Valthungian/Nouns

Noun classes differ by suffix vowel and by gender. They may also differ by glides (/j/ or /w/) suffixed to the stem and/or the presence of infixive /n/. The main classes are those stems in /a/ or /ō/, in /i/, in /u/, or in /n/ (as described below: See “Strong” vs. “Weak”). There is also a small class of nouns in /r/ having to do with familial relations. Some former noun classes in Gothic (such as consontant-stem and nd-stem nouns) have been regularised in Valthungian through paradigmatic levelling, and their declensions have been assimilated into other classes.

Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).

Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of –s or –a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.

In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural takes –aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesise to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.

Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See Phonology). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section of this document in order to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.

a-Stems (Masculine & Neuter)

This is by far the most common noun class, and technically includes the feminine ō-stems as well, though we describe those here separately. The masculine and neuter forms of all a-stems differ only in the nominative and accusative.

a-Stems

These nouns end in a consonant and are followed by a simple ending with no drama. There are some minor variations, more of which will be detailed below.

Historically, this is the development of the standard a-stem from Proto-Germanic:

Strong Masculine a-stem: slēps ‘sleep’
	Singular				Plural
n.st.m.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Proto-Germanic	*slǣp-az	*slǣp-is	*slǣp-ai	*slǣp-ą	*slǣp-ōz	*slǣp-ǫ̂	*slǣp-amaz	*slǣp-anz
(Gothic)	slēp-s	slēp-is	slēp-a	slēp-∅	slēp-ōs	slēp-ē	slēp-am	slēp-ans
Griutungi	*slēp-s	*slēp-is	*slēp-a	*slēp-∅	*slēp-ōs	*slēp-ē	*slēp-am	*slēp-ans
Old Valthungian	*sleip-s	*sleip-is	*sleip-a	*sleip-∅	*sleip-ous	*sleip-ouruv	*sleip-am	*sleip-ans
Middle Valthungian	slêp-s	slêp-is	slêp-a	slêp-∅	slêp-os	slêp-'oru	slêp-ᴍ	slêp-ɴs
Valthungian	slēp-s	slēp-is	slēp-a	slēp-∅	slēp-as	slēp-aro	slēp-ma	slēp-nas

Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: slēps ‘sleep’
n.st.m.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	slēps	slēpis	slēpa	slēp
Plural	slēpas	slēparo	slēpma	slēpnas

Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: plat ‘tie’
n.st.n.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	plat	platis	plata	plat
Plural	plata	plataro	platma	plata

a-Stem Variations

ba- and da-Stems

Stems which end in –baz or –daz in Proto-Germanic become unvoiced in the nominative and accusative singular in Valthungian. Specifically, ba-stems end in f in the nominative and accusative, and v elsewhere. Historically, the Valthungian ba-stems also include the fa-stems, while the da-stems include the þa-stems, which have come to follow the same voicing patterns.

Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: vlufs ‘wolf’
n.st.m.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	vlufs	vluvis	vluva	vluf
Plural	vluvas	vluvaro	vluvma	vluvnas

Strong Masculine a-Stem Noun: mōþs ‘disposition’
n.st.m.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	mōþs	mōðis	mōða	mōþ
Plural	mōðas	mōðaro	mōðma	mōðnas

Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: draf ‘job’
n.st.n.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	draf	dravis	drava	draf
Plural	drava	dravaro	dravma	drava

Strong Neuter a-Stem Noun: vroþ ‘word’
n.st.n.a	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	vroþ	vroðis	vroða	vroþ
Plural	vroða	vroðaro	vroðma	vroða

• ba-stems (vlufs, hlafs) (historically includes fa-stems) - f in nom and acc sg; v elsewhere
• da-stems (mōþs, ǣþs) (historically includes þa-stems) - þ in nom and acc sg; ð elsewhere
• ga-stems (breǧ, daǧ) nom. sg. has -ǧ instead of **-gs
• ha-stems (skōfs) nom & acc sg have f; gu elsewhere
  • iha-stems (slīs) it gets weird...
• ma-stems (drǭms, ǣðums) - no metathesis in dative plural
• mba-stems (lams) - b is dropped in nom and acc sg
• na-stems (himins, lapins) - no metathesis in dative or accusative plural
• nda-stems (hunǧ, ganǧ) nom. sg. has -nǧ instead of **-nds
• ra-stems (wer, bēr) - no nominative singular -s
• sa-stems (drus, ams) - no nominative singular -s
• za-stems (mims, gǣs) - s in nom and acc; ž elsewhere, no nominative singular -s
• geminate-stems (puls, swams) single sonorant in nom and acc sg; extended syllabic reflex elsewhere
• syllabic stems (bagmas, naglas) - no metathesis, -a(-) gets added where necessary
  • syllabic ra-stems (þundra, naðra) - syllabic, also no nominative singular -s

ja-Stems

The ja-stem nouns contain a short vowel followed by a single consonant which is followed by –j– which is in turn followed by the a-stem endings. At least that’s how it was two millennia ago, but now the –j– has vanished, the endings disappeared, the vowel (usually) subjected to umlaut, and the stem’s final consonant (usually) subjected to palatalisation.

Strong Masculine ja-Stem Noun: tepis ‘carpet’
n.st.m.ja	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	tepis	tepis	tepia	tape
Plural	tepis	tepiro	tepim	tepins

Strong Neuter ja-Stem Noun: kafe ‘coffee’
n.st.n.ja	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	kafe	kefis	kefia	kafe
Plural	kefia	kefiro	kefim	kefia

ija-Stems

The ija-stems are a variation of the ja-stems, but these follow stems with long vowels or multiple consonants or syllables before the ending. (This is the modern Valthungian reflex of something called Siever’s Law.) The main difference between ja-stems and ija-stems in Modern Valthungian is that there is no palatalisation in the nominative and genitive singular, though there is still umlaut. (This same pattern occurs in the class 1 weak verbs.)

Strong Masculine ija-Stem Noun: mīris ‘observer’
n.st.m.ija	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	mīris	mīris	mīria	mīre
Plural	mīris	mīriro	mīrim	mīrins

Strong Neuter ija-Stem Noun: futle ‘full moon’
n.st.n.ija	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	futle	fytlis	fytlia	futle
Plural	fytlia	fytliro	fytlim	fytlia

wa-Stems

The wa-stems nouns have –w– after the stem instead of –j–, and they tend to be a lot less dramatic than the j-stems because there is no palatalisation or umlaut or Siever’s Law to worry about. They are, however, plagued by another rule called Holtzmann’s Law – or an extension of it, anyway – which causes an unexpected –g– to pop up in a few of the declensions.

Strong Masculine wa-Stem Noun: skaðus ‘shadow’
n.st.m.wa	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	skaðus	skaðugis	skaðuga	skaðo
Plural	skaðugas	skaðugaro	skaðugma	skaðugnas

Strong Neuter wa-Stem Noun: milo ‘flour’
n.st.n.wa	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	milo	milugis	miluga	milo
Plural	miluga	milugaro	milugma	miluga

wja-Stems

The wja-stems combine all of the worst aspects of the w- and j-stems, but fortunately they’re a pretty small group.

ō-Stems (Feminine)

The ō-stems are really just the feminine version of the a-stems, historically speaking.

ō-Stems

The pure ō-stems have even less drama than the masculine and neuter a-stems. No metathesis, no umlaut, no palatalisation: pretty straightforward, really.

Strong Feminine ō-Stem Noun: snuža ‘daughter-in-law’
n.st.f.ō	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	snuža	snužis	snuža	snuža
Plural	snužas	snužaro	snužam	snužas

jō-Stems

The jō-stems have umlaut, but it is persistent throughout the paradigm, so there are no extra steps to learn. There are the usual palatal variations as well, but they are also consistent.

Strong Feminine jō-Stem Noun: henia ‘hen’
n.st.f.jō	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	henia	henis	henia	henia
Plural	henis	heniro	henim	henis

ijō-Stems

The ijō-stems are a bit weird, mainly because the nominative singular seems to have collapsed in Proto-Germanic into a single -i (more of Siever’s shenanigans), leaving a modern reflex of a simple -e following an unumlauted, unpalatalised stem. Otherwise, the ijō-stems are indistinguishable from the jō-stems in modern Valthungian.

Strong Feminine ijō-Stem Noun: hundre ‘century’
n.st.f.ijō	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	hundre	hyndris	hyndria	hyndria
Plural	hyndris	hyndriro	hyndrim	hyndris

wō-Stems

The wō-stems are uneventful, differing from the standard ō-stems only in that a /u/ shows up in some of the endings instead of the standard /a/.

Strong Feminine wō-Stem Noun: bandua ‘symbol’
n.st.f.wō	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	bandua	bandus	bandua	bandua
Plural	bandus	banduro	bandum	bandus

i-Stems (Masculine & Feminine)

i-Stems

The i-stems are very similar to the a-stems – the singular declension is identical to the masculine a-stems – but the plural resembles the ja-stems, and the nominative plural has umlaut. The i-stems can be masculine or feminine, and their declensions are identical. There are no neuter i-stem nouns.

Most nouns which were part of the “consonant-stems” in Gothic (such as miluks or mēnaþs were assimilated into the i-stem class.

Strong Feminine i-Stem Noun: dluþs ‘feast’
n.st.f.i	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	dluþs	dluðis	dluða	dluþ
Plural	dlyðis	dluðiro	dluðim	dluðins

Strong Masculine i-Stem Noun: mats ‘meal’
n.st.m.i	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	mats	matis	mata	mat
Plural	metis	matiro	matim	matins

u-Stems (all genders)

u-Stems

The u-stems are similar to the i-stems except – you guessed it! – the stems have /u/ instead of /i/. The masculine and feminine declensions are identical (like the i-stems), but there are also neuter u-stems. A large number of u-stems are made up of borrowed Latin words ending in –us and Greek words ending in -ος (–os). The genitive and dative singular of the u-stems has been assimilated from the wa-stems, and there is both umlaut and palatalisation in the nominative and genitive plural.

Strong Masculine u-Stem Noun: þāsus ‘badger’
n.st.m.u	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	þāsus	þāsus	þāsua	þāso
Plural	þǣšis	þǣšigaro	þāsum	þāsuns

Strong Feminine u-Stem Noun: handus ‘hand’
n.st.f.u	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	handus	handus	handua	hando
Plural	henǧis	henǧigaro	handum	handuns

Strong Neuter u-Stem Noun: šaltus ‘peach’
n.st.n.u	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	šalto	šaltus	šaltua	šalto
Plural	šaltua	šelčigaro	šaltum	šaltua

ju-Stem

The ju-stems are to the u-stems as the ja-stems are to the a-stems. There is umlaut and palatalisation throughout the paradigm. Once again, the masculine and feminine declensions are identical.

The neuter u-stem only exists in newly-borrowed Latin or Latinate words ending in –ium (e.g. aluminio ‘aluminum’), while earlier borrowings of neuter nouns in –ium tend to be ja- or ija-stems (e.g. ōraloge ‘clock’, from hōrologium)

Strong Masculine ju-Stem Noun: drynis ‘voice’
n.st.m.ju	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	drynis	drynis	drynio	drynio
Plural	drynis	drynigaro	drynim	drynins

Strong Feminine ju-Stem Noun: wǣǧis ‘wall’
n.st.f.ju	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	wǣǧis	wǣǧis	wǣǧo	wǣǧo
Plural	wǣǧis	wǣǧigaro	wǣǧim	wǣǧins

Strong Neuter ju-Stem Noun: krœumis ‘chrome’
n.st.n.ju	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	krœumio	krœumis	krœumio	krœumio
Plural	krœumio	krœumigaro	krœumim	krœumio

r-Stems (all genders)

The r-stems are a very small class of nouns consisting of family members. Here is the full list:

Strong Masculine r-Stem Noun: faðra ‘father’
n.st.m.r	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	faðra	faðris	faðra	faðra
Plural	feðris	faðro	faðrum	faðruns

Strong Feminine r-Stem Noun: mōðra ‘mother’
n.st.f.r	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	mōðra	mōðris	mōðra	mōðra
Plural	mœuðris	mōðro	mōðrum	mōðruns

Strong Neuter r-Stem Noun: ǧutra ‘grandchild’
n.st.n.r	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	ǧutra	ǧutris	ǧutra	ǧutra
Plural	ǧutris	ǧutro	ǧutrum	ǧutruns

n-Stems (all genders)

The n-stems, sometimes known as “weak nouns,” decline in the same manner as weak adjectives. Like the a-, ō-, and u-stems, they have various reflexes depending on the presence of glides between the stem and the endings. Weak neuter nouns are very rare, and mostly refer to parts of the body.

ōn-Stem

Weak Masculine ô-Stem Noun: guma ‘person’
n.st.m.ô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	guma	gumins	gumin	gumna
Plural	gumnas	gumnaro	gumma	gumnas

Weak Feminine ǭ-Stem Noun: drjusa ‘cliff’
n.st.f.ǭ	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	drjusa	drjusans	drjusan	drjusan
Plural	drjusans	drjusanaro	drjusam	drjusans

Weak Neuter ô-Stem Noun: hreta ‘heart’
n.st.n.ô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	hreta	hretins	hretin	hreta
Plural	hretana	hretnaro	hretma	hretana

jōn-Stem

Weak Masculine jô-Stem Noun: sinþia ‘traveller’
n.st.m.jô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	sinþia	sinþins	sinþin	sinþin
Plural	sinþins	sinþinaro	sinþim	sinþins

Weak Feminine jǭ-Stem Noun: sinþia ‘traveller’
n.st.f.jǭ	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	sinþia	sinþins	sinþin	sinþin
Plural	sinþins	sinþinaro	sinþim	sinþins

Weak Neuter jô-Stem Noun: lipia ‘lip’
n.st.n.jô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	lipia	lipins	lipin	lipia
Plural	lipina	lipinaro	lipim	lipina

wōn-Stem

Weak Masculine wô-Stem Noun: ankua ‘butter’
n.st.m.wô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	ankua	ankuns	ankun	ankun
Plural	ankuns	ankunaro	ankum	ankuns

Weak Feminine wǭ-Stem Noun: þīfua ‘thunder’
n.st.f.wǭ	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	þīfua	þīfuns	þīfun	þīfun
Plural	þīfuns	þīfunaro	þīfum	þīfuns

Weak Neuter wô-Stem Noun: tegua ‘toe’
n.st.n.wô	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	tegua	teguns	tegun	tegua
Plural	teguna	tegunaro	tegum	teguna

īn-Stem

The īn-stems are exclusively feminine, and are comprised largely of nominalized adjectives.

Weak Feminine īn-Stem Noun: ǣði ‘mother’
n.st.f.į̄	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	ǣði	ǣðins	ǣðin	ǣðin
Plural	ǣðins	ǣðinaro	ǣðim	ǣðins

r/n-Stems (“Heteroclitic Nouns”)

The r/n-stems, also known as “heteroclitic nouns” or “heteroclites,” are a small group of weak neuter nouns in which the typical -n- of the ending is replaced by -r- in some declensions. This is and old, old relic likely from Pre-Indo-European. Heteroclites were not present in Gothic. They are all somewhat irregular, but there are just three of them:

Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: ǧikur ‘liver’
n.wk.n.r/n	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	ǧikur	ǧikuns	ǧikun	ǧikun
Plural	ǧikuna	ǧikunaro	ǧikum	ǧikuna

Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: fōr ‘fire’
n.wk.n.r/n	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	fōr	funins	funin	fōn
Plural	funa	funaro	funam	funa

Weak Neuter r/n-Stem Noun: watra ‘water’
n.wk.n.r/n	Nominative	Genitive	Dative	Accusative
Singular	watra	watins	watin	watna
Plural	watna	watnaro	watnam	watna