Modern Phrygian

Modern Phrygian (Native: βρουζ̌ικιά /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the Phrygian language.

Modern Phrygian
ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά kšósa ta vružigyá كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
Pronunciation	[ˈkʃosa d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Graeco-Phrygian Phrygian Modern Phrygian

Introduction

Etymology

Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά vružigyá < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά brugikā́ (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική pʰrygikḗ).

Features

• PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
• PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
• PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
• Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
• Initial w- preserved (as v-) except before o.
  • New w also became v, or f after voiceless consonants (e.g. βαίνα véna "hyena" < ουαίνα wéna < ύαινα (h)úaina; τφω tfo "two" < τουω two < τύω túō).
• nt > nn
• Early Vns > Vis
• Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
• All labiovelars became plain velars.
• Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
• Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
• In obstruent clusters (except for s + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
  • Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
    • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
  • The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
• Assimilation of s to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
  • /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
    • Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
  • /f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
  • Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
• In obstruent + nasal clusters:
  • Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
  • Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/)
• Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
• Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
• Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
  • Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
  • Final -n > nasalization, but -nn > -n

Phonology

Orthography

Note: In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.

Greek orthography

Alphabet

Letter Name IPA Α α άλφα [ˈalfa] Β β βέτα [ˈved̥a] Γ γ γάμμα [ˈɣama] Δ δ δέλτα [ˈðeld̥a] Ε ε έμανου [ˈemanu] Ζ ζ ζέτα [ˈzed̥a] Ζ̌ ζ̌ ζ̌έτα [ˈʒed̥a] Η η έτα [ˈed̥a] Θ θ θέτα [ˈθed̥a] Ι ι γιώτα [ˈʝod̥a]

Letter Name IPA Κ κ κάππα [ˈkapa] Λ λ λάμπδα [ˈlambða] Μ μ μου [mu] Ν ν νου [nu] Ξ ξ ξι [ksi] Ξ̌ ξ̌ ξ̌ι [kʃi] Ο ο όμανου [ˈomanu] Π π πι [pi] Ρ ρ ρο [ro] Σ σ ς σίγμα [ˈsiŋma]

Letter Name IPA Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌ σ̌ίγμα [ˈʃiŋma] Τ τ ταυ [taf] Υ υ ούψιλο [ˈupsilο] Φ φ φι [fi] Χ χ χι [çi] Ψ ψ ψι [psi] Ψ̌ ψ̌ ψ̌ι [pʃi] Ω ω ωμέκα [oˈmeɡ̊a]

The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.

With caron	As multigraph
	before front vowel	before back vowel	word-finally or before consonant
σ̌	σχ	σχι	σχ
ζ̌	ζγ	ζγι	ζγ
ξ̌	ξχ	ξχι	ξχ
ψ̌	ψχ	ψχι	ψχ

Consonants

Consonants

Letter	Context	IPA	Examples	Remarks
β	everywhere	[v]	βεχ [vex] "six"
γ	before front vowels ([e] or [i]).	[ʝ]	γεν [ʝen] "yen"
	before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])	[ŋ]	μάγκο [ˈmaŋgo] "mango"; αγνός [aŋˈnos] "pure, chaste"	This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
	before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])	[ɲ]	αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke"	This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
	everywhere else	[ɣ]	γαλκός [ɣalˈɡ̊os] "copper"
γγ	before front vowel	[ɲ]	άγγελος [ˈaɲelos] "angel"
	elsewhere	[ŋ]	άγγουρο [ˈaŋuro] "cucumber"
γι	before vowels	[ʝ]	μαγιά [maˈʝa] "yeast"
γγι	before vowels	[ɲ]	πάρκκιγγιους [ˈparciɲus] "parking (gen.)"
δ	everywhere	[ð]	δούρα [ˈðura] "door"
ζ	everywhere	[z]	ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ζ̌	everywhere	[ʒ]	βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
θ	everywhere	[θ]	πθουγά [pθuˈɣa] "fold"
ι	preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel	[ɲ]	μια [mɲa] "one (f.)"
	preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel	[ç]	ιμάτιο [iˈmatço] "cloak"	[tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
	preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel	[ʝ]	τρια [trʝa] "three (n.)"	[dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
κ	after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).	[ɟ̊]	κακοί [kaˈɟ̊i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
	after vowel or liquid otherwise	[ɡ̊]	κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
	after nasal before front vowel	[ɟ]	αγκινάρα [aɲɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
	after nasal otherwise	[ɡ]	μάγκο [ˈmaŋɡo] "mango"
	before voiced obstruent	[ɡ]	ίκδις [ˈiɡðis] "mortar"
	otherwise before front vowel	[c]	κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
	everywhere else	[k]	κακός [kaˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
κκ	before front vowel	[c]	δίκκοι [ˈðici] "discs"
	otherwise	[k]	Μάκκα [ˈmaka] "Makkah"
κι	after vowel or liquid and before a vowel	[ɟ̊]	βρουζ̌ικιά [vruʒiˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
	after nasal before a vowel	[ɟ]	άγκιο [ˈaɲɟo] "cup"
	otherwise before a vowel	[c]	κιουριακό [curʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
κκι	before a vowel	[c]	ίκκιο [ˈico] "horse"
λ(λ)	everywhere	[l]	άλφα [ˈalfa] "alpha"
λ(λ)ι	before a vowel	[ʎ]	ζέλλια [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
μ(μ)	everywhere	[m]	ζεμελός [zemeˈlos] "man"
ν	non-final	[n]	όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"
	final	[-̃, ɰ̃]	όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"	Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
νν	everywhere	[n]	μάννα [ˈmana] "manna"
ν(ν)ι	before a vowel	[ɲ]	χαλαππένιο [xalaˈpeɲo] "jalapeño"
ξ	everywhere	[ks]	ξούλο [ˈksulo] "tree"
ξ̌	everywhere	[kʃ]	ξ̌έκκια [ˈkʃeca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
ου	word-initial before a vowel or between vowels	[w]	Ουίντζορ [ˈwindzor] "Windsor"
π	after vowel or liquid	[b̥]	κιττάπ [ciˈtab̥] "book"
	after nasal	[b]	κάμπα [ˈkamba] "worm"
	before voiced obstruent	[b]	επδαμάς [ebðaˈmas] "week"
	otherwise	[p]	πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ππ	everywhere	[p]	κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper"
ρ(ρ)	everywhere	[r ~ ɾ]	κάππαρις [ˈkaparis] "caper"	In free variation.
σ(σ)	everywhere	[s]	τος [tos] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
τ	after vowel or liquid	[d̥]	πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
	after nasal; before voiced obstruent	[d]	άντρας [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
	otherwise	[t]	τος [tos] "the"
ττ	everywhere	[t]	άττα [ˈata] "father"
τσ	everywhere	[ts]	πίτσα [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
τσ̌	everywhere	[tʃ]	τσ̌έττερες [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
τζ		[dz]	τζαντζάρα [dzanˈdzara] "mosquito"
τζ̌		[dʒ]	άντζ̌αρος [ˈandʒaros] "messenger"
υ	after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant	[m]	ενευνάνα [enemˈnana] "ninety"
	after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant	[f]	ταυ [taf] "tau"
	after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise	[v]	μεύος [ˈmevos] "mine"
φ	everywhere	[f]	φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
χ	before front vowel	[ç]	χεμικιός [çemiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
	otherwise	[x]	χάλβα [ˈxalva] "halwa"
χι	before vowel	[ç]	χιούμορ [ˈçumor] "humour"
ψ	everywhere	[ps]	ψουγά [psuˈɣa] "mind"
ψ̌	everywhere	[pʃ]	ψ̌έμαν [ˈpʃemã] "soul"

Vowels

Monophthong Vowels

Letter	IPA	Examples	Remarks
α	[a]	ακρός [aˈɡ̊ros] "field"	Actually closer to [ä].
ε	[e]	βέκος [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread"	Actually closer to [e̞].
αι		βαίνα [ˈvena] "hyena"
ι	[i]	μιδός [miˈðos] "wage"
η		μαθηματικά [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"	In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. τρης [tres] (modern τρες) "three".
υ		φυσικά [fisiˈɡ̊a]	In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. κύγνος (modern κούγνος) /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
ει		είρος [ˈiros] "child"
οι		είροι [ˈiri] "children"
υι		μυίασις [ˈmiasis] "myiasis"	Very rare.
ο	[o]	όνομαν [ˈonomã] "name"	Actually closer to [o̞].
ω		πρώτος [ˈprod̥os] "first"
ου	[u]	κούρα [ˈkura] "girl"	Often written ȣ in older texts.

Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible:

Diphthongs

offglide→ nucleus↓	ι /i/	η /i/	υ /i/	ου /u/
α /a/	αϊ (άι)	αη	αϋ (άυ)	αου
ε /e/	εϊ (έι)	εη	εϋ (έυ)	εου
ο /o/	οϊ (όι)	οη	οϋ (όυ)	οου
ω /o/	ωι	ωη	ωυ	ωου

Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.

When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.

A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.

A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.

When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.

When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Latin orthography

Consonants

Consonants

Letter	Context	IPA	Examples	Remarks
b	after vowel or liquid	[b̥]	kitáb [ciˈtab̥] "book"
	after nasal; before voiced obstruent	[b]	kámba [ˈkamba] "worm"; ebďamás [ebðaˈmas] "week"
c	everywhere	[ts]	píca [ˈpitsa] "pizza"
č	everywhere	[tʃ]	čéteres [ˈtʃeteres] "four"
d	after vowel or liquid	[d̥]	pródos [ˈprod̥os] "first"
	after nasal; before voiced obstruent	[d]	ándras [ˈandras] "(adult) man"
ď	everywhere	[ð]	ďúra [ˈðura] "door"

Vowels

Monophthong Vowels

Letter	IPA	Examples	Remarks
a	[a]	agrós [aˈɡ̊ros] "field"	Actually closer to [ä].
e	[e]	végos [ˈveɡ̊os] "bread"; véna [ˈvena] "hyena"	Actually closer to [e̞].
ι	[i]	miďós [miˈðos] "wage"; maťimadigá [maθimad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"; fisigá [fisiˈɡ̊a]; íri [ˈiri] "children"; míasis [ˈmiasis] "myiasis"
ο	[o]	ónoman [ˈonomã] "name"; pródos [ˈprod̥os] "first"	Actually closer to [o̞].
u	[u]	kúra [ˈkura] "girl"

Diphthongs and hiatus

Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.

The following falling diphthongs are possible: ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou.

Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.

Stress

Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.

When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.

Cases

Nouns are declined for three cases:

• Nominative
• Genitive
• Oblique

The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.

Stress

Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.

There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.

Citation form

The citation form for most nouns is: nominative singular, genitive singular.

First declension (a-stems)

First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

First declension endings

Case	Singular			Plural
	M	F	N	M	F	N
Nominative	-ας	-α		-αι		-α
Genitive	-ας			-αν
Oblique	-αν		-α	-αις		-α

Second declension (o-stems)

Feminine declension nouns are rare.

The endings are as follows:

Second declension endings

Case	Singular		Plural
	M/F	N	M/F	N
Nominative	-ος	-ο	-οι	-α
Genitive	-ους		-ουν
Oblique	-ουν	-ο	-οις	-α

Third declension

There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.

Consonant stems

Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in -ας (masc./fem.) or -α (neut.).

Consonant stem endings

Case	Singular		Plural
	M/F	N	M/F	N
Nominative	-ας/-/...	-α/-/...	-ες	-α
Genitive	-ους		-ουν
Oblique	-αν	-α/-/...	-ες	-α

i-stems

Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.

i-stem endings

Case	Singular		Plural
	M/F	N	M/F	N
Nominative	-ις/...	-ι/-ος/...	-ες	-ια
Genitive	-ιους		-ιουν
Oblique	-ιν	-ι/-ος/...	-ες	-ια

Mixed stems

Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but -ι- is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.

Mixed stem endings

Case	Singular		Plural
	M/F	N	M/F	N
Nominative	-ις/...	-ι/...	-ες	-α
Genitive	-ους		-ουν
Oblique	-ιν	-ι/...	-ες	-α

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.

First and second person pronouns

	Nominative		Genitive		Oblique		Possessive
	Strong	Weak	Strong	Weak	Strong	Weak
1S	εγιού	γιου	εμεύ	μευ	εμέ	με	μευός, -ά, -ό
2S	ετού	του	ετεύ	τευ	ετέ	τε	τευός, -ά, -ό
1P	ενές	νες	ενιούν	νω	ενές	νω	νωμός, -ά, -ό
3P	εβές	βες	εβιούν	βω	εβές	βω	βωμός, -ά, -ό

Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:

• Strong: απθός, -ά, -ό
• Weak: θος, -α, -ο
• Reflexive: βαπθός, -ά, -ό

Definite article/pronoun

Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: τος, τα, το.

Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.

Indefinite pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with κ-.

Relative pronoun

Declined as the definite pronoun with initial τ- replaced with γι-.

Demonstrative pronouns

• Near demonstrative: σεμός, -ά, -ό
  • First/second declension
• Middle demonstrative: σις, σα, σι, σους
  • First/third declension (mixed stem)
• Far demonstrative: τόττος, -α, -ο
  • First/second declension

These can be used with a following noun or on their own.

Adjectives

First/second declension

Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

This is the most common class of adjectives.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular.

First/third declension

Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular.

First declension

Declined as first declension in all genders.

The citation form is masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Second declension

Declined as second declension in all genders.

This class of adjectives is rare.

The citation form is masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular.

Third declension

Declined as third declension in all genders.

The citation form is normally masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular

The exceptions are the numerals "three" and "four", who do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural.

Usage

Adjectives can be used in the following ways:

1. Attributive: In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
2. Predicative: Used as a predicate.
3. Substantive: Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.

Numerals

Phrygian numerals

	Cardinal	Ordinal	Adverbial	Collective
0	ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματένα, ματένους	ματενάνος, -α, -ο	—	—
1	ένας (εις), μια, ένα, ένους	πρώτος, -α, -ο	άπαχ	μονάς, -άτους
2	τφω	τφέτερος, -α, -ο	τφις	τφάς, -άτους
3	τρες, τρια	τρίτος, -α, -ο	τρις	τριας, -άτους
4	τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα	τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο	τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις	τσ̌ετράς
5	πίντζε	πίντος, -α, -ο	πίγκιάτζ̌ις	πιντάς, -άτους
6	βεχ	βέκθος, -α, -ο	βεξάτζ̌ις
7	επθάν	έπδαμος, -α, -ο	εμμάτζ̌ις
8	οκθών	όκδουος, -α, -ο	οκθώτζ̌ις
9	ενιάν	ένιανος, -α, -ο	ενευνάτζ̌ις
10	τέκαν	τέκανος, -α, -ο	τεκανάτζ̌ις
11	ένεκαν	ενέκανος
12	τφώτεκαν	τφωτέκανος
13	τρίτεκαν
14	τσ̌ετέρτεκαν
15	πίντεκαν	πιντέκανος
16	βέκθεκαν
17	επθάνεκαν
18	οκθώνεκαν
19	ενιάνεκαν
20	βίκιανι	βικιοττός
21	ένας τσ̌ε βίκιανι
30	τριάνα	τριαττός
40	τσ̌ετράνα
50	πιγκιάνα
60	βεξάνα
70	εμμάνα
80	οκθώνα
90	ενευνάνα
100	εκανόυν
200	τφακιάνιοι
300	τριακιάνιοι
400	τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι
500	πιγκιακιάνιοι
600	βεξακιάνιοι
700	εμμακιάνιοι
800	οκθωκιάνιοι
900	ενευνακιάνιοι
1000	ζέλλια
2000	τφω ζέλλιαι