Kalyahekwe: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Line 330: Line 330:
| ''koo-''
| ''koo-''
|-
|-
| Habitual
! Habitual
| ''aa-''
| ''aa-''
! Reciprocal
! Reciprocal

Revision as of 10:11, 25 June 2020

Kalyah language
Kalyahekwe
Pronunciation[/kalʲ.ˈja.hɛ.kʷɛ/]
Created byRaistas
Settingplanet Liifam
EthnicityKalyaheen
Settameric languages
  • Western Plains languages
    • Kalyah language
Early form
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Kalyah (with four varieties, known as Möhkinis, Teimyois, Šonoowis and Eihtoomis) is a language, spoken in the western part of a vast flat region of the Northern continent, simply called the Plains. The most commonly spoken variety is Teimyois, it is referred to as an "ð-dialect", because the *θ is still distinct in most cases as a phoneme /ð/. The grammar and the examples used here are from Teimyois, but data on other dialects will be given as well. It is spoken by approximately 117,000 people across the northern part of the Plains near the Frost Bay (Iniikekwa).

Kalyah is believed to have begun as a Plains Settameric dialect spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in the original homeland, near the Kahaaler mountains and slowly spread eastward. However, it's divergence into separate dialects began much later, around 700 years ago. The main criteria of division are reflexes of *l, *š and *θ as the boundaries, made by those reflexes, are quite clear. Another important phonological variation involves the palatalisation of the phoneme *k to "č" before /j/ and /i(ː)/, however the division is not as clear, since *ky is often pronounced as [c] in the west, slowly becomes [c͡ç], when moving eastward, until it finally becomes [t͡ʃ] Eihtoomis dialect.

Phonology

Consonants

This table shows the possible consonant phonemes in the Kalyah language and its varieties:

Bilabial Dental Postalveolar Palatalized Velar Glottal
plain labialized
Nasal m n ny /nʲ/
Stop p t ky /c/ k kw /kʷ/
Fricative f θ s š /ʃ/ hy /ç/ h
Affricate c /t͡s/ č /t͡ʃ/
Approximant w ð y /j/
Lateral Approximant l ly /lʲ/
  •   Found only in the Möhkinis dialect, where it is a reflex of *č. This dialect has no [t͡ʃ]
  •   Present in Teimyois and Möhkinis. [ð] comes from *θ between two vowels in Teimyois and from *l in Möhkinis. *l is preserved as [l] in Teimyois, becomes [n] in Šonoowis and [j] in Eihtoomis.
  •   Present in Šonoowis and in Southern Eihtoomis. In other dialects *š becomes [s].

When /j/ precedes a consonant, it becomes palatalized. In most dialects /j/ then disappears. For example the name of the language is often pronounced [ka.ˈlʲa.he.kʷe] with a palatalized (or even a trully palatal /l/). In Eihtoomis plain velars also palatalize before /i(ː)/ and become [t͡ʃ]. A unique combination is "hy" which is almost always pronounced [ç], but that sound is rare, for example: lyahyi "rime" is [lʲaçɪ]. Whether palatalized consonants are separate phonemes or not is a matter of debate, but there is at least one minimal pair: lyoma ([ˈlʲo.ma], "hiding") and loma ([ˈlo.ma], "hammer, obviative") since two consonants in a row are not allowed word-initially in Kalyah. Both plosives and affricates (except č) can be preaspirated between two vowels and word-finally in monosyllabic words, which is marked with "h" before a consonant, for example: ahto "man", fohk "leaf", iskahceh "s/he fed it", fiihp "lake", liihkʷ "fire".

Vowels

Vowels
Front Back
unrounded rounded
Close ii |[iː] öö [øː~ʉː] oo [oː~uː]
Near-Close i [ɪ] ö [ø~ʏ] o [o~ʊ]
Mid ee [eː]
Near-Open e [ɛ]
Open a [a] aa [ɑː~ɔɑ]

All dialects have the same set of vowels, but they may differ in certain words. Kalyah has several diphthongs as well, that can be monophthongized in many Southern varieties. The quality of those diphthongs varies too among dialects:

Diphthongs
Dialects:
Möhkinis Teimyois Šonoowis Eihtoomis
ei [aɪ] [eɪ] [ɛæ] [eɪ]
aa [ɒː] [ɔɑ] [ɔɑ] [ɑː]
oi [oɪ] [ʊɪ] [ɛɵ~œ] [øʏ]
yo [jo] [jo] [œː] [je]
ya [ja] [ja] [ɛæ] [je]
[jo] [jø] [øː] [øː]

Prosody

Stress in Kalyahekwe is non-phonemic. Traditionally, the word stress is antepenultimate and dynamic. This means that it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, but on the first syllable of the root in other words. But in Northern dialects it is always placed on the initial syllable instead. Both variations are correct in modern Kalyah. In its earlier stages of development Kalyah probably had a pitch accent, but it was lost completely nowadays. If a word is longer than four syllables, a secondary stress can be placed on the second to last syllable, for instance: koočikwaaniitis [koː.ˈt͡ʃɪ.kʷɔɑ.ˌniː.tɪs] "we might not be running around".

Morphology

Like most Settameric languages, Kalyah is highly synthetic, meaning it exhibits a great deal of synthesis and a very high morpheme-to-word ratio. It is agglutinating, and thus builds up words by stringing morpheme after morpheme together, rather than having several affixes which carry numerous different pieces of information, but certain morphemes can fuse together.

Kalyahekwe distinguishes between animate and inanimate categories in nouns and person markers. Animate nouns are generally living things that can move on their own, and inanimate ones generally nonliving things, although that is not a simple rule because of the cultural specifics. Some words are distinguished by their noun class and have the same root; for example, hacikwi means "fir tree" and is animate, while hacikw is inanimate and means "wood".

Nouns

Apart from animacy, Kalyah nouns have a category of number, a simple singular/plural contrast for almost all nouns, but words for naturally paired objects have dual, which acts like plural. Verbs must agree with the animacy and number of its nouns. Kalyah nouns do not have a case distinction, but it has obviation instead, where one of the two participants would be marked as proximate (whichever one was deemed more important), and the other marked as obviative. In some situations, like when a sentence contains an intransitive verb, obviative marking is omitted. This is also true of sentences with only one noun where the role of the noun is obvious from the personal marking on the verb.

Inanimate Animate
"hammer" "woman"
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Proximate lom loma lomin lomoi
Obviate očča oččoo oččan oččone

When an object is possessed by somebody, it is marked by a possessive marker. All possessive prefixes are represented in the table below:

Possessive prefixes
singular dual plural
1st k(i)- kas- kil-
2nd t(i)- tas- til-
3rd an. h(i)- has- hil-
3rd inan. yo- yas- yil-

Verbs

Verbs mark aspect, mood, subject and object and have two categories: independent (in a main clause) and conjunct (used in subordinate clauses, with participles and question particles). Intransitive verbs can only mark the subject, while transitive can also mark both direct and indirect objects (or one of them). Some markers can show variations among different dialects.

Kalyah verbs have a similar shape to other Plains languages. Here is a template for all types of verbs:

Transitive verbs
prefixes word stem suffixes
particles Ind. Obj. 1,2 Subj. sg. Dir. Obj. sg. Aspect Modality Root DIR/INV Mood 3sg. Subj. Obj. du./pl. Subj. du./pl. negativity interrogative
Intransitive verbs
prefixes word stem suffixes
particles Subj. sg. Aspect Modality Root Mood Subj. du./pl. negativity interrogative
Conjunct verbs
prefixes word stem suffixes
initial vowel Dir. Obj. sg. Aspect Modality Root Mood Subj. sg. Obj. du./pl. Subj. du./pl. negativity interrogative
Middle verbs
prefixes word stem suffixes
ne- Ind. Obj. 1,2 Subj. sg. Aspect Modality Root Mood DIR/INV 3 Subj. sg. Subj. du./pl. negativity interrogative

Below are all person markers for subject and both direct and indirect objects. Variations among dialects are included.

Indirect Object Subject Direct Object
singular plural singular dual plural singular dual plural
1st či_
θi_M
čil_
θið_M
(h)k_ (h)k_as (h)k_iit m_ m_as m_iit
mi_iyiŠ
2nd ta_ tal_ ki_ ki_as ki_iit
ki_ih
ni_
ti_
ni_as
ti_as
ni_iit
ti_iit
ti_iyiŠ
3rd an. ha_ hal_ _h
_eh
_ah
_ehci
_iit
_iyih
sö_(a)
_š(a)Š
_(a)si
_šösiŠ
_söθM
_(a)li
_šoyiŠ
3rd inan. _
_eθiM
_as _iin yo_(a)
_i
yo_(a)si
_öči
_öθM
yo_(a)li
_iyiŠ
  • M - Möhkinis dialects, Š - Šonoowis dialect.

Aspect are shown with multiple prefixes attached to a lexical stem. There are multiple aspect prefixes, sometimes more than one aspectual prefix can be attached to a verb. They are often used in combination with various clitics, but can also be used on their own. Together with person markers and a root they are compulsory parts of a verb. Aspect markers are not used to describe time, the same way as tenses in English, but can tell about the duration or completeness. Comparing to some Southern languages, Kalyah has a moderate inventory of aspectual prefixes. Four modifiers are used to change the valency of the verb. A modifier is always placed right next to the root before any other prefixes.

Aspects Modifiers
Imperfective (vowel lenthening) Causative ta-
Perfective Detransitive s-
Iterative ka- Reflexive koo-
Habitual aa- Reciprocal ee-

Apart from aspect prefixes a verb can also have one or several preverbs that are attached after all previous prefixes. Preverbs are used for various purposes, most commonly to give some additional information about space and time where the took place. They are not compulsory, but some are used quite often.

Preverb Usage
e- Conjunct preverb.
ii- In relative clauses to mark conditional.
yii- Past irrealis (things that could have happened, but did not).
waa- Used as "because", in relative clauses.
mjö- Notes that the actions are simultaneous, like English "when".
mekw- Indicates possible and/or future actions.
hjaa- Indicates distant past, used with imperfective aspect.

Modality allows for expressing a speaker's general intentions (or illocutionary point) and whether the proposition expressed is true, obligatory, desirable, or actual. Modal prefixes in Kalyah have a similar role to modal verbs in English.

Prefix Meaning
oo- possibility, likelyhood
naa- ability
so- necessity
öö- desire, wish
ðe- permission
iih- request