Thezhmic

Thezhmic (/ˈθɛʒmɪk/, Native: Ŧəźmikós /θəʒmiˈkos/, Liźḗnom /liˈʒeːnom/) is an Indo-European language.

Thezhmic
Ŧəźmikós
Pronunciation	[θəʒmiˈkós]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Thezhmic
Early form	Proto-Thezhmic

Phonology

Orthography

Thezhmic is written with the Thezhmic alphabet.

In this article, the following romanization is used:

Thezhmic romanization

Letter	IPA	Remarks
A a	a
Ā ā	aː
B b	b
C c	tʃ
D d	d
Đ đ	ð
E e	e
Ē ē	eː
Ə ə	ə
Ə̃ ə̃	ə̃
F f	f
G g	ɡ
Ġ ġ	ʁ
H h	h
Ħ ħ	ħ
I i	i
Ī ī	iː
J j	dʒ
K k	k
L l	l
M m	m
N n	n
O o	o
Ō ō	oː
P p	p
Q q	q
R r	r
S s	s
Ś ś	ʃ
T t	t
Ŧ ŧ	θ
U u	u
Ū ū	uː
Ũ ũ	ũ
V v	v
W w	w
X x	χ
Y y	j
Z z	z
Ź ź	ʒ
Ɂ ɂ (ʔ)	ʔ	Not written word-initially.
Ҁ ҁ (ʕ)	ʕ

Consonants

Thezhmic consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal		m	n			(ɲ)	(ŋ)	(ɴ)
Stop	voiceless	p	t				k	q		ʔ
	voiced	b	d				ɡ
Affricate	voiceless				tʃ
	voiced				dʒ
Fricative	voiceless	f	θ	s	ʃ			χ	ħ	h
	voiced	v	ð	z	ʒ			ʁ	ʕ
Approximant						j	w
Lateral			l			(ʎ)
Trill			r

Vowels

Thezhmic monopthong vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i, iː, (ĩː)¹		u, uː, ũ, (ũː)¹
Mid	e, eː, (ẽː)¹	ə, ə̃	o, oː, (õː)¹
Open		a, aː, (ãː)¹

Notes:

¹ Long nasal vowels are an allophonic pronunciation of long vowels followed by -n- before coronal fricatives.

Any non-nasal vowel can form a falling dipthong with -i and -u (unless it results in a sequence of two identical vowels).

Morphophonology

Syllabicization

Liquids (r, l), nasals (n, m), and glides (y, w) have syllabic counterparts that replace them when required by phonotactics.

Syllabic counterparts

Consonant	Syllabic counterpart
r	ər
l	əl
n	ə̃
m	ũ
y	i
w	u

If none of these consonants are present, a schwa (-ə-) is inserted.

Alternatively, the offending consonant cluster may be simplified through phonetic changes, but this is non-productive and has been reversed in most cases.

Hiatus resolution

When hiatus would occur, it is resolved by inserting an epenthetic consonant. This consonant depends on the vowels.

Nominals

Nouns

Nouns have two stems, which may oray not be identical. The strong stem is used in the nominative, vocative, and accusative while the weak stem is used in the remaining cases. Depending on the noun, the nominative singular (and, for neuter nouns, the vocative and accusative singular) may also be irregular. Additionally, some neuter nouns have an irregular nominative/vocative/accusative plural.

O-stems and ā-stems usually have identical strong and weak stems, while other noun classes are more likely to have multiple stems.

The stems are given in the citation form: nominative singular, (nominative plural), genitive singular

• The nominative plural is used in the citation form when the nominative singular and/or nominative plural is irregular.

O-stems

O-stem declension

Case	Singular		Dual	Plural
	m.	n.	m./n.	m.	n.
Nominative	-os	-om	-ō	-ōs	-ā
Vocative	-e
Accusative	-om			-ons
Instrumental	-ō		-ovom	-ōis
Dative	-ōi			-ovos
Ablative	-ōt
Genitive	-ōs		-oizous	-oizōm
Locative	-ei			-oizu

Examples:

• úlqos, -ōs (m.): wolf
• nizdós, -ōs (m.): nest
• wérjom, -ōs (n.): work

Ā-stems

Ā-stem declension

Case	Singular	Dual	Plural
	f.	f.	f.
Nominative	-ā; -ī¹	-āi; -ī¹	-ās; -īs¹
Vocative	-a; -i¹
Accusative	-ām; -īm¹		-āns; -īns¹
Instrumental	-ā	-āvom	-āvis
Dative	-āi		-āvos
Ablative	-āt
Genitive	-ās	-āzous	-āzōm
Locative	-āi		-āzu

Notes:

¹ Some ā-stem nouns have a strong stem ending in -ī instead of -ā. Such nouns' weak stems end in -y- (which precedes the ā-stem endings). Such nouns may be referred to as "ī/yā-stem nouns".

Examples:

• écwā, -ās (f.): mare
• þōnā́, -ā́s (f.): grain
• ġnā́, -ā́s (f.): woman
• də̃źwā́, -ā́s (f.): tongue
• ulqī́, ulqyā́s (f.): she-wolf

I-stems

I-stem declension

Case	Singular		Dual	Plural
	m./f.	n.	m./f./n.	m./f.	n.
Nominative	-is	-i	-ī	-ēis	-ī
Vocative	-i
Accusative	-im			-ins
Instrumental	-ī		-ivom	-ivis
Dative	-ēi			-ivos
Ablative	-eit
Genitive	-eis		-izous	-izōm
Locative	-ēi			-izu

Examples:

• méntis, mə̃téis (f.): mind, intellect
• móri, ũréis (n.): sea
• hóstis, hostéis (m.): foreigner
• ʕówis, ʕówis (f.): sheep

U-stems

U-stem declension

Case	Singular		Dual	Plural
	m./f.	n.	m./f./n.	m./f.	n.
Nominative	-us	-u	-ū	-ewes	-ū
Vocative	-u
Accusative	-um¹			-uns
Instrumental	-ū		-uvom	-uvis
Dative	-ewei			-uvos
Ablative	-eut
Genitive	-eus		-uzous	-uzōm
Locative	-ēu			-uzu

Notes:

¹ When the accusative would have ended in -Vum (where V represents a vowel), the -u- instead dropped causing the preceding vowel to be lengthened.

Examples:

• jéustus, justéus (m.): taste
• fāźús, fāźéus (m.): arm
• pérkus, pərkéus (m.): oak
• jónu, jnéus (n.): knee

Liquid/nasal-stems

These nouns have stems ending in a liquid (r or l) or a nasal (n or m).

In some cases, the stem-final consonant may vary betwen strong and weak stems - the most common example is an alternation between r and n in neuter nouns.

The following shorthand symbols are used:

• C: represents the stem-final consonant (may be r, l, n, or m).
• S: represents the above consonant's "syllabic" counterpart.
• V: represents the vowel preceding the stem-final consonant (may be e or o).
• L: represents the above vowel's lengthened counterpart (i.e. ē or ō).

Liquid/nasal-stem declension

Case	Singular		Dual	Plural
	m./f.	n.	m./f./n.	m./f.	n.
Nominative	-LC	-S; -VC¹	-VCe	-VCes	-LC
Vocative	-VC
Accusative	-VCũ			-VCə̃s
Instrumental	-Cē²		-Svom; -Cvom³	-Svis; -Cvis³
Dative	-Cei²			-Svos; -Cvos³
Ablative	-Cet²
Genitive	-Ces²		-Cous²	-Cōm²
Locative	-Ci²			-Szu; -Czu³

Notes:

¹ Depending on the noun, the neuter nominative/vocative/accusative singular may end in -S or -VC.

² When a forbidden consonant would result, -ə- is inserted.

³ -S- becomes -C- after a vowel.

'Examples::

• pátēr, patrés (m.): father
• ŧéźōm, ŧəźmés (f.): homeland
• ənómə̃, ənémnes (n.): name
• ścũmṓn, ścũnés (m.): man
• wódər, wédōr, udnés (n.): water
• sṓwəl, saunés (n.): sun

Consonant-stems

Consonant-stem declension

Case	Singular		Dual	Plural
	m./f.	n.	m./f./n.	m./f.	n.
Nominative	-s; (irregular)¹	-	-e	-es	-a; (irregular)¹
Vocative	-
Accusative	-ũ			-ə̃s
Instrumental	-ē		-fom²	-fis²
Dative	-ei			-fos²
Ablative	-et
Genitive	-es		-ous	-ōm
Locative	-i			-su²

Notes:

¹ Often irregular.

² Causes a preceding voiced fricative to devoice.

Examples:

• pṓs, pódes, pedés (m.): foot
• nóqs, nóqtes, néqtes (f.): night
• névos, névōs, névezes (n.): cloud
• mḗns, mḗnzes (m.): moon

Weak stem patterns

Nouns with weak stems that differ from their strong stems tend to follow certain trends. Common ways to derive the weak stem from the strong stem include (note that multiple ways may co-occur):

• Shift of accent from the root to the ending.
• Shortening a long vowel.
• Change of -o- to -e-.
• Dropping the nucleus vowel (usually -o- or -e-).
  • If this results in a forbidden consonant cluster:
    • If one of the consonants in that cluster is a liquid (r, l), a nasal (n, m), or a glide (y, w), it is converted to its syllabic counterpart.
    • Otherwise, the cluster is broken with -ə-.

Note that even if one or more of the above changes are possible, they may not occur in a given noun. Unpredictable changes can also occur.

Adjectives

Adjectives are declined as the noun classes; however, in constrast to the masculine and neuter, the feminine almost always falls under the ā-stem class.

The formation of the feminine generally depends on the masculine and neuter class as per the table below:

Name of adjective class	Masculine and neuter class	Formation of feminine
o/ā-stem	o-stem	masc./neut. weak stem + -ā, -ās
u-stem	u-stem	masc./neut. weak stem + -ewī, -uyās
i-stem	i-stem	masc./neut. weak stem + -ī, -iyās
liquid/nasal-stem	liquid/nasal-stem	masc./neut. weak stem + -Cī, -Cyās¹
consonant-stem	consonant-stem	masc./neut. weak stem + -ī, -(y)ās¹

Notes:

¹ The feminine weak stem may end in a palatalized consonant instead of -y-. However, cases where this would occur have mostly been reversed by anology.

The citation form of adjectives is: masculine singular nominative, neuter singular nominative, (masculine/neuter singular genitive), (feminine singular nominative), (feminine singular genitive).

• The genitive(s) can be dropped when the adjective is declined regularly. This most often happens with ō/ā-stem adjectives.
• The feminine singular nominative is dropped when feminine forms are identical to the masculine. This occurs in a few adjectives (never o/ā-class), the most notable of which are the cardinal numbers 3 and 4.

Like nouns, adjectives have weak stems. These are formed similarly as those of nouns.

Numerals

Number	Cardinal	Ordinal
1	sḗm, sém, smés, smī́, smyā́s	parwós, -óm, -ā́
2	dwṓ, dwṓ, dwā́i	ħánteros, -om, -ā
3	trḗis, trī́, trizṓm	tritós, -óm, -ā́
4	qetwóres, qetwṓr, qeturṓm	qeturtós, -óm, -ā́
5	pénqe, -zōm, -vis	penqtós, -óm, -ā́
6	swéśś, -ōm, -fis	sweśśtós, -óm, -ā́
7	septṹ, -zōm, -fis	septũmós, -óm, -ā́
8	ʕośtṓu, -zōm, -vis	ʕośtowós, -óm, -ā́
9	ənéwə̃, -zōm, -vis	ənewə̃nós, -óm, -ā́
10	décũt, -ōm, -fis	decũtós, -óm, -ā́
20	dwī́conte, -ous, -fom	dwīcũtós, -óm, -ā́
30	trī́cont, -ōm, -fis	trīcũtós, -óm, -ā́
40	qétwarcont, -ōm, -fis	qetwarcontós, -óm, -ā́
50	pénqēcont, -ōm, -fis	penqēcontós, -óm, -ā́
60	swéśścont, -ōm, -fis	sweśścontós, -óm, -ā́
70	septúncont, -ōm, -fis	septuncontós, -óm, -ā́
80	ʕośtṓcont, -ōm, -fis	ʕośtōcontós, -óm, -ā́
90	ənéwancont, -ōm, -fis	ənewancontós, -óm, -ā́
100	cũtóm, -ōs	cũtomós, -óm, -ā́
200	(dwṓ) cũtṓ, (dwóizous) cũtóizous; dwōcũtṓ, -óizous	dwōcũtomós, -óm, -ā́
300	trī́ cũtā́, trizṓm cũtóizōm; trīcũtā́, -óizōm	trīcũtomós, -óm, -ā́
1000	śézlom, śézlōs	śezlomós, -óm, -ā́
2000	(dwṓ) śézlō, (dwóizous) śézloizous; dwōśézlō, -oizous	dwōśezlomós, -óm, -ā́
3000	trī́ śézlā, trizṓm śézloizōm; trīśézlā, -oizōm	trīśezlomós, -óm, -ā́

Note that numbers above 4 do not vary by gender.

Numbers between 5-10 and decades besides 20 take plural inflection. 20 takes dual inflection. Note that the accusative of these numbers is identical to the nominative.

100 and 1000 take singular inflection (with dual/plural used for multiple hundreds/thousands).

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

1st person, 2nd person, and reflexive personal pronouns

Case		First person			Second person			Reflexive
		Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	All numbers
Nominative		ejóm	wḗ	wḗis	tū́	yū́	yū́s	—
Vocative
Accusative	tonic	əmé	anwé	ə̃zmé	twé	ūwé	uzmé	swé
	enclitic	me	nō	nōs	te	wō	wōs	se
Instrumental		əmói	anwḗ	ə̃zmḗ	tói	ūwḗ	uzmḗ	sói
Dative	tonic	əméźi	anwéi	ə̃zméi	tévi	ūwéi	uzméi	sévi
	enclitic	mei	nō	nōs	tei	wō	wōs	sei
Ablative		əmét	anwét	ə̃zmét	twét	ūwét	uzmét	swét
Genitive	tonic	əméne	anwés	ə̃zmés	téwe	ūwés	uzmés	séwe
	enclitic	mei	nō	nōs	tei	wō	wōs	sei
Locative		əmói	anwí	ə̃zmí	tói	ūwí	uzmí	sói
Possessive adjective		əmós, -óm, -ā́	anwós, -óm, -ā́	ə̃zmós, -óm, -ā́	twós, -óm, -ā́	ūwós, -óm, -ā́	uzmós, -óm, -ā́	swós, -óm, -ā́

3rd person pronouns

Case	Singular			Dual		Plural
	m.	n.	f.	m./n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
Nominative	ís	ít	ī́	ī́		ḗis	ī́	ī́s
Vocative	í		í
Accusative	ím		ī́m			íns		ī́ns
Instrumental	ézmē		éśśā	éivom	éśśāvom	éivis		éśśāvis
Dative	ézmei		éśśāi			éivos		éśśāvos
Ablative	ézmet		éśśāt
Genitive	ézmes		éśśās	éizous	éśśāzous	éizōm		éśśāzōm
Locative	ézmi		éśśāi			éizu		éśśāzu

Demonstrative pronouns

There are three demonstratives:

• The neutral demonstrative tos, -ot, -ā "this, that" (declension in the table below).
• The near demonstrative cis, -it, -ī "this" (declined as the third person pronoun is).
• The far demonstrative énos, -ot, -ā "that" (declined as the neutral demonstrative tos).

Declension of the neutral demonstrative tos "this, that"

Case	Singular			Dual		Plural
	m.	n.	f.	m./n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
Nominative	tós	tót	tā́	tṓ	tā́i	tói	tā́	tā́i
Vocative	té		tá
Accusative	tóm		tā́m			tóns		tā́ns
Instrumental	tózmē		tóśśā	tóivom	tóśśāvom	tóivis		tóśśāvis
Dative	tózmei		tóśśāi			tóivos		tóśśāvos
Ablative	tózmet		tóśśāt
Genitive	tózmes		tóśśās	tóizous	tóśśāzous	tóizōm		tóśśāzōm
Locative	tózmi		tóśśāi			tóizu		tóśśāzu

Relative pronoun

The relative pronoun is yós, -ót, -ā́ "that which". It is declined as tos.

Interrogative pronoun

The interrogative pronoun is qís, -ít, -ī́ "who, what". It is declined as is.

Indefinite pronoun

The indefinite pronoun is qós, -ót, -ā́ "someone, something". It is declined as tos.

Other pronouns

• ħályos, -ot, -ā "other, another" (declined as tos)

Verbs

Stems

Verbs have four stems:

• Present stem
• Future stem
• Perfect stem
• Neutral stem

Each of these stems may have strong and weak variants.

The first three stems are given by the principle parts. The neutral stem can be derived from the present or future stem by the following rules:

1. If one of the two stems is derived from the other by adding something (a suffix, infix, prefix, etc.), the simpler stem (i.e. the one that does not have the addition) is used.
2. If the stems are suppletive, the perfect stem is used.

Regardless of which stem is used, the neutral stem inherits both the strong and weak variants from its parent stem.

Principal parts

The principal parts are:

• The 1S present indicative
• The 1P present indicative (if the present weak stem is different than the strong stem)
• The 1S future indicative
• The 1P future indicative (if the future weak stem is different than the strong stem)
• The 1S perfect indicative
• The 1P perfect indicative (if the perfect weak stem is different than the strong stem)

For example, the citation form of the verb "to be" is ézmi, əzmés, fū́mi, fevū́ħa. Note that the 1P future and perfect forms are excluded since the weak stems are identical to the corresponding strong stems.

Tenses

The following simple tenses/moods exist:

• Based on the present stem:
  • Present indicative: Expresses an action/state that is ongoing or that is done habitually.
  • Present subjunctive: Expresses an ongoing hypothetical or counterfactual action/state. It is also used as the negative counterpart to the durative imperative.
  • Imperfect: Expresses an ongoing or habitual action/state in the past.
  • Presumptive: Expresses an action/state that is presumed to be ongoing.
  • Durative imperative: Expresses a command or request to do something continuously or to continue to do it.
• Based on the future stem:
  • Future indicative: Expresses an action/state in the future. It is also used as a present tense in narratives.
  • Future subjunctive: Expresses a hypothetical or counterfactual action/state that has not yet occurred.
  • Gnomic: Expresses general truths. It is also used as a past tense in narratives.
  • Jussive: Expresses a request or encouragement for an action to be performed (less emphatic than the imperative). It is also used as the negative counterpart of the simple imperative.
  • Simple imperative: Expresses a request or command for an action to be performed.
• Based on the perfect stem:
  • Perfect indicative: Expresses a simple action in the past.
  • Perfect subjunctive: Expresses a hypothetical action in the past.
  • Conditional: Expresses a counterfactual action/state in the past, or an action/state whose validity is dependent on such a condition.

Stem patterns

When it comes to stems, there are three patterns depending on the tense:

• Pattern 1 (mixed stem): Strong stem in the singular, secondary stem in the plural and impersonal.
  • Indicative tenses follow this pattern.
• Pattern 2 (strong stem): Strong stem throughout the tense.
  • Subjunctive tenses follow this pattern.
• Pattern 3 (weak stem): Weak stem throughout the tense.
  • Non-indicative tenses that are not subjunctive follow this pattern.

Voice

There are three voices that are indicated by conjugation:

1. Active:
   • This is the default form of a verb.
   • The verb agrees with the subject who does the action.
2. Middle:
   • It can have anticausative or autocausative meanings.
   • With intransitive verbs, it often has an autobenefactive meaning. There may be special connotations for specific verbs.
3. Passive:
   • The verb agrees with the patient on which the action is done.
   • With intransitive verbs, it often implies that an action occurred without volition/intent. There may be special connotations for specific verbs.

Stress

In verbs, stress is usually on the stem.

However, some athematic verbs take stress on the ending whenever the weak stem is used. This stress in always on the final syllable of the verb except in 3P forms ending in -enti, in which case the stress is on the penultimate syllable (i.e. -énti).

In partiples, infinitives, and other derived nouns/adjectives, such verbs take stress on the case endings except in the primary stems of active participles, which take stress on the first syllable of the derivational ending.

In all cases, the stress patterns can easily be identified from the principal parts.

Verb conjugation

Verb classes

There are two main classes of verbs.

1. Athematic verbs - These are classified into three sub-classes:
   1. Long vowel stems: Strong and weak stems are identical and end in a long vowel.
   2. Short vowel stems: The weak stem (and maybe also the strong stem) ends in a short vowel.
   3. Consonant stems: These have a stem that ends in a consonant - most perfect stems and a few other stems fall in this class.
2. Thematic verbs - The majority of verbs fall under this class (except in the perfect). There are subclasses of thematic verbs depending on the formation of the various stems.

Note that it is possible for the different stems of a single verb to be in different classes or sub-classes.

Forms based on the present stem

The following tenses are based on the present stem:

Forms based on the present stem

Form	Stem type
Present indicative	Mixed
Present subjunctive	Strong
Imperfect	Mixed
Presumptive	Weak
Durative imperative	Weak
Present participles	Weak

The endings are as follows:

Conjugation of active present-stem forms

Present active participle					-nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās			-nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās
Person/ Number	Present indicative		Present subjunctive		Imperfect		Presumptive		Durative imperative
1S	-(ũ)mi	-ō	-(ʕ)ōmi		-ũ/m	-om	-yem/īm	-oyem	-(ũ)mu	-omu
2S	-zi/si/əzi	-ezi	-(ʔ)ēzi		-(ə)s	-es	-is/īs	-ois	-đi/ŧi/əđi	-eđi
3S	-(ə)ti	-eti	-(ʔ)ēti		-(ə)t	-et	-it/īt	-oit	-(ə)tu	-etu
1D	-(u)wes	-owes	-(ʕ)ōwes		-(u)we	-owe	-iwe/īwe	-oiwe	-(u)weu	-oweu
2D	-(ə)tons	-etons	-(ʔ)ētons		-(ə)tom	-etom	-itom/ītom	-oitom	-(ə)tonđi	-etonđi
3D	-(ə)tāns	-etāns	-(ʔ)ētāns		-(ə)tām	-etām	-itām/ītām	-oitām	-(ə)tāmu	-etāmu
1P	-(ũ)mes	-omes	-(ʕ)ōmes		-(ũ)me	-ome	-ime/īme	-oime	-(ũ)meu	-omeu
2P	-(ə)tes	-etes	-(ʔ)ētes		-(ə)te	-ete	-ite/īte	-oite	-(ə)teđi	-eteđi
3P	-nti/enti	-onti	-(ʕ)ōnti		-nt/ent	-ont	-yent/īnt	-oyent	-ntu/entu	-ontu
IMP	-(ə)ri	-ori	-(ʕ)ōri		-(ə)r	-or	-yer/īr	-oyer	-(ə)ru	-oru

Conjugation of middle present-stem forms

Present middle participle					-mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā			-omnos, -omnom, -omnā
Person/ Number	Present indicative		Present subjunctive		Imperfect		Presumptive		Durative imperative
1S	-(ũ)mazi	-omazi	-(ʕ)ōmazi		-(ũ)mas	-omas	-yemas/īmas	-oyemas	-(ũ)mazu	-omazu
2S	-(ə)stazi	-estazi	-(ʔ)ēstazi		-(ə)stas	-estas	-istas/īstas	-oistas	-zos/sos/əzos	-ezos
3S	-(ə)tozi	-etozi	-(ʔ)ētozi		-(ə)tos	-etos	-itos/ītos	-oitos	-(ə)tozu	-etozu
1D	-(u)westas	-owestas	-(ʕ)ōwestas		-(u)weđas	-oweđas	-iweđas/īweđas	-oiweđas	-(u)weđazu	-oweđazu
2D	-(ə)tonstas	-etonstas	-(ʔ)ētonstas		-(ə)tonđas	-etonđas	-itonđas/ītonđas	-oitonđas	-(ə)tonđazu	-etonđazu
3D	-(ə)tānstas	-etānstas	-(ʔ)ētānstas		-(ə)tānđas	-etānđas	-itānđas/ītānđas	-oitānđas	-(ə)tānđazu	-etānđazu
1P	-(ũ)mestas	-omestas	-(ʕ)ōmestas		-(ũ)međas	-omeđas	-īmeđas/īmeđas	-oimeđas	-(ũ)međazu	-omeđazu
2P	-(ə)testas	-etestas	-(ʔ)ētestas		-(ə)teđas	-eteđas	-iteđas/īteđas	-oiteđas	-đwes/ŧwes/əđwes	-eđwes
3P	-ntozi/entozi	-ontozi	-(ʕ)ōntozi		-ntos/entos	-ontos	-yentos/īntos	-oyentos	-ntozu/entozu	-ontozu

Conjugation of passive present-stem forms

Present passive participle					-(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā			-etos, -etom, -etā
Person/ Number	Present indicative		Present subjunctive		Imperfect		Presumptive		Durative imperative
1S	-(ũ)mar	-omar	-(ʕ)ōmar		-(ũ)ma	-oma	-yema/īma	-oyema	-(ũ)mau	-omau
2S	-(ə)star	-estar	-(ʔ)ēstar		-(ə)sta	-esta	-ista/īsta	-oista	-zo/so/əzo	-ezo
3S	-(ə)tor	-etor	-(ʔ)ētor		-(ə)to	-eto	-ito/īto	-oito	-(ə)tou	-etou
1D	-(u)westa	-owesta	-(ʕ)ōwesta		-(u)weđa	-oweđa	-iweđa/īweđa	-oiweđa	-(u)weđau	-oweđau
2D	-(ə)tonsta	-etonsta	-(ʔ)ētonsta		-(ə)tonđa	-etonđa	-itonđa/ītonđa	-oitonđa	-(ə)tonđau	-etonđau
3D	-(ə)tānsta	-etānsta	-(ʔ)ētānsta		-(ə)tānđa	-etānđa	-itānđa/ītānđa	-oitānđa	-(ə)tānđau	-etānđau
1P	-(ũ)mesta	-omesta	-(ʕ)ōmesta		-(ũ)međa	-omeđa	-īmeđa/īmeđa	-oimeđa	-(ũ)međau	-omeđau
2P	-(ə)testa	-etesta	-(ʔ)ētesta		-(ə)teđa	-eteđa	-iteđa/īteđa	-oiteđa	-đwe/ŧwe/əđwe	-eđwe
3P	-ntor/entor	-ontor	-(ʕ)ōntor		-nto/ento	-onto	-yento/īnto	-oyento	-ntou/entou	-ontou

Notes:

1. Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
2. When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.

Forms based on the future stem

The following tenses are based on the future stem:

Forms based on the future stem

Form	Stem type
Future indicative	Mixed
Future subjunctive	Strong
Gnomic	Mixed
Jussive	Weak
Simple imperative	Weak
Future participles	Weak

The endings are as follows:

Conjugation of active future-stem forms

Future active participle					-nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ə̃tes, -ntī/ə̃tī, -ntyās/ə̃tyās			-nts/onts, -nt/ont, -ntes/ontes, -ntī/ontī, -ntyās/ontyās
Person/ Number	Future indicative		Future subjunctive		Gnomic		Jussive		Simple imperative
1S	-(ũ)mi	-ō	-(ʕ)ōmi		-ũ/m	-om	-yem/īm	-oyem	-(ũ)mu	-omu
2S	-zi/si/əzi	-ezi	-(ʔ)ēzi		-(ə)s	-es	-is/īs	-ois	-đi/ŧi/əđi	-eđi
3S	-(ə)ti	-eti	-(ʔ)ēti		-(ə)t	-et	-it/īt	-oit	-(ə)tu	-etu
1D	-(u)wes	-owes	-(ʕ)ōwes		-(u)we	-owe	-iwe/īwe	-oiwe	-(u)weu	-oweu
2D	-(ə)tons	-etons	-(ʔ)ētons		-(ə)tom	-etom	-itom/ītom	-oitom	-(ə)tonđi	-etonđi
3D	-(ə)tāns	-etāns	-(ʔ)ētāns		-(ə)tām	-etām	-itām/ītām	-oitām	-(ə)tāmu	-etāmu
1P	-(ũ)mes	-omes	-(ʕ)ōmes		-(ũ)me	-ome	-ime/īme	-oime	-(ũ)meu	-omeu
2P	-(ə)tes	-etes	-(ʔ)ētes		-(ə)te	-ete	-ite/īte	-oite	-(ə)teđi	-eteđi
3P	-nti/enti	-onti	-(ʕ)ōnti		-nt/ent	-ont	-yent/īnt	-oyent	-ntu/entu	-ontu
IMP	-(ə)ri	-ori	-(ʕ)ōri		-(ə)r	-or	-yer/īr	-oyer	-(ə)ru	-oru

Conjugation of middle future-stem forms

Future middle participle					-mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā			-omnos, -omnom, -omnā
Person/ Number	Present indicative		Present subjunctive		Imperfect		Presumptive		Durative imperative
1S	-(ũ)mazi	-omazi	-(ʕ)ōmazi		-(ũ)mas	-omas	-yemas/īmas	-oyemas	-(ũ)mazu	-omazu
2S	-(ə)stazi	-estazi	-(ʔ)ēstazi		-(ə)stas	-estas	-istas/īstas	-oistas	-zos/sos/əzos	-ezos
3S	-(ə)tozi	-etozi	-(ʔ)ētozi		-(ə)tos	-etos	-itos/ītos	-oitos	-(ə)tozu	-etozu
1D	-(u)westas	-owestas	-(ʕ)ōwestas		-(u)weđas	-oweđas	-iweđas/īweđas	-oiweđas	-(u)weđazu	-oweđazu
2D	-(ə)tonstas	-etonstas	-(ʔ)ētonstas		-(ə)tonđas	-etonđas	-itonđas/ītonđas	-oitonđas	-(ə)tonđazu	-etonđazu
3D	-(ə)tānstas	-etānstas	-(ʔ)ētānstas		-(ə)tānđas	-etānđas	-itānđas/ītānđas	-oitānđas	-(ə)tānđazu	-etānđazu
1P	-(ũ)mestas	-omestas	-(ʕ)ōmestas		-(ũ)međas	-omeđas	-īmeđas/īmeđas	-oimeđas	-(ũ)međazu	-omeđazu
2P	-(ə)testas	-etestas	-(ʔ)ētestas		-(ə)teđas	-eteđas	-iteđas/īteđas	-oiteđas	-đwes/ŧwes/əđwes	-eđwes
3P	-ntozi/entozi	-ontozi	-(ʕ)ōntozi		-ntos/entos	-ontos	-yentos/īntos	-oyentos	-ntozu/entozu	-ontozu

Conjugation of passive future-stem forms

Future passive participle					-(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā			-omnos, -omnom, -omnā
Person/ Number	Future indicative		Future subjunctive		Gnomic		Jussive		Simple imperative
1S	-(ũ)mar	-omar	-(ʕ)ōmar		-(ũ)ma	-oma	-yema/īma	-oyema	-(ũ)mau	-omau
2S	-(ə)star	-estar	-(ʔ)ēstar		-(ə)sta	-esta	-ista/īsta	-oista	-zo/so/əzo	-ezo
3S	-(ə)tor	-etor	-(ʔ)ētor		-(ə)to	-eto	-ito/īto	-oito	-(ə)tou	-etou
1D	-(u)westa	-owesta	-(ʕ)ōwesta		-(u)weđa	-oweđa	-iweđa/īweđa	-oiweđa	-(u)weđau	-oweđau
2D	-(ə)tonsta	-etonsta	-(ʔ)ētonsta		-(ə)tonđa	-etonđa	-itonđa/ītonđa	-oitonđa	-(ə)tonđau	-etonđau
3D	-(ə)tānsta	-etānsta	-(ʔ)ētānsta		-(ə)tānđa	-etānđa	-itānđa/ītānđa	-oitānđa	-(ə)tānđau	-etānđau
1P	-(ũ)mesta	-omesta	-(ʕ)ōmesta		-(ũ)međa	-omeđa	-īmeđa/īmeđa	-oimeđa	-(ũ)međau	-omeđau
2P	-(ə)testa	-etesta	-(ʔ)ētesta		-(ə)teđa	-eteđa	-iteđa/īteđa	-oiteđa	-đwe/ŧwe/əđwe	-eđwe
3P	-ntor/entor	-ontor	-(ʕ)ōntor		-nto/ento	-onto	-yento/īnto	-oyento	-ntou/entou	-ontou

Notes:

1. Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
2. When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.

Forms based on the perfect stem

The following tenses are based on the perfect stem:

Forms based on the perfect stem

Form	Stem type
Perfect indicative	Mixed
Perfect subjunctive	Strong
Conditional	Weak
Perfect participles	Weak

The endings are as follows:

Conjugation of active perfect-stem forms

Perfect active participle		-(u)wōs, -(u)wos, -uzes, -uzī, -uzyās
Person/ Number	Perfect indicative	Perfect subjunctive	Conditional
1S	-(ħ)a	-(ʕ)ō	-yem/īm
2S	-(ə)ta	-zi/ezi	-is/īs
3S	-(ʔ)e	-ti/eti	-it/īt
1D	-(u)we	-wes/owes	-iwe/īwe
2D	-(ə)tom	-tons/etons	-itom/ītom
3D	-(ə)tām	-tāns/etāns	-itām/ītām
1P	-(ũ)me	-mes/omes	-ime/īme
2P	-(ə)te	-tes/etes	-ite/īte
3P	-nt/ent	-nti/onti	-yent/īnt
IMP	-(ʔ)ēr	-ri/ori	-yer/īr

Conjugation of middle perfect-stem forms

Perfect passive participle		-mnos/umnos, -mnom/umnom, -mnā/umnā
Person/ Number	Perfect indicative	Perfect subjunctive	Conditional
1S	-(ũ)mas	-(ʕ)ōzi	-yemas/īmas
2S	-(ə)stas	-stazi/estazi	-istas/īstas
3S	-(ə)tos	-tozi/etozi	-itos/ītos
1D	-(u)weđas	-westas/owestas	-iweđas/īweđas
2D	-(ə)tonđas	-tonstas/etonstas	-itonđas/ītonđas
3D	-(ə)tānđas	-tānstas/etānstas	-itānđas/ītānđas
1P	-(ũ)međas	-mestas/omestas	-imeđas/īmeđas
2P	-(ə)teđas	-testas/etestas	-iteđas/īteđas
3P	-ntos/entos	-ntozi/ontozi	-yentos/īntos

Conjugation of passive perfect-stem forms

Perfect passive participle		-(ə)tos, -(ə)tom, -(ə)tā
Person/ Number	Perfect indicative	Perfect subjunctive	Conditional
1S	-(ũ)ma	-(ʕ)ōr	-yema/īma
2S	-(ə)sta	-star/estar	-ista/īsta
3S	-(ə)to	-tor/etor	-ito/īto
1D	-(u)weđa	-westa/owesta	-iweđa/īweđa
2D	-(ə)tonđa	-tonsta/etonsta	-itonđa/ītonđa
3D	-(ə)tānđa	-tānsta/etānsta	-itānđa/ītānđa
1P	-(ũ)međa	-mesta/omesta	-imeđa/īmeđa
2P	-(ə)teđa	-testa/etesta	-iteđa/īteđa
3P	-nto/ento	-ntor/ontor	-yento/īnto

Notes:

1. Phonemes in brackets are inserted after consonant clusters when phonotactically necessary (if a vowel) or after vowels (if a consonant).
2. When two endings are given separated by a slash, they are used after vowels and after consonants respectively. If a third is also given, it is used after consonant clusters.

Forms based on the neutral stem

All forms based on the neutral stem are non-finite.

Forms based on the neutral stem

Form	Stem type	Ending		Usage	Example
Abstract noun (feminine)	Mixed	-(ə)tis, -(ə)teis	-etis, -eteis	Denotes an abstract state of the verb being performed or having been performed. It can also have meanings extended from this.	dṓtis, dotéis "givingness, generosity"; fū́tis, fūtéis "existence, essence, being, nature"; méntis, mə̃téis "thinkingness, rationality; thought"; féretis, féreteis "state of carrying/being carried"
Action noun (masculine)	Mixed	-(ə)tus, -(ə)teus	-etus, -eteus	Denotes an action/state, similar to the English gerund. It can also have secondary meanings extended from this.	dṓtus, dotéus "(the act of) giving"; fū́tus, fūtéus "(the act of) becoming"; féretus, féreteus "(the act of) carrying"; méntus, mə̃téus "(the act of) thinking"; jéustus, justéus "(the act of) tasting; taste"
Instance noun (feminine)	Weak	-(ə)twā, -(ə)twās	-etwā, -etwās	Denotes an instance of an action/state	dotwā́, dotwā́s "an instance of giving"; fūtwā́, -s "an instance of being/becoming/coming into being"; mə̃twā́, -s "an instance of thinking; an individual thought"; féretwā, -s "an instance of carrying"
Stative participle	Weak	-(ə)nos, -(ə)nom, -(ə)nā	-enos, -enom, -enā	Describes someone/something that is in a state resulting from an action being performed, with an implication of a lack of volition/agency.	donós, -óm, -ā́ "(having been) given (something)"; fūnós, -óm, -ā́ "existing"; férenos, -om, -ā "carried"
Agent noun (masc.)	Weak	-(ə)tēr, -(ə)teres, -tres	-etēr, -eteres, -etres	Denotes the masculine performer of an action (where the verb would be expressed in the active voice).	dotḗr, dotéres, dotrés "giver (m.)"; fūtḗr, fūtéres, fūtrés "he who becomes/is (something)"; féretēr, -teres, -tres "carrier (m.)"
Agent noun (fem.)	Weak	-(ə)trī, -(ə)təryās	-etrī, -təryās	The feminine equivalent of the masculine agent noun.	dotrī́, dotəryā́s "giver (f.)"; fūtrī́, fūtəryā́s "she who becomes/is (something)"; féretrī, -təryās "carrier (f.)"
Agent noun (neut.)	Mixed	-(ə)tər, -(ə)tōr, -tres	-etər, -etōr, -etres	The neuter equivalent of the masculine agent noun.	dṓtər, dṓtōr, dotrés "that which gives"; fū́tər, fū́tōr, fūtrés "that which becomes/is (something)"; féretər, féretōr, féretres "that which carries; vehicle"
Patient noun (masc.)	Weak	-(ũ)mēn, -(ũ)menes, -mnes/ũnes	-omēn, -omenes, -omnes	Denotes the masculine patient an action is performed on or, equivalently, the "doer" of a middle- or passive-voice verb.	domḗn, -ménes, -mnés "he who is given (to someone)"; fūmḗn, -ménes, -mnés "he who exists; male being"; féromēn, -menes, -mnes "he who is carried"
Patient noun (fem.)	Weak	-mnī/ũnī, -mnyās/ũnyās	-omnī, -omnyās	The feminine equivalent of the masculine patient noun.	domnī́, -mnyā́s "she who is given (to someone)"; fūmnī́, fūmnyā́s "she who exists; female being"; féromnī, -mnyās "she who is carried"
Patient noun (neut.)	Mixed	-(ũ)mə̃, -(ũ)mōn, -mnes/ũnes	-omə̃, -omōn, -omnes	The neuter equivalent of the masculine patient noun.	dṓmə̃, dṓmōn, domnés "that which is given (to someone)"; fū́mə̃, fū́mōn, fūmnés "that which is; thing"; ménmə̃, ménmōn, mə̃mnés "that which is thought; belief, understanding"; féromə̃, -mōn, -mnes "that which is carried"

Notes:

1. In non-finite forms, "mixed" stem means that the strong stem is used in the nominative, vocative, and accusative, and the weak stem is used in other cases.
2. The forms in the above table can be formed from any verb and have predictable meaning (although there may be unpredictable secondary meanings). Besides the above forms, there are many other nouns and adjectives that can be derived from verbs through various suffixes. However, they may not apply to all verbs and the meanings are often unpredictable.

Special verbs

• Deponent verbs: These verbs take passive forms despite being active in meaning.
• The verb "to be":
  • In the passive, it means "to exist".
  • In the middle, it means "to become, to make oneself" or, by extension, "to act as" or even "to pretend to be".
  • Forms based on the non-present stems usually have an inchoative meaning (i.e."to become").

Particles

Adverbs

Nominal Adverbs

Nominal adverbs are adverbs that are transparently derived from nouns or adjectives.

They may be derived from any case other than the nominative and vocative, or through the use of other suffixes.

Primary adverbs

These are adverbs that are not transparently derived from nouns or adjectives.

Conjunctions

• me "and"
  • Joins nominals.
• -qe "and"
  • Joins nominals, following every word being joined except the first. For extra emphasis, it can also follow the first word. It implies a closer relationship than me does.
• ħau "and"
  • Joins clauses.
• -we "or"
  • Takes the same position as -qe.

Syntax

Constituent order

Word order is free, but the default/unmarked order is SOV.

Noun phrase

Modifiers precede the noun by default, but they can alternatively follow the noun.