Plevian

Plevian (native: pleviano, sa dengua pleviana) is an Italic language descended from Old Latin.

Plevian
sa dengua pleviana
Pronunciation	[sa ˈdeŋɡʷa pleˈvʲana; sa ˈðeŋɡʷa ɸleˈvʲana]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latin Plevian
Early forms	Old Latin Old Plevian

Phonology

Orthography

Plevian orthography

Grapheme	Environment	IPA	Remarks
a	everywhere	a
b	everywhere	b	May be pronounced [β] in leniting environments.
c	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩	tʃ	May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally	k	May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
ch	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩	k
ci	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩	tʃ	May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
	otherwise	tʃi
cj	before a consonant; word-finally	tʃ	May be pronounced [ʃ] in leniting environments.
d	everywhere	d	May be pronounced [ð] in leniting environments.
dz	everywhere	dz	May be pronounced [z] in leniting environments.
e	everywhere	e
f	everywhere	f
g	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨y⟩, or vocalic ⟨i⟩	dʒ	May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, or ⟨u⟩; before a consonant; word-finally	ɡ	May be pronounced [ɣ] in leniting environments.
gh	before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, or ⟨y⟩	ɡ
gi	before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩, or ⟨e⟩	dʒ	May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
	otherwise	dʒi
gj	before a consonant; word-finally	dʒ	May be pronounced [ʒ] in leniting environments.
gu	before vowels	ɡw	May be pronounced [w] in leniting environments.
	otherwise	ɡu
h	all	χ
i	before vowels	j
	otherwise	i
j	everywhere	j
k	in loanwords	k	May be pronounced [x] in leniting environments.
l	everywhere	l
li	before vowels	ʎ
	otherwise	li
m	everywhere	m
n	everywhere	n
ni	before vowels	ɲ
	otherwise	ni
o	everywhere	o
p	everywhere	p	May be pronounced [ɸ] in leniting environments.
qu	everywhere	kw	May be pronounced [xʷ] in leniting environments. Doubled as ⟨cqu⟩.
r	everywhere	r
s	between vowels; before voiced consonants	z	The [s~z] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
	otherwise	s	The combination /stʃ/ is often pronounced [ʃː].
t	everywhere	t	May be pronounced [θ] in leniting environments.
u	before vowels	w	After a consonant, usually pronounced as labialization [ʷ].
	otherwise	u
v	everywhere	v
w	in loanwords	ɡw	May be pronounced [w] between vowels.
x	before vowels; before voiced consonants	ʒ	The [ʃ~ʒ] allophony is optional in word-initial position, and tends to co-occur with stop lenition.
	otherwise	ʃ
xi	between vowels	ʒ
	before vowels otherwise	ʃ
	otherwise	ʃi~ʒi	See above for allophony.
y	in loanwords before vowels	j
	in loanwords otherwise	i
z	everywhere	ts	May be pronounced [s] in leniting environments.

Consonants

Plevian consonant phonemes

		Labial	Alveolar	Postalveolar/ Palatal	Velar/ Guttural
Nasal		m	n	(ɲ)1	(ŋ)2
Stop	voiceless	p	t		k
	voiced	b	d		ɡ
Affricate	voiceless		ts	tʃ
	voiced		dz	dʒ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ	χ
	voiced	v	(z)3	(ʒ)3
Approximant				j	w
Lateral			l	(ʎ)1
Trill			r

Notes:

¹ [ɲ] and [ʎ] are surface realizations of underlying /nj/ and /lj/ respectively.

² [ŋ] is an allophone of /n/ before velars.

³ [z] and [ʒ] are allophones of /s/ and /ʃ/ respectively between vowels and before voiced sounds.

⁴ Most consonants can be labialized and/or palatalized. However, these are considered to be sequences of consonant + /w/ or /j/ respectively.

Vowels

Plevian monophthong vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Mid	e		o
Open		a

In addition to the monopthongs above, the following diphthongs are possible:

• Rising: ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, uo, ui
• Falling: ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ou

Note that the glide in falling diphthongs is usually realized as palatalization (in the case of -i-) or labialization (in the case of -u-).

Morphophonology

Epenthetic consonants

When a word ending in a vowel is followed by a word beginning in a vowel, an epenthetic consonant is usually inserted.

In the case of nouns and adjectives, the consonant used is -n.

Third person plural verbs, while not ending in a vowel, take an epenthetic -t before vowel-initial words.

Other words can have varying epenthetic consonants (such as -n, -d, -b, -g, -t, etc.) depending on their etymology.

Examples:

• a "to" + America > ad America
• da "away from, out lf" + America > dab America
• femna "woman" + alta "tall" > femnan alta
• ama "(s)he loves" + arbrex "trees" > amad arbrex
• aman "they love" + arbrex > amant arbrex

Counter-examples:

• de "of, from" + America > de America
• amo "I love" + arbrex "trees" > amo arbrex

Syntactic gemination

Certain pronouns and particles cause the first consonant of a following consonant-initial word to geminate.

In most cases, these are the same words that add an epenthetic -d, -g, or -b when the following word begins in a vowel.

Examples:

• a "to" + Canada > a cCanada
• da "away from, out of" + Canada > da cCanada
• ama "(s)he loves" + carne "meat" > ama ccarne

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns may be masculine or feminine.

Nouns are pluralized in -x. After a consonant, this ending becomes -ex.

Nouns ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when followed by a word beginning in a vowel.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the noun they govern in gender and number.

Adjectives whose masculine forms end in -o are feminized in -a. Otherwise, the masculine and feminine forms are identical. Adjectives ending in a vowel add an epenthetic -n when immediately followed by a vowel.

Like nouns, adjectives are pluralized in -(e)x.

Articles

Articles precede the noun they govern and agree with it in gender and number.

The definite article is so, declined as below:

	Singular	Plural
Masculine	so(n)	sox
Feminine	sa(n)	sax

Notes:

¹ -n is added before words beginning in vowels.

The indefinite article is gueno, declined as below:

	Singular	Plural
Masculine	guen(o)1	guenox
Feminine	guen(a)2	guenax

Notes:

¹ -o is added before words beginning in consonant clusters.

² -a is dropped before words beginning in vowels.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Person/ Number	Subject	Object	Clitic object		Possessive
			Direct	Indirect	Weak	Strong
1S	mu	me	me(n)	me(d/G)	mo(n)	mexxo
2S	tu	te	te(n)	te(d/G)	to(n)	texxo
3SM	gio	gio	gio(n)	gio(d/G)	gio(n)	gioxxo
3SF	gia	gia	gia(n)	gia(d/G)	gia(n)	giaxxo
3R	su	se	se(n)	se(d/G)	so(n)	siaxxo
1P	nox	nox	nox	nox	nox	nuastro
2P	gox	gox	gox	gox	gox	guastro
3PM	giox	giox	giox	giox	giox	gioro
3PF	giax	giax	giax	giax	giax	giaro

Numerals

Essanian numerals

	Cardinal	Ordinal	Fractional
0	zero(n)	zerosmo(n), -a(n)	—
1	gueno(n), guena(n)	primo(n), -a(n)	—
2	dúox, dúax	secondo(n), -(n)	semesse(n)
3	trix	tiarzo(n), -a(n)	triante(n)
4	quáttor	quarto(n), -a(n)	quadrante(n)
5	quenche	quempto(n), -a(n)	quemptante(n)
6	siapx	siasto(n), -a(n)	sestante(n)
7	siapte(n)	siápmo(n), -a(n)	sepmante(n)
8	guapto	optago(n), -a(n)	optagante(n)
9	nuaghe(n)	nono(n), -a(n)	nonante(n)
10	diace(n)	diacmo(n), -a(n)	decmante(n)
11	guence(n)	guendecmo(n), -a(n)	guendecmante(n)
12	duocce(n)	duodiacmo(n), -a(n)	duodecmante(n)
13	trecce(n)	trediacmo(n), -a(n)	tredecmante(n)
14	quattorce(n)	quattordiacmo(n), -a(n)	quattordecmante(n)
15	quince(n)	quindiacmo(n), -a(n)	quindecmante(n)
16	secce(n)	sediacmo(n), -a(n)	sedecmante(n)
17	septence(n)	septendiacmo(n), -a(n)	septendecmante(n)
18	optocce(n)	optodiacmo(n), -a(n)	optodecmante(n)
19	nogence(n)	nogendiacmo(n), -a(n)	nogendecmante(n)
20	guigenti	guigesmo(m), -a(m)	guigesmante(n)
21	guigenti-gueno(n), -a(n)	guigenti-primo(n), -a(n)	guigenti-guenante(n)
22	guigenti-dúox, -dúax	guigenti-secondo(n), -a(n)	guigenti-duante(n)
23	guigenti-trix	guigenti-tiarzo(n), -a(n)	guigenti-triante(n)
30	trigenta	trigesmo(n), -a(n)	trigesmante(n)
40	quadragenta	quadragesmo(n), -a(n)	quadragesmante(n)
50	quencagenta	quencagesmo(n), -a(n)	quencagesmante(n)
60	sepsagenta	sepsagesmo(n), -a(n)	sepsagesmante(n)
70	sepmagenta	sepmagesmo(n), -a(n)	sepmagesmante(n)
80	optagenta	optagesmo(n), -a(n)	optagesmante(n)
90	nonagenta	nonagesmo(n), -a(n)	nonagesmante(n)
100	cianto(n)	centesmo(n), -a(n)	centesmante(n)
200	duox-ciantox	duox-centesmo(n), -a(n)	duox-centesmante(n)
1000	milli	millesmo(n), -a(n)	millesmante(n)
2000	duox-millia	duox-millesmo(n), -a(n)	duox-millesmante(n)
10⁶	millione(n)	milllionesmo(n), -a(n)	millionesmante(n)
10⁹	milliardo(n)	milliardesmo(n), -a(n)	milliardesmante(n)
10¹²	billione(n)	billlionesmo(n), -a(n)	billionesmante(n)

Verbs

Verb classes

There are five verb classes:

1. -are verbs (class 1)
2. -ere verbs (class 2)
3. Non-palatalized -re verbs (class 3)
4. Palatalized -re verbs (class 4)
5. -ire verbs (class 5)

Present indicative

Class	1	2	3	4	5
1S	-o	-io	-o	-io	-io
2S	-ax	-ex	-ex	-ix	-ix
3S	-a(d/G)	-e(d/G)	-e(d/G)	-i(d/G)	-i(d/G)
1P	-amox	-emox	-mox	-mox	-imox
2P	-atex	-etex	-tex	-tex	-itex
3P	-an(t)	-en(t)	-on(t)	-ion(t)	-ion(t)

Notes:

1. Before a glide -i-, labialized consonants lose their labialization. This applies in the 1S for Class 2, 4, and 5 verbs and the 3P for Class 4 & 5 verbs. Additionally, Class 4 & 5 verbs whose stems end in coronal consonants undergo stem changes in the 1S and 3P forms:

Expected	Changed to
ti	z
di	dz
si	x
zi	ci

1. Verbs whose stem end in velar stops (-c- or -g-) maintain their spelling throughout the present indicative regardless of whether that would result in a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. On the other hand, verbs whose stem ends in -ch- or -gh- drop the -h- when they are not followed by front vowels.

Present subjunctive

The present subjunctive is formed by removing -o from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class	1	Others
1S	-e(n)	-a(n)
2S	-ex	-ax
3S	-e(d/G)	-a(d/G)
1P	-emox	-amox
2P	-etex	-atex
3P	-en(t)	-an(t)

Class 1 verbs whose stems end in a velar stop maintain their lack of palatalization in the present subjunctive.

Imperfect indicative

The imperfect stem is formed by removing -o or (only for Class 2 verbs) -io from the 1S present indicative and adding the following endings:

Class	1	Others
1S	-ava(n)	-eva(n)
2S	-avax	-evax
3S	-ava(d/G)	-eva(d/G)
1P	-avamox	-evamox
2P	-avatex	-evatex
3P	-avan(t)	-evan(t)

Imperfect subjunctive

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the verb's infinitive:

Class	All
1S	-(n)
2S	-x
3S	-(d/G)
1P	-mox
2P	-tex
3P	-n(t)

Future

The future is formed by adding the following endings to the imperfect stem:

Class	1	Others
1S	-avo	-evo
2S	-avex	-evex
3S	-ave(d/G)	-eve(d/G)
1P	-ammox	-emmox
2P	-aftex	-eftex
3P	-avon(t)	-evon(t)

Future perfect

The future perfect stem is formed by replacing the final -t- of the supine stem (if present) with -s- (after a consonant) or -ss- (after a vowel). If the supine stem already ends in -s-, the supine stem is used.

Then, the following endings are added:

	Ending
1S	-o
2S	-ex
3S	-e(d/G)
1P	-emox
2P	-etex
3P	-en(t)

Perfect indicative

The perfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-e
2S	-este
3S	-e(d/G)
1P	-mox
2P	-estex
3P	-ron(t)

The perfect stem is derived from the present stem in different ways depending on the verb.

• Regular Class 1 & 5 verbs form it by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -g(h)- (always hard).
• Regular Class 2, 3, and 4 verbs form it by adding -u- to the present stem.
• There are many irregular verbs, especially in classes 2-4 (and sometimes 5).

Perfect subjunctive

The perfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-re(n)
2S	-rex
3S	-re(d/G)
1P	-remox
2P	-retex
3P	-ren(t)

Pluperfect indicative

The pluperfect indicative is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-ra(n)
2S	-rax
3S	-ra(d/G)
1P	-ramox
2P	-ratex
3P	-ran(t)

Pluperfect subjunctive

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the following endings to the perfect stem:

	All classes
1S	-esse(n)
2S	-essex
3S	-esse(d/G)
1P	-essemox
2P	-essetex
3P	-essen(t)

Imperative

The imperative is formed by removing -x from the corresponding second person present indicative. This applies both in the singular and plural.

Derived adjectives and nouns

The following derived adjectives and nouns exist:

Participle	Formation	Remarks
Present participle	Formed by replacing -n(t) of the 3S present indicative with -nte(n).
Past participle	Regularly formed by removing -re from the infinitive and adding -to(n) (m.)/-ta(n) (f.). Many verbs have an irregular past participle.	The supine stem is formed by removing the final vowel from the past participle.
Future participle	Formed by adding -uro(n) (m.)/-ura(n) (f.) to the supine stem.
Gerundive	Formed by replacing -n(t) in the 3P present indicative with -ndo(n) (m.)/-nda(n) (f.)	Roughly equivalent to the suffix "-able" in English. Depending on the verb, it may have active or passive meaning.
Agent noun	Formed by removing the final vowel (-o/a) of the past participle and adding -ore(n) (m.)/-(t)rice(n) (f.).	-(t)- is added in the feminine when it is not already present at the end of the past participle stem.

Stem-changing verbs

In stem-changing verbs, the stem changes depending on whether it is stressed or unstressed.

In most cases, this involves a vowel change. The main patterns are:

• Unstressed -e- > Stressed -ia-
• Stressed -o- > Stressed -ua-

Due to historical sound changes, there may also be consonant changes. Some examples include:

• Dropping of g- in the unstressed stem.
• Delabialization of labialized consonants such as gu-, qu-, du-, etc. in the stressed stem.
• Etc.

Assimiliation

Infinitive

Class 3 and 4 verbs whose stems end in certain consonants assimilate the -r- of the infinitive into the final consonant. The assimilation has one of the following results depending on the stem structure:

• If the stem ends in a single -s, -r, or -l preceded by a vowel: -r- is merged with the consonant causing it to be doubled.
• If the stem ends in -r or -l that is double or preceded by a consonant: -r- is dropped.

Note that -r- is neither dropped nor assimilated when it occurs after -s when it is doubled or occurs after a consonant.

When necessary, the end of the stem can be indicated with an apostrophe. For example:

• When -r- merges with the following consonant: gual'le, fiar're, es'se
• When -r- is dropped: piall'e

Past participle

In regular past participles of Class 3 & 4 verbs:

• A voiced stop is devoiced before -t-. Voiced fricatives are also devoiced, but this does not reflect in the orthography except in the case of -v-, which becomes -f-.

Principal parts

For the vast majority of verbs, whether regular or irregular, the full conjugation can be derived from the following four principal parts:

• Infinitive
• 1S present indicative
• 1S perfect indicative
• Singular masculine past participle

When the principal parts fail to show a stem change, additional principal parts may be added.

• Present stem: 1S imperfect indicative
  • Comes after 1S present indicative
• Perfect stem: 2S perfect indicative
  • Comes after 1S perfect indicative
• Supine stem: Singular masculine future participle
  • Comes at end

In this article, these "extra" principal parts are shown in brackets.

Irregular verbs

esse "to be"

Despite being classified as a Class 3 verb, the verb esse, so, (era), fue, futo "to be" is highly irregular and therefore must be treated on its own.

Infinitive			esse			Present participle			sonte(n)
Past participle			futo(n)/futa(n)			Future participle			futuro(n)/futura(n)
Gerundive			sondo(n)/sonda(n)			Agent noun			futore(n)/futrice(n)
	Indicative						Subjunctive				Imperative
	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect	Future	Future perfect	Present	Imperfect	Perfect	Pluperfect
1S	so(n)	era(n)	fue	essa(n)	ero	fuaro	fua(n)	esse(n)	fure(n)	fuesse(n)
2S	ex	erax	fueste	essax	erex	fuarex	fuax	essex	furex	fuessex	ex
3S	e(t)	era(d/G)	fue(d/G)	essa(d/G)	ere(d/G)	fuare(d/G)	fua(d/G)	esse(d/G)	fure(d/G)	fuesse(d/G)
1P	somox	eramox	fumox	essamox	ermox	fuarmox	fuamox	essemox	furemox	fuessemox
2P	estex	eratex	fuestex	essatex	ertex	fuartex	fuatex	essetex	furetex	fuessetex	este
3P	son(t)	eran(t)	furon(t)	essan(t)	eron(t)	fuaren(t)	fuan(t)	essen(t)	furen(t)	fuessen(t)

Class 1

• dare, do, diade, (dedeste), dato "to give"
• stare, sto, stiate, (steteste), stato "to stand"
• laguare, laguo, lague, loto "to wash"
• giogare, giogo, gioghe, gioto "to help"

Class 2

• flere, flio, fleghe, fleto "to cry"
• ridere, ridio, rise, riso "to laugh"
• guedere, guedio, guese, gueso "to see"
• goghere, guaghio, goghe, goto "to vow, promise"
• gere, gio, gighe, geto "to go"
• Etc.

Class 3

• agre, ago, ege, apto "to act, behave"
• decre, deco, depse, depto "to say"
• fegre, fego, fepse, fepto "to place"
• argure, arguo, argue, arguto "to prove"
• grascre, grasco, graghe, grato "to be born"
• groscre, grosco, groghe, groto "to be acquainted"
• pialle, pialo, piaple, (pepleste), polso "to beat"
• Etc.

Class 4

• facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do, make"
• capre, capio, cepe, capto "to take, grasp"
• fogre, fogio, foge, fokto "to flee"
• Etc.

Class 5

• parire, pario, piapre, (pepreste), parto "to make, produce"
• sentire, sianzo, sense, senso "to smell (something)"
• guenire, ghianio, guene, ghianto, (guenturo) "to come"
• sancire, sancio, sampse, sampto "to respect"
• Etc.

Compound forms

Compound forms include:

Voices

• Passive: fire, fio, fighe, fito "to become" + past participle
• Middle: gere, gio, gighe, geto "to go" + past participle

Tense/Aspect

• Prospective: esse, so, (era), fue, futo "to be" + future participle
• Completive perfect: havere, havio, havue, hafto "to have" + past participle
  • havere may be in any tense to form a corresponding anterior tense denoting a completed action.
  • This is similar to the perfect tenses, but it gives the implication that an action has been completed.
• Continuous: esse, so, (era), fue, futo + present participle
  • Unlike in English, this can only be used for an action that is ongoing at the time referenced (as indicated by conjugation of esse).
• Inchoative: fire, fio, fighe, fito "to become" + present participle

Others

• Causative 1: facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do" + infinitive
  • Means "cause X to Y" or "make X Y".
• Causative 2: facre, facio, fece, fapto "to do" + past participle
  • Means "cause X to be Y-ed" or "have X Y-ed".

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Guabrix xiamnex grascon luebrox ed equox en degretaten e ggiorex. Son dotatox de razonen e cconscienza, e ddevent agre enter se seco ffratrex.

IPA (broad): /ˈɡwabriʃ ˈʃamneʃ ˈɡraskon ˈlwebroʃ ed ekwoʃ en ˌdeɡreˈtaten e ˈdʒːoreʃ ‖ son doˈtatoʃ de raˈtsonen e kːonˈstʃentsa | e ˈdːevent ˈaɡre ˈenter se ˈseko ˈfːratreʃ/

IPA (narrow, with lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.βriʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.βro.ʃ‿eˈð‿eː.xʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɣɾe.ˈθaː.θe.n‿e‿ʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈθaː.θoʒ de ra.ˈsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːen.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɣɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈzeː.xo‿f.ˈfɾaː.θɾeʃ]

IPA (narrow, without lenition): [ˈɡʷaː.briʃ ˈʃam.neʒ ˈɡɾaː.skon ˈlʷeː.bro.ʃ‿eˈd‿eː.kʷo.ʒ‿en ˌde.ɡɾe.ˈtaː.te.n‿e‿dʒ.ˈʒoː.reʃ ‖ ˈson do.ˈtaː.toʒ de ra.ˈtsoː.ne.n‿e‿k.kon.ˈʃːen.tsa | e‿d.ˈdeː.ven.ˈt‿aː.ɡɾe ˈen.ter ˈseː ˈseː.ko‿f.ˈfɾaː.tɾeʃ]

all-PL people they_are_born free-PL and equal-PL in dignitt and rights. they_are endowed of reason and conscience, and they_must act among themselves like brothers.

Other resources

Swadesh list