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+The overall syntax of Anbirese resembles that of [[w:Irish|Irish]] or [[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]]. Anbirese is particularly rich in non-finite subordinate clause constructions, which may be used when English uses subordinate clauses with finite verbs.
-===Constituent order===
+==Constituent order==
-The overall syntax of {{PAGENAME}} resembles that of Irish but with more flexibility.
+Anbirese is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Question words may be placed before the verb, after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject, unlike in Hebrew. Like Irish and unlike Eevo, Anbirese is far from being topic-prominent, and is more focus-prominent.
-{{PAGENAME}} is almost completely head-initial, except for compound words which are head-final. The constituent order is VSO. Background information (usually in the order {{sc|time-manner-place}}) and question words may be placed before the verb (unlike in Irish), after the subject, or after the direct object. However, no constituent may come between the verb and the subject.
 {{gloss
-|phrase=Tiann h-aeillirne múnna?
+|phrase=Þjeon s' ael skidngeo ljeonngeo?
-|gloss=why love-PRES.2SG-EMPH ACC-1SG
+|gloss=why REL love/PRES 2SG-EMPH ACC-1SG-EMPH
-|IPA=/ˈtiən ˈh‿eːʀəlnə mʉːnə/
+|IPA=/ɕɔ̀n s‿ɛw skìdNə jɔ̀nNə/
 |translation=Why do *you* love *me*?
 }}
-===Noun phrase===
+==Noun phrase==
-====Adjectives====
+===Adjectives===
 Adjectives always follow their head nouns.
-====Possessive noun phrases====
+:'''''eo skradeui flum'''''
+:''the black spider''
+===Possessive noun phrases===
 In possessive noun phrases the possessed noun uses the construct form, and the possessor (indefinite or definite) is placed after it. For pronominal possessors, the disjunctive pronoun is used.
-===Verb phrase===
+==Verb phrase==
-====Negation====
+===Negation and other preverbs===
-*interrogative: {{abbtip|[ɪs]|''is-L''}}
+*interrogative: ''is-N''
-*negative: {{abbtip|[niː]|''ní''}}
+*negative: ''θri-L''
+*prohibitive: ''ta-L''
+===Infinitive absolute===
+Similar to the infinitive absolute in [[w:Biblical Hebrew|Biblical Hebrew]], [bare infinitive] + ''a'' + [finite verb] + SUBJECT [lit. it is a VERBing that SUBJECT VERBs] is an emphatic construction meaning 'surely/indeed VERBs; VERBs anyway'. The conjunct/imperative form is used for the finite verb instead of the absolute.
+:'''''Flis subdeor a subdeoram ljeoz djeo padleo.'''''
+:but send.BARE_INF A send-1PL.EXC ACC-it anyway
+:''But we're going to send it anyway.''
+The infinitive absolute is much more common in Anbirese than in [[Skellan]], where it is a bit literary.
-===Sentence phrase===
+===Circumstantial verbs===
-====Predicate nouns and adjectives====
+Circumstantial verbs are formed with djeo + VN:
-{{PAGENAME}} is zero-copula, like Hebrew. For predicate sentences, the predicate (unmarked) form of the predicate noun or adjective is placed before the subject, and the pronoun is used.
-:'''''Zodhme ŋú kothel.'''''
+*''Xjerin u xjer djeo hngima eos djeo ṁoela'' = 'He entered praising and thanking'
-:''A flower is a plant.''
+===Accusative with infinitive===
+The accusative particle ''ljeo'' can be used to introduce the subject of a dependent clause. The verb of the dependent clause is preceded by the particle ''ae'' 'to'.
-:'''''Zodhme ŋú.'''''
+:'''''Togni na ljeo mród ae slang aeb Inθár.'''''
-:''It's a plant.''
+:think-PRES 1SG ACC apple-PL INF good to Inθar.
+:''I think Inθar likes apples.''
-Similarly for definite nouns as subjects, though the pronoun is not mandatory in this case:
+==Sentence phrase==
+===Predicate adjectives===
+Anbirese is zero-copula, like Hebrew. A predicate adjective is placed before the subject, and the copula pronoun is used.
-:'''''Zodhme (ŋú) a k:chothel.'''''
+When the subject is a definite noun, the pronoun is not mandatory with predicative adjectives:
-:''The flower is a plant.''
-:'''''Áld (hí) a k:gowne.'''''
+:'''''Ard (hi) eo skuil.'''''
+:/aɾd (çi) ə skuiɴ/
 :''The woman is tall.''
-:'''''Áld hí.'''''
+:'''''Ard hi.'''''
+:/aɾd çi/
 :''She is tall.''
-====Existential sentences====
+Predicate adjectives are negated by placing ''θjeor(-L)'' in front of the adjective:
-====Conjunctions====
+:''Θjeor on na lu xvin θjeor bjoleoct hu.''
-*{{abbtip|[ʔal]|''al''}}: 'and'
+:/ɕɔɾ un na lü xwin ɕɔɾ bjuwɔkt hü/
-*{{abbtip|[ʁʷˁʉː]|''rú''}}: 'or'
-*{{abbtip|[ʔax]|''ach''}}: 'but'
+The construction ''lid'' + subject + ''djeo'' + adjective may also be used in literary writing.
-*{{abbtip|[liː]|''li-N''}}: 'that (relative clause)'
-*{{abbtip|[niː]|''ní-L''}} : 'that (complement clause)'
+===Predicative nouns===
-*{{abbtip|[fɵːɬ]|''fódh-N''}}: 'because'
+On the other hand, a predicate noun has the "logical subject" placed after the preposition ''djeo'' + pronoun.
-*{{abbtip|[dɾɪ]|''dri-L''}}: 'when, if'
+:'''''Sjeoθma dju xeozir.'''''
+:''A flower is a plant.''
+:'''''Sjeoθma dju.'''''
+:''It's a plant.'' (lit. ''A plant is in it.'')
+Predicate nouns are negated by placing ''djer'' 'there is no' in front of the predicate noun.
+===Predicative locatives===
+Predicative locatives use the copula ''lid'', which is negated to ''jeol''.
+'''''Lid na djeon svar.''''' = 'I'm in the house.'
+'''''Lid eo nghéozir aemna.''''' = 'The flowers are mine.'
+===Existential sentences===
+Existential sentences also use ''laidh'':
+:'''''Lid mrót.'''''
+:be-PRES.ANA apple
+:''There's an apple.''
+(There's an apple there = ''Lid mrót dju.'')
+"X has" uses a similar construction to existentials:
+:'''''Lid sob ljeona.'''''
+:to-1SG dog
+:''I have a dog.'' (lit. To me is a dog.)
+===Modal constructions===
+*''eor'' + X = "X must/has to" (lit. it is on X)
+*''oez go'' + X = "X may"/"it is permissible for X" (lit. it goes through with X)
+*''kjel'' + X = "X wants" (lit. it is away from X)
+*''aeb'' + X + ''sjéorn'' = "X needs" (lit. X has a need)
+===Wh-questions===
+Who- and what-questions use cleft constructions, using the interrogative in conjunction with a relative clause describing it.
+*''Θva (n) forx eo svas?'' = Who feeds the man? (lit. Who is it that feeds...)
+*''Θva rjeo vforx eo svas?'' = Whom does the man feed?
+In the preterite:
+*''Θva rjeo vforxin um eo svas?'' = Who fed the man?
+*''Θva rjeo vforxin u n svas?'' = Whom did the man feed?
+===Conjunctions===
+*{{abbtip|/əs/|''eos''}}: 'and'
+*{{abbtip|/sü/|''su''}}: 'or'
+*''ju'' = nor
+*{{abbtip|/sun/|''son''}}: 'but'
+*{{abbtip|/rjə/|''rjeo''}}: 'that (relative clause)'
+*{{abbtip|/ˈɾinjə/|''rinjeo''}}: negative form of ''ri''
+*{{abbtip|/va/|''va''}}: 'that (complement clause)'
+*{{abbtip|/xwin/|''xvin''}}: because
+*{{abbtip|/dʑer/|''djer''}}: when
+*''xvart'' = then
+===Answers to yes-no questions===
+Anbirese does not have a word for 'yes'; instead, the verb is repeated. The word for 'no' is ''θjeor''.
+===Wishes/Jussive===
+Wishes can be formed by using ''θumi'' (< Tigol ''tuaḃ ṁa mít'' 'who will grant') before a verb in the non-past tense.
+==Dependent clauses==
+===Relative clauses===
+Anbirese makes a distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.
+The relativizer ''rjeo''<sup>N</sup> ''rjeon'' before vowels, negative ''rinjeo'') is used for restrictive relative clauses. A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor. For clarity, the emphatic clitic ''-neo'' may be added to the resumptive pronoun, especially in formal registers.
+Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the head of the relative clause is the subject. If the head of the relative clause is its subject, then the appropriate participial form of the verb is mutated or inflected like an adjective. Otherwise, the relativizer ''rjeo-N'' is used.
+:'''''eo ljést n tozneui kvial'''''
+:''the spirit that endures suffering'' (lit. the spirit enduring suffering)
+:'''''eo ljést rjeo zlaez hi (lje(neo))'''''
+:''the spirit that she shows''
+:'''''eo ljést rjeo nhrae hi di(neo)'''''
+:''the spirit she believes in'' (lit. the spirit that she believes in it)
+In the past tense, a participle modifying the head as an adjective puts the head into a ''patient'' role in the relative clause (by split ergativity). Hence, agents of a transitive verb must use the preposition ''u'' plus a resumptive pronoun.
+:'''''Goli n slán (rjeon) éorngin una stang.'''''
+:''The number I got was 6.''
+In poetry, verbs in ''rjeo''-clauses may appear in any position after the ''rjeo''.
+A non-restrictive relative clause is marked with a pause (rendered as a dash "–") before the relative clause -- no conjunction is used.
+Nominalized relative clauses use ''kvar'' 'those':
+:'''''kvar eo mimó jeo'''''
+:''those who misuse it''
+===Time clauses===
+There are two ways of forming time clauses.
+The first construction is a clause introduced with a time conjunction such as (''djer'' = 'when') and using a finite verb form (i.e. the verb form is used with a subject).
+The second construction is a clause introduced with a preposition (such as ''ar'' = 'upon') followed by the verbal noun which may take a possessive prefix for the subject. Thus the non-finite time clause marks aspect or tense relative to the tense of the main clause rather than absolute tense. Non-finite time clauses are considered a little more literary than finite time clauses.
+An example with ''djeo'' 'at':
+:'''''djeo argjeoran na ar eo lóegu'm'''''
+:at keep_watch.IPFV-1SG 1SG on DEF stuff-3SG.M 3SG.M
+:''when I was keeping watch on his things''
+===Infinitive clauses===
+In Modern Anbirese, infinitives or verbal nouns go to the end of the clause for common constructions, like modal constructions (e.g. want, need, must, may).
+For emphasizing the object, "want/need/etc. an X to Y", a resumptive pronoun can be used after the verbal noun. (Alternatively the emphatic clitic -nna can be used on X.)
-===Dependent clauses===
+:'''''Gjelna tanneo eo djeosk ljeoz!'''''
-====Relative clauses====
+:want-1SG something to eat.VN 3SG.N-DEP
-The relativizer is ''li<sup>N</sup>'' (negative ''líd''). A resumptive pronoun may be used when the head is not the subject of the relative clause, and is mandatory when the head is a prepositional object or a possessor.
+:''I want something to eat!''
-Verbs in relative clauses may be placed anywhere within the relative clause, subject to the constraint that the verb and (syntactic) subject may not be separated unless the subject of the relative clause is the head. If the subject is the head, the relativizer ''li'' may be omitted, however in that case the verb must immediately follow the head.
+:'''''Tri harngin aemna, ljeoz eo aegir.'''''
+:''I didn't succeed in finding it.''
-Nominalized relative clauses use ''nuol li...'' 'those who...'
+The infinitive-final order arose from constructions corresponding to modal verbs in English: originally the order was something similar to {{recon|''Areon gnúi enŋ''}} ("on-1SG drink.VN water"), then ''Areon jeoneong ljeo gnui'' (originally "I want water to drink") became more common, eventually to the exclusion of the original construction, which is archaic or high-register today for common modal expressions.
-:'''''nuol li míwóhedh ú'''''
-:'those who misuse it'
-====Time clauses====
+===Passive constructions===
-There are two ways of forming time clauses.
+Use 'take' or 'get' + VN
-====Infinitive clauses====
+===Syntactic pivots===
-Infinitive clauses work like German ''zu''-infinitive clauses in that they are verb-final: the infinitive is used at the end, and the particle ''le-h'' /ʟə/ ('to') is used before the infinitive.
+In normal registers, syntactic pivoting (the practice of omitting a subject entirely in a clause when the previous clause has it as a subject) is disallowed for verbs: a pronoun can be used as a subject in the following clause if the previous clause has its antecedent as its subject. E.g. ''He will take my gift and go'' would be translated as ''Tobθjeo hu ljeo neo mid, eos θeorθjeo hu''. However, it is used for adjectives: "Dark am I yet beautiful" can be translated as ''Moct na, a sumeon''.
-:'''''Ní róscall fách ná, s'a shuar ríosan le fhlunnach.'''''
+[[Category:Anbirese]]
-:''I was unable to return to my house.''

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Revision as of 04:10, 9 March 2022