Linguifex

Proto-Tungric: Difference between revisions

Page Discussion

Proto-Tungric (view source)

Revision as of 02:47, 24 April 2023

47,005 bytes added ,  24 April 2023
no edit summary
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
No edit summary
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
 
(324 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 2: Line 2:
<!--  
<!--  
This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.
-->
-->
{{Infobox language
|name = Proto-Tungric
|nativename = *þaudigą
|pronunciation = ˈθɑuðiɣɑ̃
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
<!--
|states =
|nation =
|speakers = -->
|date = 2023
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = [[w:Indo-European_languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor2 = [[Pre-Proto-Tungric]]
<!--
|iso1 =
|iso2 =
|iso3 = -->
|script        = [[w:Latin script|Latin]]
<!--
|agency        = -->
}}
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.


The Italic base of Proto-Tungric has the following features:
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:
*Lacks merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
*PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*Stress similar to Classical Latin.
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
*Lacks Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
 
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final ''*-s'' was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
Line 56: Line 84:
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
====''a''-stems====
====''a''-stems====
Masculine or neuter.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *akraz ''m.'' "field" || colspan="2"| *juką ''n.'' "yoke"
! !! colspan="2"| *akraz ''m.'' "field" || colspan="2"| *juką ''n.'' "yoke"
Line 61: Line 90:
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *akr'''az'''
| *akr'''az'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''ōz, -ōs, -ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''ōz, -ōs'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ą'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ą'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ō'''
| rowspan="3"| *juk'''ō'''
Line 70: Line 99:
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *akr'''ą'''
| *akr'''ą'''
| *akr'''ōz, -ōs'''
| *akr'''anz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *akr'''ī, -as'''
| *akr'''ī, -as'''
| *akr'''ǭ, -aisǭ'''
| *akr'''ǭ'''
| *juk'''ī, -as'''
| *juk'''ī, -as'''
| *juk'''ǭ, -aisǭ'''
| *juk'''ǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *akr'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *akr'''ô'''
| *akr'''ō'''
| *juk'''ô'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *juk'''ō'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''ō''-stems====
====''ō''-stems====
Usually feminine (but sometimes masculine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *þauþō ''f.'' "people"
! !! colspan="2"| *þaudō ''f.'' "people"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *þauþ'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þauþ'''ōz, -ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þaud'''ōz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þauþ'''ǭ'''
| *þaud'''ǭ'''
| *þauþ'''ōnz'''
| *þaud'''ōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þauþ'''ōz'''
| *þaud'''ōz'''
| *þauþ'''ōsǭ'''
| *þaud'''ōsą'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þauþ'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *þauþ'''ōiz, -ōbiz'''
| *þaud'''ōbiz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þauþ'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).


====''i''-stems====
====''i''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
! !! colspan="2"| *minþiz ''f.'' "mind" || colspan="2"| *mari ''n.'' "sea"
Line 141: Line 177:
! Dative
! Dative
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *minþ'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mar'''ibiz'''
| *mar'''ibiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''î'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *mar'''î'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 154: Line 192:


====''u''-stems====
====''u''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
! !! colspan="2"| *farþuz ''m.'' "port" || colspan="2"| *harnu ''n.'' "horn"
Line 177: Line 216:
! Dative
! Dative
| *farþ'''awī'''
| *farþ'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *farþ'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| *harn'''awī'''
| rowspan="2"| *harn'''ubiz'''
| *harn'''ubiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''û'''
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *harn'''û'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====''n''-stems====
====''an''-stems====
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gemô ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *namį ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwį ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''į'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''į'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *anw'''inō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gem'''anį'''
| *gam'''anį'''
| *gem'''aninz'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gem'''aniz'''
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gem'''anǭ'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *ankw'''iniz'''
| *ankw'''aniz'''
| *ankw'''inǭ'''
| *ankw'''anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gem'''anī'''
| *gam'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ambiz'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| rowspan="2"| *nam'''nabiz'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *ankw'''inī'''
| *ankw'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ankw'''imbiz'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gem'''ani'''
| *gam'''ani'''
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *ankw'''ini'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *ankw'''ani'''
| *ankw'''ambiz'''
|-
|}
 
'''Note:'''
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->
 
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|}
====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *sir'''īnī'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *sir'''īni'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|}
 
====''r''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *mōþēr ''f.'' "mother" || colspan="2"| *hanþōr ''m.'' "singer"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''ēr'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōþ'''riz'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''ōr'''
| rowspan="2"| *hanþ'''riz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *mōþ'''rį'''
| *mōþ'''rinz'''
| *hanþ'''rį'''
| *hanþ'''rinz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *mōþ'''riz'''
| *mōþ'''rǭ'''
| *hanþ'''riz'''
| *hanþ'''rǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōþ'''rī'''
| *mōþ'''ribiz'''
| *hanþ'''rī'''
| *hanþ'''ribiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōþ'''ri'''
| *mōþ'''ribaz'''
| *hanþ'''ri'''
| *hanþ'''ribaz'''
|-
|}
'''Note:''' The nominative singular ended in either *''-ēr'' or *''-ōr''. Otherwise, the vowel *''-ē-'' or *''-ō-'' was dropped (as shown above) or, in the case of some nouns, shortened to *''-e-'' or *''-a-'' respectively.
====''z''-stems====
Any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *amōz ''m.'' "love" !! colspan="2"| *þimfaz ''n.'' "time"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *am'''ōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *am'''aziz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''az'''
| rowspan="3"| *þimf'''izō'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *am'''azį'''
| *am'''azinz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *am'''aziz'''
| *am'''azǭ'''
| *þimf'''iziz'''
| *þimf'''izǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *am'''azī'''
| *am'''azibiz'''
| *þimf'''izī'''
| *þimf'''izibiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *am'''azi'''
| *am'''azibaz'''
| *þimf'''izi'''
| *þimf'''izibaz'''
|-
|}
<!--
====''r/n''-stems====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *jehar ''n.'' "liver"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="3"| *jeh'''ar'''
| rowspan="3"| *jih'''inō'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
|-
! Genitive
| *jih'''iniz'''
| *jih'''inǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *jih'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *jih'''imbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *jih'''ini'''
|-
|}-->
 
====Consonant stems====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *feþs ''m.'' "foot" || colspan="2"| *hafud ''n.'' "head"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *feþ'''s'''
| rowspan="2"| *fiþ'''iz'''
| rowspan="3"| *hafud
| rowspan="3"| *hafud'''ō'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *fiþ'''į'''
| *fiþ'''inz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *fiþ'''iz'''
| *feþ'''ǭ'''
| *hafud'''iz'''
| *hafud'''ǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *fiþ'''ī'''
| *fiþ'''ibiz'''
| *hafud'''ī'''
| *hafud'''ibiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *fiþ'''i'''
| *fiþ'''ibaz
| *hafud'''i'''
| *hafud'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Note:''' Neuter nouns may be declined either as *''namį'' or *''ankwį''. Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mį'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
 
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| *twenaz "good"
|-
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| *twen'''az'''
| *twen'''ai'''
| *twen'''ō'''
| *twen'''ōi'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ą, -at'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *twen'''an'''
| *twen'''anz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōnz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *twen'''as'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''ōz''', *twen'''azjōz'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
| *twen'''as''', *twen'''azjas'''
| *twen'''ōsą''', *twen'''azjōsą'''
|-
! Dative
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
| *twen'''ōz'''
| *twen'''ōbiz'''
| *twen'''ammai'''
| *twen'''abiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''ōbaz'''
| *twen'''ô'''
| *twen'''abaz'''
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative/<br />Vocative
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''ǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *twen'''anō'''
|-
! Accusative
| *twen'''anį'''
| *twen'''aninz'''
| *twen'''ōnį'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
| *twen'''ōniz'''
| *twen'''ōnǭ'''
| *twen'''aniz'''
| *twen'''anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
| *twen'''ōnī'''
| *twen'''ōmbiz'''
| *twen'''anī'''
| *twen'''ambiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
| *twen'''ōni'''
| *twen'''ōmbaz'''
| *twen'''ani'''
| *twen'''ambaz'''
|-
|}
 
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
 
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
 
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Line 239: Line 607:
Particles
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="2"| First person !! colspan="2"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *ekō, *ikō
| rowspan="2"| *nōs, *nōz
| *þū
| rowspan="2"| *wōs, *wōz
| —
|-
! Accusative
| *mē
| *þē
| *sē
|-
! Genitive
| *mīz
| *nasterą
| *þīz
| *wasterą
| *sīz
|-
! Dative
| *migī
| *nōbiz
| *þibī
| *wōbiz
| *sibī
|-
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *nōbaz
| *þet, *þit
| *wōbaz
| *set, *sit
|-
! Possessive adj.
| *mijaz
| *nasteraz
| *þawaz
| *wasteraz
| *sawaz
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
====3rd person pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *iz
| *ijai
| *ijō
| *ijōi
| rowspan="2"| *it
| rowspan="2"| *ijō
|-
! Accusative
| *in
| *ijanz
| *ijǭ
| *ijōnz
|-
! Genitive
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*ijōz, -->*izjōz
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
| <!--*es, -->*izjas
| <!--*ijōsą, -->*izjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *immai
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *izjōi
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *immai
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *izjô
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
|-
|}
<!-- consider changing instrumental to *izô (with oblique stem renalyzed as iz) and genitive plural to sth based on eisom perhaps???-->
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *safsaz
| *safsai
| *safsō
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *safsanz
| *safsǭ
| *safsōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *safsabiz
| *safsōi
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
| *safsô
| *safsōbaz
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *safsǭ
| *safsaniz
| *safsǭ
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
! Accusative
| *safsanį
| *safsaninz
| *safsōnį
| *safsōniz
|-
! Genitive
| *safsaniz
| *safsanǭ
| *safsōniz
| *safsōnǭ
| *safsaniz
| *safsanǭ
|-
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
| *safsōni
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|}
====Neutral demonstrative====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *saz
| *sai
| *sō
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
! Accusative
| *san
| *sanz
| *sǭ
| *sōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *sas, *sazjas
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *sammai
| *sabiz
| *sōi
| *sōbiz
| *sammai
| *sabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *sabaz
| *sô
| *sōbaz
| *sō
| *sabaz
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *þai
| *þō
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
! Accusative
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þōi
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *izai
| *izō
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *izō
|-
! Accusative
| *izan
| *izanz
| *izǭ
| *izōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *izammai
| *izabiz
| *izōi
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|}
====Near demonstrative====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *istai
| *istō
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
! Accusative
| *istan
| *istanz
| *istǭ
| *istōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *istammai
| *istabiz
| *istōi
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *gehai
| *gehō
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *gehanz
| *gehǭ
| *gehōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
| *gegōi
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|}
====Far demonstrative====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *allai
| *allō
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
! Accusative
| *allan
| *allanz
| *allǭ
| *allōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *allammai
| *allabiz
| *allōi
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *allabaz
| *allô
| *allōbaz
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|}
====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *hwēz
| *hwōi
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *hwanz
| *hwǭ
| *hwōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
| *hwōi
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
! 1
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *semēlą
| *simflaz, *singilaz
|-
! 2
| *twō
| *alþeraz
| *twis
| *twiflaz
|-
! 3
| *þrēz
| *þriþjǭ
| *þris
| *þriflaz
|-
! 4
| *hwettwōr
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *hwitris
| *hwitriflaz
|-
! 5
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
| *hwinhwis
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
! 6
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
| *sehsis
| *sehsiflaz
|-
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftimǭ
| *siftis
| *siftiflaz
|-
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
| *ahtis
| *ahtōflaz
|-
! 9
| *nawį
| *naunǭ
| *nawis
| *nawiflaz
|-
! 10
| *tihį
| *tihimǭ
| *tihis
| *tihiflaz
|-
! 11
| *ainatigį
| *ainatihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 15
| *hwinhtigį
| *hwinhtihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 16
| *sehstigį
| *sehstihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 17
| *siftintigį
| *siftintihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtihimǭ
|
|
|-
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintijimǭ
|
|
|-
! 20
| *wīginþī
| *wīginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 30
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 40
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginsǭ
|
|
|-
! 100
| *hinþą
| *hinsǭ
|
|
|-
! 1000
| *smīgillī
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|-
|}-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 1
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
|-
! 2
| *twō
| *alþeraz
|-
! 3
| *þrēz
| *þriþjǭ
|-
! 4
| *hwettwōr
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
|-
! 5
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
|-
! 6
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
|-
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftumǭ
|-
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
|-
! 9
| *nawį
| *naunǭ
|-
! 10
| *tihį
| *tehumǭ
|-
! 11
| *ainatigį
| *ainatehumǭ
|-
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatehumǭ
|-
! 13
| *þritigį
| *þritehumǭ
|-
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|-
! 15
| *hwinhtigį
| *hwinhtehumǭ
|-
! 16
| *sehstigį
| *sehstehumǭ
|-
! 17
| *siftintigį
| *siftintehumǭ
|-
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtehumǭ
|-
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintehumǭ
|-
! 20
| *twīginþī
| *twīginsimǭ
|-
! 30
| *þrīginþō
| *þrīginsimǭ
|-
! 40
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|-
! 50
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|-
! 60
| *sehsōginþō
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|-
! 70
| *seftumōginþō
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|-
! 80
| *ahtōginþō
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|-
! 90
| *naunōginþō
| *naunōginsimǭ
|-
! 100
| *hinþą
| *hinsimǭ
|-
! 1000
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *smīgillisimǭ
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative
| *twō, *twai
| *twōi
| *twō
|-
! Accusative
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
|-
|}
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
! Nominative
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|-
! Accusative
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
|-
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *ak'''jō'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *ak'''iz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
! 3S
| *ak'''id'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
! 1P
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *ak'''jand'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|}
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *dah'''jō'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *dah'''iz'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *dah
|-
! 3S
| *dah'''id'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *dēh''' '''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
! 1P
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *dah'''jand'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|}
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *þrag
|-
! 3S
| *þrag'''id'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
! 1P
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *þrag'''and'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|}
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *han
|-
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|}
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *barh
|-
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
|-
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|}
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *stid'''izǭ'''
|-
! 2S
| *st'''ês'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
|-
! 3S
| *st'''êþ'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *st'''êā'''
| *st'''êādar'''
| *steþ''' '''
| *stid'''izē'''
| *st'''êdō'''
|-
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
|-
! 3P
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|}
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
|-
|}
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
<!--
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
<!--
#'''Class 1:'''
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
For example:
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *būō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebūai
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *sijēn
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *issēn
| *bebūizēn
| *būindō
|-
|}-->
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 247: Line 2,200:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
| Monday ||
|-
| Tuesday ||
|-
| Wednesday ||
|-
| Thursday ||
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|}
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| noon ||
|-
| afternoon ||
|-
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| dusk ||
|-
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
| minute ||
-->
|-
| hour ||
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier || *anþ
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *simfer
|-
| often || *saif
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
|-
| ever || *aiwą
|-
| still, yet || *int
|-
| already || *anþ
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||
-->
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
<!--
|-
| last night ||
-->
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
|-
<!--
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
-->
|}
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| white || *albaz
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
|-
| black || *ōþraz
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
|-
<!--
| orange ||
|-
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''PPT:''' Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
'''Classical Latin cognates:''' Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.
<!--
Allai manniz frijai galīkaihw midi werþō rehtamizuh gaburanai sindi. Þaimaz atgebanō sindi midwissį̄ gahugdizuh, auk anþiraimaz anadanų brōþurlīkanǭ augijaną skulun.-->
<!--Opnēs hemones deknotāti jowezikʷe louðeroi parēskʷe gnāskontor, ratijones komskijentijāskʷe partikapes sont, kʷois enter se komkordijās studēōd agontinom est.-->
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
Shariifka
6,924

edits

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/298244...301175"