="text-align: center;" | ath
| style="text-align: center;" | athem
| style="text-align: center;" | athî, athei
| style="text-align: center;" | ath', áthen
| style="text-align: center;" | does, makes
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | bë
| style="text-align: center;" | bas
| style="text-align: center;" | ba
| style="text-align: center;" | bam
| style="text-align: center;" | bei
| style="text-align: center;" | ban
| style="text-align: center;" | goes
|}
=====Progressive present=====
Progressive present mostly corresponds in form and usage with English present continuous. This tense is mostly found in Western (Standard) Efenol, North-Western Efenol and Northern Efenol.
The tense is constructed with an auxiliary simple-present form of ''thar'' (progressive 'to be') followed by the infinitive form of the main verb. In North-Western Efenol alone the infinitive is affected by lenition (thus ''thë cganthan'' for 'I am singing' rather than Western ''thë canthann'' and Northern ''zö canzand'').
=====Simple past=====
Simple past is, along with compound past, one of the most commmon forms of expressing past tense in Efenol. It is found (with slightly different rules) in all varieties other than most forms of North-Western Efenol.
Regular endings for simple past vary depending on whether the verb belongs to the ''-ar'' class or the ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verb classes. The endings for ''-ar'' class verbs (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''canthar'') are:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canthê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canthê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, kanzê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canzê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canzê
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ath, canthath
| style="text-align: center;" | -ath, canthath
| style="text-align: center;" | -az, kanzaz
| style="text-align: center;" | -az, canzaz
| style="text-align: center;" | -az, canzaz
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ô, canthô
| style="text-align: center;" | -ô, canthô
| style="text-align: center;" | -ô, kanzô
| style="text-align: center;" | -ô, canzô
| style="text-align: center;" | -ô, canzô
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | -am, -árom, cantham, canthárom
| style="text-align: center;" | -am, kanzam
| style="text-align: center;" | -am, canzam
| style="text-align: center;" | -am, canzam
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -athʲV, cantháthei
| style="text-align: center;" | -athʲV, cantháthei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ázi, kanzázi
| style="text-align: center;" | -ázi, canzázi
| style="text-align: center;" | -azʲV, canzázei
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -áron, cantháron
| style="text-align: center;" | -aron, cantháron
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vr'n, kanzar'n
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vron, canzáron
| style="text-align: center;" | -áron, canzáron
|}
Regular simple past endings for ''-er'' and ''-ir'' class verbs (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''comer'' and ''parthir'') are:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parzî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parzî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parzî
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ith, comith, parthith
| style="text-align: center;" | -ith, comith, parthith
| style="text-align: center;" | -iz, komiz, parziz
| style="text-align: center;" | -iz, comiz, parziz
| style="text-align: center;" | -iz, comiz, parziz
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | -eô, comeô, partheô
| style="text-align: center;" | -(ʲ)ô, cëmô, peirthô
| style="text-align: center;" | -(ʲ)ô, kömô, peirzô
| style="text-align: center;" | -(ʲ)ô, cömô, peirzô;
-iô, comiô, parziô
| style="text-align: center;" | -iô, comiô, parziô
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, comem, parthim
| style="text-align: center;" | -im, comim, parzim;
-îrom, comîrom, parzîrom
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, komem, parzim;
-im, komim, parzim
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vm, comem, parzim;
-im, comim, parzim
| style="text-align: center;" | -im, comim, parzim
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -îthi comîthi, parthîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | -îthî, comîthî, parthîthî
| style="text-align: center;" | -ízi, komízi, parzízi
| style="text-align: center;" | -ízi, comízi, parzízi
| style="text-align: center;" | -ízî, comízî, parzízî
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -îron, comîron, parthîron
| style="text-align: center;" | -îron, comîron, parthîron
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vr'n, komer'n, parzir'n
| style="text-align: center;" | -Vron, coméron, parzíron
-îron, comîron, parzîron
| style="text-align: center;" | -îron, comîron, parzîron
|}
Notice that Central and Eastern Efenol use i-ablaut to form their third-person singular simple past verbforms. North-Eastern Efenol varieties may use Eastern-like conjugations, Northern-like conjugations or both in free variation.
More examples in Western Efenol:
{| class="wikitable"
! Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
! style="text-align: center;" | 1s
! style="text-align: center;" | 2s
! style="text-align: center;" | 3s
! style="text-align: center;" | 1p
! style="text-align: center;" | 2p
! style="text-align: center;" | 3p
! Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthê
| style="text-align: center;" | canthath
| style="text-align: center;" | canthô
| style="text-align: center;" | cantham
| style="text-align: center;" | cantháthei
| style="text-align: center;" | cantháron
| style="text-align: center;" | sang
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | comî
| style="text-align: center;" | comith
| style="text-align: center;" | comeô
| style="text-align: center;" | comem
| style="text-align: center;" | comîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | comîron
| style="text-align: center;" | ate
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | parthith
| style="text-align: center;" | partheô
| style="text-align: center;" | parthim
| style="text-align: center;" | parthîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | parthîron
| style="text-align: center;" | left
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | avêl
| style="text-align: center;" | avalath
| style="text-align: center;" | avôl, avalô
| style="text-align: center;" | avalam
| style="text-align: center;" | avaláthei
| style="text-align: center;" | avaláron
| style="text-align: center;" | spoke
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | pezê
| style="text-align: center;" | pezath
| style="text-align: center;" | pezô
| style="text-align: center;" | pezam
| style="text-align: center;" | pezáthei
| style="text-align: center;" | pezáron
| style="text-align: center;" | thought
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhê
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhath
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhô
| style="text-align: center;" | rodham
| style="text-align: center;" | rodháthei
| style="text-align: center;" | rodháron
| style="text-align: center;" | rolled
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | avytê
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâth
| style="text-align: center;" | avytau
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâm
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâthei
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâron
| style="text-align: center;" | booed
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | lî
| style="text-align: center;" | lîth
| style="text-align: center;" | lijs
| style="text-align: center;" | lîm, lêm
| style="text-align: center;" | lîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | liséron, lisîron
| style="text-align: center;" | read
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvij
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijth
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvysô, conthirvijs
| style="text-align: center;" | conthyrvijm
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijthei, conthirvýthei
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijron, conthirvýron
| style="text-align: center;" | contributed
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
| style="text-align: center;" | rîth
| style="text-align: center;" | rij, riô
| style="text-align: center;" | rîm
| style="text-align: center;" | rîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | rîron
| style="text-align: center;" | laughed
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | fy, fij
| style="text-align: center;" | fyth, fijth
| style="text-align: center;" | fë
| style="text-align: center;" | fym, fijm
| style="text-align: center;" | fijth, fijthi
| style="text-align: center;" | fëron
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | was
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | thubh
| style="text-align: center;" | thuvith, thijth
| style="text-align: center;" | thubh
| style="text-align: center;" | thuvim, thávam
| style="text-align: center;" | thuvîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | thuvîron
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | ubh
| style="text-align: center;" | uvith
| style="text-align: center;" | ubh
| style="text-align: center;" | uvim
| style="text-align: center;" | uvîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | uvîron
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | had
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tubh
| style="text-align: center;" | tuvith
| style="text-align: center;" | tubh
| style="text-align: center;" | tuvim
| style="text-align: center;" | tuvîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | tuvîron
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | ith
| style="text-align: center;" | ithith, thith
| style="text-align: center;" | yth
| style="text-align: center;" | ithim, thim
| style="text-align: center;" | ithîthi, thîthi
| style="text-align: center;" | ithîron, thîron
| style="text-align: center;" | did, made
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | fy, fij
| style="text-align: center;" | fyth, fijth
| style="text-align: center;" | fë
| style="text-align: center;" | fym, fijm
| style="text-align: center;" | fijth, fijthi
| style="text-align: center;" | fëron
| style="text-align: center;" | went
|}
=====Compound past=====
Compound past is, along with simple past, one of the most commmon forms of expressing past tense in Efenol. It is found (with slightly different rules) in dialects other than Eastern Efenol and and most North-Eastern Efenol varieties.
Efenol compound past works has the same structure as English present perfect (although its usage is usually different; see the table on dialectal variation of tenses above). The tense is formed by a conjugated present-tense form of the auxilliary verb ''aver'' (from Spanish "haber", comparable to English 'have') followed by a the participle of the intended verb. Other than in Northern Efenol, the participle may be subject to different consonant mutations depending on the grammatical person.
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | ê + lenition
ê·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | ê + lenition
e·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ê + lenition
e·cganthau
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | No compound past
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | No compound past
| style="text-align: center;" | ê + no mutation
e canzad
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | a + no mutation
a·canthao
| style="text-align: center;" | a + no mutation
a·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a + no mutation
a·canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | as + no mutation
as canzad
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | a + lenition
a·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | a + lenition
a·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a + lenition
a·canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | a + no mutation
a canzad
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | em + nasal mutation
e·chanthao
| style="text-align: center;" | e/em + nasal mutation
e·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | em + no mutation
em canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | em + no mutation
em canzad
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | ei + lenition
ei·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | ei + no mutation
ei·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei + no mutation
ei·canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | ai + no mutation
ai canzad
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | a/an + nasal mutation
a·chanthao
| style="text-align: center;" | a/an + nasal mutation
a·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a/an + nasal mutation
a·chanthau
| style="text-align: center;" | an + no mutation
an canzad
|}
More examples in Western Efenol (see ''avalar'' for an example of auxiliary ''aver'' before a vowel, which are typically also used before /l/):
{| class="wikitable"
! Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
! style="text-align: center;" | 1s
! style="text-align: center;" | 2s
! style="text-align: center;" | 3s
! style="text-align: center;" | 1p
! style="text-align: center;" | 2p
! style="text-align: center;" | 3p
! Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | e·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | has sung
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | e·cgomidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·comidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·cgomidh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·chomidh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·comidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·chomidh
| style="text-align: center;" | has eaten
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pbarthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·parthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pbarthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pharthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·parthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pharthidh
| style="text-align: center;" | has left
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | ê avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | âs avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | â avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | em avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | an avaladh
| style="text-align: center;" | has spoken
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | e·pbezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·pbezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·phezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·pezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·phezadh
| style="text-align: center;" | has thought
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | e·rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·rodhadh, em rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rodhadh, an rodhadh
| style="text-align: center;" | has rolled
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | ê avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | âs avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | â avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | em avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | an avytâdh
| style="text-align: center;" | has booed
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | ê lîdh, e·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | âs lîdh, a·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | â lîdh, a·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | em lîdh, e·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei lîdh, ei·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | an lîdh, a·lîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | has read
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | e·cgonthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·conthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·cgonthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·chonthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·conthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·chonthirvydh
| style="text-align: center;" | has contributed
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | e·rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·rîdh, em rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·rîdh, an rîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | has laughed
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | e·shidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·sidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·shidh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·ssidh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·sidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·ssidh
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | has been
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | e·thadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·thadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·thadh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·thadh, em thadh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·thadh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·thadh, an thadh
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | ê avîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | âs avîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | â avîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | em avîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei avîdh
| style="text-align: center;" | an avîdh
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | has had
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | e·tdenidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·tenidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·tdenidh
| style="text-align: center;" | e·thenidh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei·tenidh
| style="text-align: center;" | a·thenidh
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | ê ît
| style="text-align: center;" | âs ît
| style="text-align: center;" | â ît
| style="text-align: center;" | em ît
| style="text-align: center;" | ei ît
| style="text-align: center;" | an ît
| style="text-align: center;" | has done/made
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ê idh
| style="text-align: center;" | âs idh
| style="text-align: center;" | â idh
| style="text-align: center;" | em idh
| style="text-align: center;" | ei idh
| style="text-align: center;" | an idh
| style="text-align: center;" | has gone
|}
=====Imperfective past=====
Imperfective past is very rare in Central and Northern Efenol but relatively common elsewhere.
This tense has markedly different endings for ''-ar'' class verbs and ''-er''/''-ir'' class verbs.  The endings for ''-ar'' class verbs (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''canthar'') are:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -abh, canthabh
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -abh, canthabh
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -av, kanzav
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -av, canzav
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
|-
| 2s (you)
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávam, canthávam
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávam, canthávam
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávam, kanzávam
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávam, kanzávam
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávei, canthávei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávei, canthávei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ava, kanzava
| style="text-align: center;" | -ava, canzava
-avei, canzavei
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávan, canthávan
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávan, canthávan;
-abh', canthabh'
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávan, kanzávan
| style="text-align: center;" | -ávan, canzávan
|}
Regular simple past endings for ''-er'' and ''-ir'' class verbs (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''comer'' and ''parthir'') are:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | î, comî, parthî
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -î, komî, parzî
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -îv, comîv, parzîv
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -îs, comîs, parthîs
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî;
-îs, comîs, parthîs
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | î, comî, parthî
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, comîm, parthîm
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, comîm, parthîm
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, komîm, parzîm;
-î, komî, parzî
| style="text-align: center;" | -îv, comîv, parzîv;
-îm, comîm, parzîm
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, comî, parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | -îi, comîi, parthîi
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, komî, parzî
| style="text-align: center;" | -îv, comîv, parzîv;
-î, comî, parzî
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, comîn, parthîn
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, comîn, parthîn
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, komîn, parzîn;
-î, komî, parzî
| style="text-align: center;" | -îv, comîv, parzîv;
-în, comîn, parzîn
|}
More examples in Western Efenol (pay special attention to irregular verbs like ''ser'' and ''thar''):
{| class="wikitable"
! Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
! style="text-align: center;" | 1s
! style="text-align: center;" | 2s
! style="text-align: center;" | 3s
! style="text-align: center;" | 1p
! style="text-align: center;" | 2p
! style="text-align: center;" | 3p
! Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthabh
| style="text-align: center;" | canthabh
| style="text-align: center;" | canthabh
| style="text-align: center;" | canthávam
| style="text-align: center;" | canthávei
| style="text-align: center;" | canthávan, canthabh'
| style="text-align: center;" | sang
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | comî
| style="text-align: center;" | comî, comîs
| style="text-align: center;" | comî
| style="text-align: center;" | comîm
| style="text-align: center;" | comîi
| style="text-align: center;" | comîn
| style="text-align: center;" | ate
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | parhî
| style="text-align: center;" | parthî, parthîs
| style="text-align: center;" | parthî
| style="text-align: center;" | parthîm
| style="text-align: center;" | parthîi
| style="text-align: center;" | parthîn
| style="text-align: center;" | left
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | avalabh
| style="text-align: center;" | avalabh
| style="text-align: center;" | avalabh
| style="text-align: center;" | avalávam
| style="text-align: center;" | avalávei
| style="text-align: center;" | avalávan, avalabh'
| style="text-align: center;" | spoke
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | pezabh
| style="text-align: center;" | pezabh
| style="text-align: center;" | pezabh
| style="text-align: center;" | pezávam
| style="text-align: center;" | pezávei
| style="text-align: center;" | pezávan, pezabh'
| style="text-align: center;" | thought
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhabh
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhabh
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhabh
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhávam
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhávei
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhávan, rodhabh'
| style="text-align: center;" | rolled
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâbh
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâbh
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâbh
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâvam
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâvei
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâvan, avytâbh'
| style="text-align: center;" | booed
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | lî, lîa
| style="text-align: center;" | lî, lîs, lîa, lîas
| style="text-align: center;" | lî, lîa
| style="text-align: center;" | lîm, lîam
| style="text-align: center;" | lîi, lîei
| style="text-align: center;" | lîn, lîan
| style="text-align: center;" | read
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvij
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvij, conthirvijs
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvij
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijm
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirviji
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvijn
| style="text-align: center;" | contributed
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
| style="text-align: center;" | rî, rîs
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
| style="text-align: center;" | rîm
| style="text-align: center;" | rîi
| style="text-align: center;" | rîn
| style="text-align: center;" | laughed
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | er
| style="text-align: center;" | erz, er
| style="text-align: center;" | er
| style="text-align: center;" | éram
| style="text-align: center;" | érei
| style="text-align: center;" | éran
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | was
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | thabh
| style="text-align: center;" | thabh
| style="text-align: center;" | thabh
| style="text-align: center;" | thávam
| style="text-align: center;" | thávei
| style="text-align: center;" | thávan
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | avî
| style="text-align: center;" | avî, avîs
| style="text-align: center;" | avî
| style="text-align: center;" | avîm
| style="text-align: center;" | avîi, avîei
| style="text-align: center;" | avîn
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | had
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tenî
| style="text-align: center;" | tenî, tenîs
| style="text-align: center;" | tenî
| style="text-align: center;" | tenîm
| style="text-align: center;" | tenîi
| style="text-align: center;" | tenîn
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | athî
| style="text-align: center;" | athî, athîs
| style="text-align: center;" | athî
| style="text-align: center;" | athîm
| style="text-align: center;" | athîi
| style="text-align: center;" | athîn
| style="text-align: center;" | did/made
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ibh
| style="text-align: center;" | ibh
| style="text-align: center;" | ibh
| style="text-align: center;" | ívam
| style="text-align: center;" | ívei
| style="text-align: center;" | ívan
| style="text-align: center;" | went
|}
=====Progressive past=====
Progressive past is typically found in North-Western, Northern and North-Eastern Efenol although it might also be found in other dialects, including non-standard Western varieties.
Much like progressive present, this tense is formed by an auxiliary form of ''thar'' followed by a gerund although, in this case, ''thar'' is conjugated in imperfect past (despite this tense not being used elsewhere in Northern Efenol). The gerund is never affected by any sort of consonant mutation in this tense.
Sample conjugation (exemplified with dialectal variants of ''canthar''):
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (non-standard)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | thabh canthan
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | thabh canthann
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | zav canzan
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | zav canzand
|-
| 2s (you)
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | thávam canthan
| style="text-align: center;" | thávam canthann
| style="text-align: center;" | závam canzan
| style="text-align: center;" | závam canzand
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | thávei canthan
| style="text-align: center;" | thávei canthann
| style="text-align: center;" | zava canzan;
zavei canzan
| style="text-align: center;" | závei canzand
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | thávan canthan
| style="text-align: center;" | thabh' canthann;
thávan canthann
| style="text-align: center;" | závan canzan
| style="text-align: center;" | závan canzand
|}
=====Pluperfect=====
The pluperfect tense is commonly found in North-Western Efenol, Central Efenol and Northern Efenol and less commonly in Western Efenol (where it might be replaced with simple past).
Like compound past, this tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb ''aver'' and the participle for the intended verb. Like in English past perfect, however, the auxiliary is conjugated in a past tense form: imperfective for Western, North-Western and Central Efenol and simple past for Northern Efenol. Other than in the last one, participles are affected by consonant mutations (just as in compound past).
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthau
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| style="text-align: center;" | uv + no lenition
uv canzad
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîs + no mutation
avî·canthao, avîs canthao
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + no mutation
avî·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + no mutation
avî·canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | uviz + no lenition
uviz canzad
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avî + lenition
avî·cganthau
| style="text-align: center;" | uv + no lention
uv canzad
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîm + nasal mutation
avî·chantao
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîm + nasal mutation
avî·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avîm + no mutation
avîm canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | uvim + no lenition
uvim canzad
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | avei + lenition
avei·cganthao
| style="text-align: center;" | avei + no mutation
avei·canthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avei + no mutation
avei·canthau
| style="text-align: center;" | uvízî + no lenition
uvízî canzad
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîn + nasal mutation
avî·chantao
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîn + nasal mutation
avî·chanthadh
| style="text-align: center;" | avî/avîn + nasal mutation
avî·chanthau
| style="text-align: center;" | uvîron + no lenition
uvîron canzad
|}
=====Progressive perfect=====
The progressive perfect tense is rarely found outside North-Eastern Efenol. It is very similar to progressive past but uses simple past forms for the the auxiliary verb ''thar'' (''zar'') rather than imperfect as in the usual progressive past.
Verbs in this tense are composed of the auxiliary verb (''zuv'', ''zuviz'', ''zuv'', ''zuvim'', ''zuvízi'', ''zuvîron''~''zuvíron'' for 1s, 2s, 3s, 1p, 2p and 3p respectively) followed by the unmutated gerund of the main verb (''zuv canzan'' for "I had sung").
=====Compound future=====
Compound future is the preferred way of constructing future tense in the standard form of the language, Western Efenol. The construction is also used in Northern and North-Western Efenol for near future and is in free variation with simple future in Central Efenol.
In all dialects, this tense is constructed by using a simple present tense form of ''ir'' followed by a lenited infinitive. The construction is analogous to English 'be going to' and descend from Spanish  "ir a INF" (the missing "a" being the historical reason why the infinitive undergoes lenition).
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | bë cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bë cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bë cganthar
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | N/A
| style="text-align: center;" | bö cganzar
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | bas cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bas cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bas cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bas cganzar
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | ba cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ba cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ba cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ba cganzar
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | bam cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bam cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bam cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bam cganzar
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | bei cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bei cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bei cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | bei cganzar
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | ban cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ban cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ban cganthar
| style="text-align: center;" | ban cganzar
|}
=====Simple future=====
Despite not being used in the standard Western Efenol dialect, simple future is a common way to for the future tense in the language, being the only future tense commonly used in Eastern and North-Eastern Efenol and a remote future tense for Northern and North-Western Efenol.
Despite being an inflectional tense, simple future is completely regular even for verbs like ''ser'' and ''thar''. Without exception, simple future verbforms are formed by adding the same suffixes to the infinitive form of a verb. This is even the case for the descendants of verbs with irregular future verbforms in Spanish (such as "salir", whose irregular future conjugations such as "tendré" are regularized to ''*teneré'').
The following table shows the suffixes added to the '''infinitive''' (in contrast to other conjugation tables whose suffixes are to be applied to verb stems).
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (non-standard)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, cantharê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, cantharê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, cantharê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, kanzarê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canzarê
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, canzarê
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, cantharâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, cantharâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, cantharâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, kanzarâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, canzarâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, canzarâs
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, cantharâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, cantharâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, cantharâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, kanzarâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, canzarâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, canzarâ
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -êm, cantharêm
| style="text-align: center;" | -em, cantharem
| style="text-align: center;" | -em, cantharem
| style="text-align: center;" | -êm, kanzarêm
| style="text-align: center;" | -êm, canzarêm
| style="text-align: center;" | -em, canzarem
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, cantherei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, cantharei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, cantharei
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, kanzarâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, canzarei
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, canzarei
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, cantharân
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, cantharân
| style="text-align: center;" | -an, cantharan
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, kanzarân
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, canzarân
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, canzarân
|}
=====Conditional=====
The conditional tense is found in all dialects except North-Western Efenol, where simple future verbforms are used instead.
Much like the simple future tense, all conditional verbforms are regular and are formed by adding the following suffixes to the '''infinitive''':
{| class="wikitable"
!
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Western
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Western (Std)
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Central
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | North-Eastern
! style="text-align: center; font-weight:bold;" | Northern
|-
| 1s (I)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ê, cantharê
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, cantharî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, cantharî
| rowspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | -î, kanzarî
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | -î, canzarî
| rowspan="6" style="text-align: center;" | -î, canzarî
|-
| 2s (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -âs, cantharâs
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, cantharî,
-îs, cantharîs
| style="text-align: center;" | -îs, cantharîs
|-
| 3s (he/she/it)
| style="text-align: center;" | -â, cantharâ
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, cantharî
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, cantharî
|-
| 1p (we)
| style="text-align: center;" | -êm, cantharêm
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, cantharîm
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, cantharîm
| style="text-align: center;" | -îm, kanzarîm,
-î, kanzarî
|-
| 2p (you)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ei, cantherei
| style="text-align: center;" | -îi, cantharîi
| style="text-align: center;" | -îei, cantharîei
| style="text-align: center;" | -î, kanzarî
|-
| 3p (they)
| style="text-align: center;" | -ân, cantharân
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, cantharîn
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, cantharîn
| style="text-align: center;" | -în, kanzarîn,
-î, kanzarî
|}
=====Imperative mood=====
All Efenol varieties distinguish indicative verb usages from the imperative (giving commands). The simplest and most commonly used form of the imperative mood is the second-person singulare imperative, to issue a non-negative command to one listener (singular you). This is formed by using the bare stem (''Canth!'' ~ 'Sing!') except in Northern Efenol where it is far more common to use the infinitive form to issue commands (''Canzar!''). The imperative forms for ''ser'' and ''thar'' become ''sê'' and ''thê''. Additionally, the verb ''ir'' has two imperative forms, the polite ''bê'' ('Go', please go) and the impolite ''bêt'' ('Go away!').
Non-negative orders for groups of people (addressed to a plural you) typically use the infinitive form (''Canthar!'' ~ 'Sing, all of you!'), the exceptions being Eastern Efenol (which also uses the bare-stem imperative in this case, ''Kanz, boz!'') and Northern Efenol (which preserves the Spanish plural imperative which replaces the '-r' from the infinitive with a 'd': ''Canzad!'').
Negative imperatives ('Dont sing!') are identical to positive imperatives but preceded by the negative marker ''no'' '''except''' in North-Western Efenol which uses subjunctive present forms: Western ''No canth!'' and ''No canthar!'' (Don't sing 2s! Don't sing 2p!) but North-Western ''No canth!'' and ''No canthî!'' (cf. Spanish "¡No cantes!" and "¡No cantéis!").
Imperatives issued to a person other than 'you' or 'plural you' are rarer but possible. For suggestions to the first person, the usual construction is ''a'' followed by the unmutated infinitive: ''A canthar!'' ~ 'Let's sing!'. For the third-person, the construction is ''ce'' followed by the appropriate simple present verbform (subjunctinve in North-Western Efenol); subjects (even if in pronoun form) are often said after the verb: ''Ce canth el!'' (Let him sing!), ''Ce cánthan o·centheinth!''(Let the singers sing!; North-Western ''Ce canthen o·centheinth!'', cf. Spanish "¡Qué canten los cantantes!").
In all varieties, adding ''porfavor'' ('please') will make these commands more gentle.
Examples of the mentioned structures:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Conjugation class
! colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Western Efenol
! style="text-align: center;" | Northern Efenol
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | North-Western Efenol
! style="text-align: center;" | English
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
| style="text-align: center;" | Singular Imperative
| style="text-align: center;" | Plural imperative
| style="text-align: center;" | Negative singular imperative
| style="text-align: center;" | Negative plural imperative
| 3s imperative
| style="text-align: center;" | 3p imperative
| style="text-align: center;" | Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | Canth!
| style="text-align: center;" | Canzad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No canth!
| style="text-align: center;" | No canthî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce canth!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce cánthen!
| style="text-align: center;" | Sing!
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | Com!
| style="text-align: center;" | Comed!
| style="text-align: center;" | No com!
| style="text-align: center;" | No comei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce com!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce cóman!
| style="text-align: center;" | Eat!
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | Parth!
| style="text-align: center;" | Parzid!
| style="text-align: center;" | No parth!
| style="text-align: center;" | No parthei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce parth!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce párthan!
| style="text-align: center;" | Leave!
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | Ával!
| style="text-align: center;" | Avalad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No ável!
| style="text-align: center;" | No avelî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce ável!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce ávelen!
| style="text-align: center;" | Speak!
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | pezar
| style="text-align: center;" | Pîz!
| style="text-align: center;" | Pensad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No pînz!
| style="text-align: center;" | No penzî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce pînz!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce pînzen!
| style="text-align: center;" | Think!
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | Rëdh!
| style="text-align: center;" | Rodad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No rëdh!
| style="text-align: center;" | No rëdhî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce rëdh!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce rëdhen!
| style="text-align: center;" | Roll!
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | Avytâ!
| style="text-align: center;" | Avytsad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No avytês!
| style="text-align: center;" | No avytei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce avytê!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce avytên!
| style="text-align: center;" | Boo!
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | Lê!
| style="text-align: center;" | Lêd!
| style="text-align: center;" | No lâs!
| style="text-align: center;" | No lai!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce lâ!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce lân!
| style="text-align: center;" | Read!
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | Conthirvij!
| style="text-align: center;" | Conzirvyd!
| style="text-align: center;" | No conthirvys!
| style="text-align: center;" | No conthirvysei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce conthirvys!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce conthirvýsan!
| style="text-align: center;" | Contribute!
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | Rî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Rîd!
| style="text-align: center;" | No rîs!
| style="text-align: center;" | No rî! / No reai!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce rî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce rîn!
| style="text-align: center;" | Laugh!
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | Sê!
| style="text-align: center;" | Sed!
| style="text-align: center;" | No sâs!
| style="text-align: center;" | No sai!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce sâ!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce sân!
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Be!
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | Thê! / Thâ!
| style="text-align: center;" | Zad!
| style="text-align: center;" | No thês!
| style="text-align: center;" | No thî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce thê!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce thên!
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | *Ê!
| style="text-align: center;" | *Aved!
| style="text-align: center;" | *No eis!
| style="text-align: center;" | *No eisei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce eis!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce éisan!
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Have!
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | Tên! / Ten!
| style="text-align: center;" | Tened!
| style="text-align: center;" | No teng!
| style="text-align: center;" | No tengei!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce teng!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce téngan!
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | Ath!
| style="text-align: center;" | Azed!
| style="text-align: center;" | No ath! / No âs!
| style="text-align: center;" | No athei! / No ais!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce ath! / Ce â!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce áthan! / Ce ân!
| style="text-align: center;" | Do! Make!
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | Bê! / Bêt!
| style="text-align: center;" | Id! / Bed!
| style="text-align: center;" | No beis!
| style="text-align: center;" | No beisei! / No beisî!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce beis!
| style="text-align: center;" | Ce béisan! / Ce béisen!
| style="text-align: center;" | Go!
|}
=====Subjunctive mood=====
The subjunctive mood is only preserved in the North-Western standard Efenol variety and in a few dialectal varieties elsewhere. Of the speakers that preserve this mood, most only do so for the present tense while a few may also preserve the simple past subjunctinve tense.
Subjunctives usually resemble what the corresponding indicative verbform would look like if an ''-ar'' verb was an ''-er'' verb or, conversely, if an ''-er'' or ''-ir'' verb was an ''-ar'' verb.
The following table shows subjunctive present and past tense forms for various verbs in '''North-Western''' Efenol.
{| class="wikitable"
! Conjugation class
! style="text-align: center;" | Infinitive
! style="text-align: center;" | 1s
! style="text-align: center;" | 2s
! style="text-align: center;" | 3s
! style="text-align: center;" | 1p
! style="text-align: center;" | 2p
! style="text-align: center;" | 3p
! style="text-align: center;" | Translation
|-
| -ar
| style="text-align: center;" | canthar
| style="text-align: center;" | canth
canthas
| style="text-align: center;" | canth
canthas
| style="text-align: center;" | canth
canthas
| style="text-align: center;" | canthem
canthásem
| style="text-align: center;" | canthî
canthásî
| style="text-align: center;" | cánthen
canthásen
| style="text-align: center;" | sing
|-
| -er
| style="text-align: center;" | comer
| style="text-align: center;" | com
comîs
| style="text-align: center;" | com
comîs
| style="text-align: center;" | com
comîs
| style="text-align: center;" | comam
comîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | comei
comîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | cóman
comîsen
| style="text-align: center;" | eat
|-
| -ir
| style="text-align: center;" | parthir
| style="text-align: center;" | parth
parthîs
| style="text-align: center;" | parth
parthîs
| style="text-align: center;" | parth
parthîs
| style="text-align: center;" | partham
parthîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | parthêi
parthîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | párthan
parthîsen
| style="text-align: center;" | leave
|-
| -ar, broken
| style="text-align: center;" | avalar
| style="text-align: center;" | ável
avalas
| style="text-align: center;" | ável
avalas
| style="text-align: center;" | ável
avalas
| style="text-align: center;" | avelem
avalásem
| style="text-align: center;" | avelî
avalásî
| style="text-align: center;" | ávelen
avalásen
| style="text-align: center;" | speak
|-
| -ar, e~ie alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | penzar
| style="text-align: center;" | pînz
penzas
| style="text-align: center;" | pînz
penzas
| style="text-align: center;" | pînz
penzas
| style="text-align: center;" | penzem
penzásem
| style="text-align: center;" | penzî
penzásî
| style="text-align: center;" | pînzen
penzásen
| style="text-align: center;" | think
|-
| -ar, o~ue alternation
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhar
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh
rodhas
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh
rodhas
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdh
rodhas
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhem
rodhásem
| style="text-align: center;" | rodhî
rodhásî
| style="text-align: center;" | rëdhen
rodhásen
| style="text-align: center;" | roll
|-
| Irregular: -ear
| style="text-align: center;" | avytâr
| style="text-align: center;" | avytê
avytâs
| style="text-align: center;" | avytês
avytâs
| style="text-align: center;" | avytê
avytâs
| style="text-align: center;" | avytêm
avytâsem
| style="text-align: center;" | avytei
avytâsî
| style="text-align: center;" | avytên
avytâsen
| style="text-align: center;" | boo
|-
| Irregular: -eer
| style="text-align: center;" | lêr
| style="text-align: center;" | lâ
lises / lês
| style="text-align: center;" | lâs
lises / lês
| style="text-align: center;" | lâ
lises / lês
| style="text-align: center;" | lâm
lisésem / lêsem
| style="text-align: center;" | lai
lisésî / lêsî
| style="text-align: center;" | lân
lisésen / lêsen
| style="text-align: center;" | read
|-
| Irregular: -uir
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvyr
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
conthirvyses
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
conthirvyses
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvys
conthirvyses
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvysam
conthirvysésem
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvysei
conthirvysésî
| style="text-align: center;" | conthirvýsan
conthirvysésen
| style="text-align: center;" | contribute
|-
| Irregular: -eír
| style="text-align: center;" | rîr
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
rîs
| style="text-align: center;" | rîs
rîs
| style="text-align: center;" | rî
rîs
| style="text-align: center;" | rîm / rîam
rîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | rî / reai
rîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | rîn
rîsen
| style="text-align: center;" | laugh
|-
| Irregular: Ser
| style="text-align: center;" | ser
| style="text-align: center;" | sâ
fër / fës
| style="text-align: center;" | sâs
fërz / fës
| style="text-align: center;" | sâ
fër / fës
| style="text-align: center;" | sâm
fëram / fësem
| style="text-align: center;" | sai
fërei / fësî
| style="text-align: center;" | sân
fëran / fësen
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | be
|-
| Irregular: Estar
| style="text-align: center;" | thar
| style="text-align: center;" | thê
thuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | thês
thuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | thê
thuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | thêm
thuvîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | thî
thuvîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | thên
thuvîsen
|-
| Irregular: Haber
| style="text-align: center;" | aver
| style="text-align: center;" | eis
uvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | eis
uvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | eis
uvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | eisam
uvîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | eisei
uvîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | éisan
uvîsen
| rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | have
|-
| Irregular: Tener
| style="text-align: center;" | tener
| style="text-align: center;" | teng
tuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | teng
tuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | teng
tuvîs
| style="text-align: center;" | tengam
tuvîsem
| style="text-align: center;" | tengei
tuvîsî
| style="text-align: center;" | téngan
tuvîsen
|-
| Irregular: Hacer
| style="text-align: center;" | ather
| style="text-align: center;" | ath / â
ithîs / ithîr
| style="text-align: center;" | ath / âs
ithîs / ithîrz
| style="text-align: center;" | ath / â
ithîs / ithîr
| style="text-align: center;" | atham / âm
ithîsem / ithîram
| style="text-align: center;" | ais / athei
ithîsî / ithîrei
| style="text-align: center;" | áthan / ân
ithîsen / ithîran
| style="text-align: center;" | do / make
|-
| Irregular: Ir
| style="text-align: center;" | ir
| style="text-align: center;" | beis
fës
| style="text-align: center;" | beis
fës
| style="text-align: center;" | beis
fës
| style="text-align: center;" | beisam / beisem
fësem
| style="text-align: center;" | beisei / beisî
fësî
| style="text-align: center;" | béisan / béisen
fësen
| style="text-align: center;" | go
|}
==Example texts==
W.I.P.


[[Category:Efenol]]
[[Category:Efenol]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
Jotadiego
122

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/120142"

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