Proto-Tungric

Proto-Tungric is the hypothetical ancestor of the Tungric languages.

Proto-Tungric
*þauþigą
Pronunciation	[ˈθɑuθiɣɑ̃]
Created by	Shariifka
Language family	Indo-European Italic Proto-Tungric
Early form	Proto-Italic

Introduction

Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.

The Italic base of Proto-Tungric had the following features:

• Lacked merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
• Stress rules similar to Classical Latin, however:
  • Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable is super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel/diphthong followed by a coda consonant or a long diphthong.
  • Vowel contraction had not yet taken place, affecting the stress of some words.
  • Some words had analogical or sporadic stress shifts.
• Lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.

Morphology

Nouns

Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a-stems

Masculine or neuter.

	*akraz m. "field"		*juką n. "yoke"
Nominative	*akraz	*akrōz, -ōs	*juką	*jukō
Vocative	*akr
Accusative	*akrą	*akranz
Genitive	*akrī, -as	*akrǭ	*jukī, -as	*jukǭ
Dative	*akrōi	*akraiz	*jukōi	*jukaiz
Instrumental	*akrô		*jukô

ō-stems

Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).

	*þaudō f. "people"
Nominative	*þaudō	*þaudōz
Vocative
Accusative	*þaudǭ	*þaudōnz
Genitive	*þaudōz	*þaudōsą
Dative	*þaudōi	*þaudōbiz, *þaudōiz
Instrumental	*þaudô

Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns take the ending -ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations have the regular ō-stem endings preceded by -(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).

i-stems

May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.

	*minþiz f. "mind"		*mari n. "sea"
Nominative	*minþiz	*minþēz	*mari	*marjō
Vocative
Accusative	*minþį	*minþinz
Genitive	*minþīz	*minþijǭ	*marīz	*marjǭ
Dative	*minþī	*minþibiz	*marī	*maribiz
Instrumental	*minþî		*marî

Note: The genitive plural and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative plural are subject to Siever's law.

u-stems

May be any gender. Masculine and feminine are declined the same.

	*farþuz m. "port"		*harnu n. "horn"
Nominative	*farþuz	*farþawiz	*harnu	*harnuwō
Vocative
Accusative	*farþų	*farþunz
Genitive	*farþauz	*farþuwǭ	*harnauz	*harnuwǭ
Dative	*farþawī	*farþubiz	*harnawī	*harnubiz
Instrumental	*farþû		*harnû

an-stems

Any gender. Masculine and feminine are conjugated the same.

	*gemô m. "man"		*namô n. "name"		*ankwô n. "fat, grease"
Nominative	*gemô	*gemaniz	*namô	*namnō	*ankwô	*anwanō
Vocative
Accusative	*gemanį	*gemaninz
Genitive	*gemaniz	*gemanǭ	*namniz	*namnǭ	*ankwaniz	*ankwanǭ
Dative	*gemanī	*gemambiz	*namnī	*namnibiz	*ankwanī	*ankwambiz
Instrumental	*gemani		*namni		*ankwani

Note:

1. As shown in the case of *namô, the expected -an- in endings may be reduced to -n- in some nouns. Alternatively, it may be replaced with -in-.
2. Some an-stems have an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singulae ending).
3. an-stems whose nominative singular end in *-ijô or -jô have *-īn- and *-in- respectively instead of expected **-ijan- or **-jan-.

ōn-stems

Masculine or feminine.

	*ahtijō f. "action"
Nominative	*ahtijô	*ahtijōniz
Vocative
Accusative	*ahtijōnį	*ahtijōninz
Genitive	*ahtijōniz	*ahtijōnǭ
Dative	*ahtijōnī	*ahtijōmbiz
Instrumental	*ahtijōni

r-stems

Masculine or feminine

	*mōþēr f. "mother"		*hanþōr m. "singer"
Nominative	*mōþēr	*mōþriz	*hanþōr	*hanþriz
Vocative
Accusative	*mōþrį	*mōþrinz	*hanþrį	*hanþrinz
Genitive	*mōþriz	*mōþrǭ	*hanþriz	*hanþrǭ
Dative	*mōþrī	*mōþribiz	*hanþrī	*hanþribiz
Instrumental	*mōþri		*hanþri

z-stems

	*amōz m. "love"		*þimfaz n. "time"
Nominative	*amōz	*amaziz	*þimfaz	*þimfizō
Vocative
Accusative	*amazį	*amazinz
Genitive	*amaziz	*amazǭ	*þimfiziz	*þimfizǭ
Dative	*amazī	*amazibiz	*þimfizī	*þimbizibiz
Instrumental	*amazi		*þimfizi

Consonant stems

	*feþs m. "foot"		*hafud n. "head"
Nominative	*feþs	*fiþiz	*hafud	*hafudō
Vocative
Accusative	*fiþį	*fiþinz
Genitive	*fiþiz	*feþǭ	*hafudiz	*hafudǭ
Dative	*fiþī	*fiþibiz	*hafudī	*hafudibiz
Instrumental	*fiþi		*hafudi

Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular is *-s (which often leads to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there is usually no suffix. However, there are many nouns that are irregular in these forms.

Adjectives

An adjective can be strong or weak. The class of an adjective is determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation is originally from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin enim) that was reanalyzed as an n-stem ending.

a/ō-stem adjectives

*twenaz "good"
Strong
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative/ Vocative	*twenaz	*twenai	*twenō	*twenōi	*tweną, -at	*twenō
Accusative	*twenan	*twenanz	*twenǭ	*twenōnz
Genitive	*twenas	*twenōsą, *twenazjōsą	*twenōz, *twenazjōz	*twenōsą, *twenazjōsą	*twenas, *twenazjas	*twenōsą, *twenazjōsą
Dative	*twenammai	*twenabiz	*twenōz	*twenōbiz	*twenammai	*twenabiz
Instrumental	*twenô		*twenô		*twenô
Weak
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative/ Vocative	*twenô	*twenaniz	*twenô	*twenōniz	*twenô	*twenanō
Accusative	*twenanį	*twenaninz	*twenōnį	*twenōniz
Genitive	*twenaniz	*twenanǭ	*twenōniz	*twenōnǭ	*twenaniz	*twenanǭ
Dative	*twenanī	*twenambiz	*twenōnī	*twenōmbiz	*twenanī	*twenambiz
Instrumental	*twenani		*twenōni		*twenani

ja/jō-stem adjectives

These are a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a -j- or -ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and are declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected -ija- becomes -ī- and -ja- becomes -i-.

i-stem adjectives

These are declined identically to ja/jō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-iz and -į/it respectively instead of the expected **-(i)jaz and **-(i)ją/(i)jat. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular may take the ending *-in as an alternative to expected *-(i)jan.

The weak forms are identical to those of ja/jō-stems.

Consonant-stem adjectives

These are declined identically to a/ō-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which take the endings *-s and *- respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **-az and **-ą/at.

The weak forms are identical to those of a/ō-stems.

Pronouns

First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns

	First person		Second person		Reflexive
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*ekō, *ikō	*nōs, *nōz	*þū	*wōs, *wōz	—
Accusative	*mē		*þē		*sē
Genitive	*mīz	*nasterą	*þīz	*wasterą	*sīz
Dative	*migī	*nōbiz	*þibī	*wōbiz	*sibī
Instrumental	*met, *mit		*þet, *þit		*set, *sit
Possessive adj.	*mijaz	*nasteraz	*þawaz	*wasteraz	*sawaz

Notes:

1. When two forms are given, the first is stressed and the second is unstressed.
2. Possessive adjectives are always strong.

3rd person pronoun

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*iz	*ijai	*ijō	*ijōi	*it	*ijō
Accusative	*in	*ijanz	*ijǭ	*ijōnz
Genitive	*izjas	*izjōsą	*izjōz	*izjōsą	*izjas	*izjōsą
Dative	*immai	*izjaiz, izjabiz	*izjōz	*izjōiz, *izjōbiz	*immai	*izjaiz, izjabiz
Instrumental	*izjô		*izjô		*izjô

Reflexive/Intensive pronoun

Strong
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*safsaz	*safsai	*safsō	*safsōi	*safsą, *safsat	*safsō
Accusative	*safsan	*safsanz	*safsǭ	*safsōnz
Genitive	*safsas, *safsazjas	*safsōsą, *safsazjōsą	*safsōz, *safsazjōz	*safsōsą, *safsazjōsą	*safsas, *safsazjas	*safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
Dative	*safsammai	*safsabiz	*safsōz	*safsōbiz	*safsammai	*safsabiz
Instrumental	*safsô		*safsô		*safsô
Weak
	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*safsô	*safsaniz	*safsô	*safsōniz	*safsô	*safsanō
Accusative	*safsanį	*safsaninz	*safsōnį	*safsōniz
Genitive	*safsaniz	*safsanǭ	*safsōniz	*safsōnǭ	*safsaniz	*safsanǭ
Dative	*safsanī	*safsambiz	*safsōnī	*safsōmbiz	*safsanī	*safsambiz
Instrumental	*safsani		*safsōni		*safsani

Neutral demonstrative

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*saz	*sai	*sō	*sōi	*sat	*sō
Accusative	*san	*sanz	*sǭ	*sōnz
Genitive	*sas, *sazjas	*sōsą, *sazjōsą	*sōz, *sazjōz	*sōsą, *sazjōsą	*sas, *sazjas	*sōsą, *sazjōsą
Dative	*sammai	*sabiz	*sōz	*sōbiz	*sammai	*sabiz
Instrumental	*sô		*sô		*sô

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*izaz	*izai	*izō	*izōi	*izat	*izō
Accusative	*izan	*izanz	*izǭ	*izōnz
Genitive	*izas, *izazjas	*izōsą, *izazjōsą	*izōz, *izazjōz	*izōsą, *izazjōsą	*izas, *izazjas	*izōsą, *izazjōsą
Dative	*izammai	*izabiz	*izōz	*izōbiz	*izammai	*izabiz
Instrumental	*izô		*izô		*izô

Near demonstrative

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*istaz	*istai	*istō	*istōi	*istat	*istō
Accusative	*istan	*istanz	*istǭ	*istōnz
Genitive	*istas, *istazjas	*istōsą, *istazjōsą	*istōz, *istazjōz	*istōsą, *istazjōsą	*istas, *istazjas	*istōsą, *istazjōsą
Dative	*istammai	*istabiz	*istōz	*istōbiz	*istammai	*istabiz
Instrumental	*istô		*istô		*istô

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*gehaz	*gehai	*gehō	*gehōi	*gehat	*gehō
Accusative	*gehan	*gehanz	*gehǭ	*gehōnz
Genitive	*gegas, *gegazjas	*gegōsą, *gegazjōsą	*gegōz, *gegazjōz	*gegōsą, *gegazjōsą	*gegas, *gegazjas	*gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
Dative	*gegammai	*gegabiz	*gegōz	*gegōbiz	*gegammai	*gegabiz
Instrumental	*gegô		*gegô		*gegô

Far demonstrative

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*allaz	*allai	*allō	*allōi	*allat	*allō
Accusative	*allan	*allanz	*allǭ	*allōnz
Genitive	*allas, *allazjas	*allōsą, *allazjōsą	*allōz, *allazjōz	*allōsą, *allazjōsą	*allas, *allazjas	*allōsą, *allazjōsą
Dative	*allammai	*allabiz	*allōz	*allōbiz	*allammai	*allabiz
Instrumental	*allô		*allô		*allô

Interrogative pronoun

	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	*hwai	*hwēz	*hwōi	*hwēz	*hwat	*hwō
Accusative	*hwan	*hwanz	*hwǭ	*hwōnz
Genitive	*hwas, *hwazjas	*hwōsą, *hwazjōsą	*hwōz, *hwazjōz	*hwōsą, *hwazjōsą	*hwas, *hwazjas	*hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
Dative	*hwammai	*hwabiz	*hwōz	*hwōbiz	*hwammai	*hwabiz
Instrumental	*hwô, *hwî		*hwô, *hwî		*hwô, *hwî

Numerals

#	Cardinal	Ordinal	Adverbial	Multiplier
1	*ainaz	*frīsimaz	*semēlą	*simflaz, *singilaz
2	*twō	*alþeraz	*twis	*twiflaz
3	*þrēz	*þriþjô	*þris	*þriflaz
4	*hwettwōr	*hwetarþô	*hwetris	*hwetriflaz
5	*hwinhw	*hwinhtô
6	*sehs	*sehstô
7	*siftį	*siftimô
8	*ahtō	*ahtô
9	*nawį	*naunô
10	*tihį	*tihimô
11	*ainatigį	*ainatihimô
12	*twatigį	*twatihimô
13	*þritigį	*þritihimô
14	*hwettwōrtigį	*hwettwōrtihimô
15	*hwinhtigį	*hwinhtihimô
16	*sehstigį	*sehstihimô
17	*siftintigį	*siftintihimô
18	*ahtōtigį	*ahtōtihimô
19	*nawintigį	*nawintijimô
20	*wīginþī	*wīginsô
30	*þrīginþō	*þrīginsô
40	*hwatrōginþō	*hwatrōginsô
50	*hwinhwōginþō	*hwinhwōginsô
60	*sehsōginþō	*sehsōginsô
70	*seftumōginþō	*seftumōginsô
80	*ahtōginþō	*ahtōginsô
90	*naunōginþō	*naunōginsô
100	*hinþą	*hinsô
1000	*smīgislī	*smīgislidô

Notes:

• *ainaz "one" is declined as an a/ō-stem adjective.
• *twō "two" is declined as below:

Declension of *twō "two" (pl.)

	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
Nominative	*twō, *twai	*twōi	*twō
Accusative	*twanz	*twōnz	*twō
Genitive	*twōsą
Dative	*twōbaz
Instrumental	*twô

• *þrēz "three" is declined similarly to a plural i-stem noun.
• Numbers from 4-99 are undeclined (except for two digit numbers above 20 that end in 1, 2, or 3).
• *hinþą "hundred" is declined as a neuter noun.
• *smīgillī "thousand" is declined as an ī/jō-stem feminine noun.
• Ordinal numbers are declined as either strong or weak adjectives (as per the endings in the table). Most are weak except for 1st and 2nd.

Verbs

Strong verbs

Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings in the indicative:

1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
-ai	-istai	-id	-amaz	-istiz	-ēri

The past stem is also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel -i-.

Strong verbs can be put into classes depending on how the past stem is formed:

1. Class 1: This class has a present stem vowel of -i-. It has two subclasses:

   a. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ai- — e.g. *witēō "I see" > *waitai "I saw", *wissaz "seen"

   b. The past stem is formed by changing the stem vowel to -ī- — e.g. *winhō "I conquer" > *wīhai "I conquered", *wihtaz "conquered"

2. Class 2: This class has a present stem vowel of -u- which changes to -au- in the past stem — e.g. *bukjō "I flee" > *baukai "I fled", *bukadaz "fled"
3. Class 3: This class has a present stem vowel of -a-, -e-, or -i- that becomes -ē- in the past stem — e.g. *dahjō "I do" > *dēhai "I did", *dahtaz "done"
4. Class 4: This class has a present stem vowel -a- that becomes -ō- in the past stem — e.g. *skabō "I scratch" > *skōbai "I scratched", *skabadaz "scratched"
5. Class 5: The past stem has the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. *fipō "I drink" > *fipai "I drank", *fipadaz "drunk"
6. Class 6: The past stem is derived from the present stem by adding -s- — e.g. *þragō "I drag" > *þrahsai "I dragged", *þrahtaz "dragged"
7. Class 7: The past stem is formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by -e-. In some verbs, there may also be a vowel change (usually -e/i- to -a-) — e.g. *hanō "I sing" > *hehanai "I sang"
8. Irregular: The past stem is formed in another way besides those above — e.g. *stêō "I stand" > *steþai "I stood"

Some strong verbs have irregular presents. This affects the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There are three types of irregularities, and they can co-occur:

1. A j-suffix. Such verbs are said to be j-presents, and may be light or heavy. This affects the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it does in nouns and adjectives.
2. An nasal infix. This does not affect the verb's endings, but affects the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
3. A vowel suffix (usually -ō- or -ē-). Such verbs are called ō-presents or ē-presents respectively. They conjugate similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There is also the exceptional verb *stêsi which has the suffix -ê-.

The past participle of strong verbs is formed with the suffix -þaz which, depending on the verb, may become -taz, -daz, or -saz. There may or may not be a connector vowel. If there is one, it is usually -a- (or -i- in the case of j-presents.

Example (class 3): *akizi "to do, act"

Infinitive		*akizi
Present participle		*akinþs
Present participle		*ahtaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*akjō	*akjōr	*akjǭ	*akjār	*ēkai	*ēkizǭ
2S	*akiz	*akizar	*akjāz	*akjāzar	*ēkistai	*ēkizēz	*ak
3S	*akid	*akidar	*akjād	*akjādar	*ēkid	*ēkizēd	*akjô
1P	*akjamaz	*akiminai	*akjāmaz	*akjāminai	*ēkamaz	*ēkizēmaz
2P	*akidiz		*akjādiz		*ēkistiz	*ēkizēþiz	*akid
3P	*akjand		*akjānd		*akjēri	*akizēnd	*akjanþô

Example (class 3, light j-present): *dahizi "to do, make"

Infinitive		*dahizi
Present participle		*daginþs
Present participle		*dahtaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*dahjō	*dahjōr	*dahjǭ	*dahjār	*dēhai	*dēhizǭ
2S	*dahiz	*dahizar	*dahjāz	*dagjāzar	*dēgistai	*dēhizēz	*dah
3S	*dahid	*dahidar	*dahjād	*dagjādar	*dēhid	*dēhizēd	*dahjô
1P	*dahjamaz	*dagiminai	*dagjāmaz	*dagjāminai	*dēhamaz	*dēgizēmaz
2P	*dahidiz		*dagjādiz		*dēgistiz	*dēgizēþiz	*dahid
3P	*dahjand		*dahjānd		*dagjēri	*dagizēnd	*dagjanþô

Example: *þragizi (class 6) "to sing"

Infinitive		*þragizi
Present participle		*þraginþs
Present participle		*þrahtaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*þragō	*þragōr	*þragǭ	*þragār	*þrahsai	*þrahsizǭ
2S	*þragiz	*þragizar	*þragāz	*þragāzar	*þrahsistai	*þrahsizēz	*þrag
3S	*þragid	*þragidar	*þragād	*þragādar	*þrahsid	*þrahsizēd	*þragô
1P	*þragamaz	*þragiminai	*þragāmaz	*þragāminai	*þrahsamaz	*þrahsizēmaz
2P	*þragidiz		*þragādiz		*þrahsistiz	*þrahsizēþiz	*þragid
3P	*þragand		*þragānd		*þrahsēri	*þrahsizēnd	*þraganþô

Example: *hanizi (class 7) "to sing"

Infinitive		*hanizi
Present participle		*haninþs
Present participle		*hanþaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*hanō	*hanōr	*hanǭ	*hanār	*hehanai	*heganizǭ
2S	*haniz	*hanizar	*hanāz	*hanāzar	*heganistai	*heganizēz	*han
3S	*hanid	*hanidar	*hanād	*hanādar	*hehanid	*heganizēd	*hanô
1P	*hanamaz	*haniminai	*hanāmaz	*hanāminai	*heganamaz	*heganizēmaz
2P	*hanidiz		*hanādiz		*heganistiz	*heganizēþiz	*hanid
3P	*hanand		*hanānd		*heganēri	*heganizēnd	*hananþô

Example (class 7, heavy j-present): *bargīzi "to stuff"

Infinitive		*bargīzi
Present participle		*bargīnþs
Present participle		*barhtaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*barhijō	*barhijōr	*barhijǭ	*barhijār	*bebarhai	*bebargīsǭ
2S	*barhīz	*bargīzar	*barhijāz	*bargijāzar	*bebargīstai	*bebargīsēz	*barh
3S	*barhīd	*bargīdar	*barhijād	*bargijādar	*bebarhīd	*bebargīsēd	*barhijô
1P	*bargijamaz	*bargīminai	*bargijāmaz	*bargijāminai	*bebarhamaz	*bebargīzēmaz
2P	*bargīþiz		*bargijādiz		*bebargīstiz	*bebargīzēþiz	*bargīþ
3P	*barhijand		*barhijānd		*bargijēri	*bargīzēnd	*bargijanþô

Example: *stêsi (irregular, present suffix -ê-) "to stand"

Infinitive		*stêsi
Present participle		*stênþs
Present participle		*staþaz
	Present				Past		Imperative
	Indicative		Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	Active	Passive	Active	Passive	Active	Active	Active
1S	*stêō	*stêōr	*stêǭ	*stêār	*steþai	*stiþizǭ
2S	*stêz	*stêsar	*stêāz	*stêāsar	*stidistai	*stiþizēz	*stê
3S	*stêd	*stêþar	*stêād	*stêāþar	*stiþid	*stiþizēd	*stêô
1P	*stêmaz	*stêminai	*stêāmaz	*stêāminai	*steþamaz	*stidizēmaz
2P	*stêþiz		*stêāþiz		*stidistiz	*stidizēþiz	*stêd
3P	*stênd		*stêānd		*stedēri	*stidizēnd	*stênþô

Weak verbs

Weak verbs do not change their stem, and they take the following endings in the past indicative: Strong verbs are characterized by a past stem different from the present stem that takes the following personal endings:

1S	2S	3S	1P	2P	3P
-bǭ	-bōz	-bōd	-bōmaz	-bōþiz	-bōnd

The -b- is usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depends on the weak verb class.

The past subjunctive endings are also added to the present stem. A connector vowel is also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.

Class 1

Class 1 weak verbs conjugate similarly to j-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.

The past indicative has a connector vowel -(i)ja-, while the past subjunctive and past participle have a connector vowel -i/ī-. In both cases, the suffixes follow Siever's law.

Class 2

Class 2 weak verbs have the following characteristics:

• The present stem ends in -ō-, which absorbs any following short vowels and contracts with 1S -ō- to -ô-. In the present subjunctive, expected *-ōǭ contracts to -ǫ̂, while expected *-ōā- becomes -ōē-.
• The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle is -ō-, as in the present stem.

Class 3

There are two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.

The first subclass is conjugated with the suffixed vowel -ē-, which absorbs following short vowels (similar to the -ō- of class 2) but does not contract with long vowels. The past participle has the connector vowel -a-.

The second subclass is conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive are conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel -ē- and with a palatal suffix). The past participle has the connector vowel -i-.

Class 4

Class 4 weak verbs do not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation follows that of non-j-stem strong verbs.

The past indicative has a connector vowel -a-, and the past subjunctive has a connector vowel -i-. The past participle has no connector vowel.

Preterite-present verbs

Preterite-present verbs are verbs whose present tenses conjugate as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs have weak pasts.

For example:

• *minizi "to remember", *memanai "I remember", *menabǭ "I remembered", *minþaz "remembered"
• *ōtizi "to hate", *ōtai "I hate", *ōtabǭ "I hated", *ōssaz "hated"
• *(ga)knōsi "to know, be familiar (with)", *(ga)knōai "I know, am familiar (with)", *(ga)knōbǭ "I knew, was familiar (with)", *(ga)knōþaz "known"
• *(ga)swidizi "to be used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedai "I am used/accustomed to", *(ga)swedabǭ "I was used/accustomed to", *(ga)swēssaz "accustomed"
• *imizi "to have, own", *ēmai "I have, own", *emabǭ "I had, owned", *imþaz "had, owned"
• *sinizi "to be allowed", *sīsai "I am allowed", *sinabǭ "I was allowed", *siþaz "allowed"
• *hrinizi "to be determined", *hrīsai "I am determined", *hrinabǭ "I was determined", *hriþaz "determined"
• *(ga)flēsi "to suffice, be enough", *(ga)flēai "I suffice, am enough", *(ga)flēþaz "sufficed, enoigh"
• *þilizi "to owe, have to", *þeþalai "I owe, have to", *þelabǭ "I owe, had to", *þelþaz "owed, had to"
• *afizi "to be necessary/suitable", *ēfai "I am necessary/suitable", *afabǭ "I was necessary/suitable", *aftaz "necessary/suitable"

The verb "to be"

The verb "to be" has two stems *(i)s- and *bu/bū-. They can be treated as two separate verbs that share past indicative and imperative forms.

Infinitive		*issi		*būizi
Present participle		*sinþs		*būinþs
Past participle		—		*būadaz
	Present					Past			Imperative
	Indicative			Subjunctive		Indicative	Subjunctive
	*issi	*būizi 1	*būizi 2	*issi	*būizi	*būizi	*issi	*būizi
1S	*izą	*būō	*buzą	*sijǭ	*buzǭ	*bebūai	*issǭ	*bebūzǭ
2S	*iz	*būiz	*buz	*sijēz	*buzāz	*bebūistai	*issēz	*bebūzēz	*bū
3S	*ist	*būid	*bust	*sijēd	*buzād	*bebūid	*issēd	*bebūzēd
1P	*samaz	*būamaz	*buzamaz	*sijēmaz	*buzāmaz	*bebūamaz	*issēmaz	*bebūzēmaz
2P	*istiz	*būidiz	*bustiz	*sijēþiz	*buzāþiz	*bebūistiz	*issēþiz	*bebūzēþiz	*būid
3P	*sind	*būind	*buzind	*sijēnd	*buzānd	*bebūēri	*issēnd	*bebūzēnd