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Proto-Tungric: Difference between revisions

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|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|fam2 = [[w:Italic_languages|Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor = [[w:Proto-Italic_language|Proto-Italic]]
|ancestor2 = [[Pre-Proto-Tungric]]
<!--
<!--
|iso1 =  
|iso1 =  
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Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.
Proto-Tungric is the result of taking an Italic base and applying a rough approximation of the [[w:Proto-Indo-European_language|PIE]] to [[w:Proto-Germanic_language|Proto-Germanic]] sound changes.


The Italic base of Proto-Tungric had the following features:
The Italic base of Proto-Tungric (known as Pre-Proto-Tungric, or PPT for short) had the following features:
*Lacked merger of original /θ, xʷ, f/.
*PPT lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.
*Stress rules similar to Classical Latin, however:
*The voicing of fricatives in PPT likely differed from what is usually reconstructed for Proto-Italic. In PPT, the fricatives besides /s/ are reconstructed as voiced in all positions (i.e. /ð, ɣʷ, β, ɣ/), while /s/ is reconstructed as unvoiced in most positions.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong.
*PPT stress rules are constructed to have been similar to those of Classical Latin, however:
**Vowel contraction had not yet taken place.
**Word-final syllables took stress if the syllable was super-heavy - i.e. a long vowel or diphthong followed by a coda consonant, or a long diphthong. However, a final ''*-s'' was ignored (i.e. it did not cause a preceding long vowel to receive stress) except in verbs.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic stress shifts.
**Few vowel contractions had taken place at the PPT stage (note that *''-eje-'' > *''-ē-'' did take place).
*Lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
**Some words had analogical or sporadic vowel changes and/or stress shifts.
*PPT lacked Classical Latin vowel weakenings.
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Design goals, inspiration, ideas, who speaks it?, when was it created?, where does it come from?, any peculiarities? -->
<!-- Example categories/headings:  
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! Dative
! Dative
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *akr'''ōi'''
| *akr'''aiz''', *akr'''abiz'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abiz'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *juk'''ōi'''
| *juk'''aiz'''
| *juk'''aiz, -abiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *akr'''ô'''
| *akr'''ō'''
| *akr'''aiz''', *akr'''abaz'''
| *akr'''aiz, -abaz'''
| *juk'''ô'''
| *juk'''ō'''
|
| *juk'''aiz, -abaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōi'''
| *þaud'''ōbiz''', *þaud'''ōiz'''
| *þaud'''ōbiz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ô'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz''', *þaud'''ōiz'''
| *þaud'''ōbaz, -ōiz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minþ'''î'''
| *minþ'''ī'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *minþ'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''î'''
| *mar'''ī'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
| *mar'''ibaz'''
|-
|-
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|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *farþ'''û'''
| *farþ'''ū'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *farþ'''ubaz'''
| *harn'''û'''
| *harn'''ū'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
| *harn'''ubaz'''
|-
|-
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Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *gemǭ ''m.'' "man" <!--|| colspan="2"| *ahtijō ''f.'' "action" -->|| colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
! !! colspan="2"| *gamǭ ''m.'' "man" || colspan="2"| *ardijō ''m./f.'' "skilled person" || colspan="2"| *namǭ ''n.'' "name" || colspan="2"| *ankwǭ ''n.'' "fat, grease"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *gem'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *gam'''aniz'''
<!--| rowspan="2"| *aht'''ijô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''ijǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īniz'''-->
| rowspan="2"| *ard'''īniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *nam'''nō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="3"| *anw'''anō'''
| rowspan="3"| *ankw'''anō'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gem'''anį'''
| *gam'''anį'''
| *gem'''aninz'''
| *gam'''aninz'''
<!--| *aht'''īnį'''
| *ard'''īnį'''
| *aht'''īninz'''-->
| *ard'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gem'''aniz'''
| *gam'''aniz'''
| *gem'''anǭ'''
| *gam'''anǭ'''
<!--| *aht'''īniz'''
| *ard'''īniz'''
| *aht'''īnǭ'''-->
| *ard'''īnǭ'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''niz'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
| *nam'''nǭ'''
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|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gem'''anī'''
| *gam'''anī'''
| *gem'''ambiz'''
| *gam'''ambiz'''
<!--| aht'''īnī'''
| *ard'''īnī'''
| rowspan="2"| *aht'''īmbiz'''-->
| *ard'''īmbiz'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nī'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
| *nam'''nibiz'''
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|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gem'''ani'''
| *gam'''ani'''
<!--| *aht'''īni'''-->
| *gam'''ambaz'''
| *gen'''ambaz'''
| *ard'''īni'''
| *ard'''īmbaz'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''ni'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
| *nam'''nibaz'''
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'''Note:'''  
'''Note:'''  
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
#As shown in the case of *''namǭ'', the expected *''-an-'' in endings was reduced to *''-n-'' in some nouns. In some other nouns, it was instead replaced with *''-in-''. <!--Generally, neuter nouns ending in *''-mô'' follow the former pattern, while other neuter nouns follow the latter pattern.-->
<!--#''*ahtijô'' is an example of a ''ijô''-type '' ''n''-stem, where expected ''-ijin-'' is contracted to ''-īn-''. Similarly, in ''jǭ''-type ''n''-stems, expected ''-jin-'' is contracted to ''-in-''.-->
#''*ardijǭ'' is an example of a heavy ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stem, where expected **''-ijan/ijin-'' was contracted to *''-īn-''. Similarly, in light ''j''-suffixed ''an''-stems, expected **''-jan/jin-'' was contracted to *''-in-''.
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending).
#Some ''an''-stems had an irregular nominative singular ending (or, in the case of neuter nouns, nominative-vocative-accusative singular ending). An example of this is neuter ''r/n''-stems, which had a nominative-vocative-accusative in *''-ar''.<!--
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.
#''an''-stems whose nominative singular ended in *''-ijǭ'' or ''-jǭ'' had *''-īn-'' and *''-in-'' respectively instead of expected **''-ijan-'' or **''-jan-''.-->


====''ōn''-stems====
====''ōn''-stems====
Masculine or feminine.
Masculine or feminine (usually feminine).
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *fihtijǭ ''f.'' "the act of combing"
|-
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
|-
! Vocative
|-
! Accusative
| *fihtij'''ōnį'''
| *fihtij'''ōninz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *fihtij'''ōniz'''
| *fihtij'''ōnǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *fihtij'''ōnī'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbiz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *fihtij'''ōni'''
| *fihtij'''ōmbaz'''
|-
|}
====''īn''-stems====
Feminine.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| *ahtijǭ ''f.'' "action"
! !! colspan="2"| *sirį̄ ''f.'' "sequence, week"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ǭ'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''į̄'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sir'''īniz'''
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahtij'''ōnį'''
| *sir'''īnį'''
| *ahtij'''ōninz'''
| *sir'''īninz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahtij'''ōniz'''
| *sir'''īniz'''
| *ahtij'''ōnǭ'''
| *sir'''īnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahtij'''ōnī'''
| *sir'''īnī'''
| *ahtij'''ōmbiz'''
| *sir'''īmbiz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahtij'''ōni'''
| *sir'''īni'''
| *ahtij'''ōmbaz'''
| *sir'''īmbaz'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
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|}
|}


'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (which often led to minor stem changes), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
'''Note:''' The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *''-s'' (after unvoiced consonants) or *''-z'' (after voiced consonants)<!-- (which often led to minor stem changes)-->, and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation. The weak conjugation was originally derived from a combination of the adjective with a following emphatic particle (akin to Latin ''enim'') that was reanalyzed as an ''n''-stem ending.
 
<!--
'''Note:''' Like with ''ō''-stem nouns, the strong feminine genitive (both singular and plural) had alternative ''*s'' and ''*z'' forms (i.e. ''*-ōs'' or ''*-ōz'' in the singular, and ''*-ōsą'' or ''*-ōzą''). Only the ''*s'' forms are shown below for brevity. The ''*z'' forms can be derived simply by replacing the ''*s'' in the endings with ''*z''.-->
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
====''a/ō''-stem adjectives====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 560: Line 592:


====Consonant-stem adjectives====
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.


The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
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! Dative
! Dative
| *migī
| *migī
| rowspan="2"| *nōbiz
| *nōbiz
| *þibī
| *þibī
| rowspan="2"| *wōbiz
| *wōbiz
| *sibī
| *sibī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *met, *mit
| *met, *mit
| *nōbaz
| *þet, *þit
| *þet, *þit
| *wōbaz
| *set, *sit
| *set, *sit
|-
|-
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! Dative
! Dative
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, *izjabiz
| *izjōz
| *izjōi
| rowspan="2"| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *immai
| *immai
| rowspan="2"| *izjaiz, izjabiz
| *izjaiz, izjabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjô
| *izjōiz, *izjōbiz
| *izjô
| *izjō
| *izjaiz, *izjabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
| *safsōz
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *safsōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *safsammai
| *safsammai
| rowspan="2"| *safsabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsô
| *safsōbaz
| *safsô
| *safsō
| *safsabaz
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! colspan="7"| Weak
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! Dative
! Dative
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōnī
| rowspan="2"| *safsōmbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsanī
| rowspan="2"| *safsambiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
| *safsōni
| *safsōni
| *safsōmbaz
| *safsani
| *safsani
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
| *sōz
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *sammai
| *sammai
| rowspan="2"| *sabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *sabaz
| *sô
| *sô
| *sô
| *sōbaz
| *sô
| *sō
| *sabaz
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *þai
| *þō
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
! Accusative
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
|-
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þōi
| *þōbiz
| *þammai
| *þabiz
|-
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þabaz
| *þô
| *þōbaz
| *þō
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
Line 826: Line 920:
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
| *izōz
| *izōi
| rowspan="2"| *izōbiz
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izammai
| rowspan="2"| *izabiz
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *izabaz
| *izô
| *izô
| *izô
| *izōbaz
| *izô
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
| *istōz
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istōbiz
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istammai
| rowspan="2"| *istabiz
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *istabaz
| *istô
| *istô
| *istô
| *istōbaz
| *istô
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 912: Line 1,012:
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gegabiz
| *gegabiz
| *gegōz
| *gegōi
| rowspan="2"| *gegōbiz
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegammai
| rowspan="2"| *gegabiz
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
| *gegô
| *gegô
| *gegô
| *gegōbaz
| *gegô
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
| *allōz
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allōbiz
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allammai
| rowspan="2"| *allabiz
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *allabaz
| *allô
| *allô
| *allô
| *allōbaz
| *allô
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronoun====
====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 998: Line 1,105:
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
| *hwōz
| *hwōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwōbiz
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwammai
| rowspan="2"| *hwabiz
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwî
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
====Other pronouns====
<!--
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
*''*allaz'' "all"
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
**''*þan'' "then"
**''*idī'' "there"
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
Line 1,017: Line 1,159:
! 1
! 1
| *ainaz
| *ainaz
| *frīsimaz
| *frīsimaz, *framaz
| *semēlą
| *semēlą
| *simflaz, *singilaz
| *simflaz, *singilaz
Line 1,035: Line 1,177:
! 4
! 4
| *hwettwōr
| *hwettwōr
| *hwetarþǭ
| *hwetwarþǭ
| *hwetris
| *hwitris
| *hwetriflaz
| *hwitriflaz
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
| *hwinhtǭ
|  
| *hwinhwis
|  
| *hwinhwiflaz
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| *sehs
| *sehs
| *sehstǭ
| *sehstǭ
|
| *sehsis
|
| *sehsiflaz
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| *siftį
| *siftį
| *siftimǭ
| *siftimǭ
|  
| *siftis
|  
| *siftiflaz
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| *ahtō
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
| *ahtōwǭ
|
| *ahtis
|
| *ahtōflaz
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| *nawį
| *nawį
| *naunǭ
| *naunǭ
|  
| *nawis
|  
| *nawiflaz
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| *tihį
| *tihį
| *tihimǭ
| *tihimǭ
|  
| *tihis
|  
| *tihiflaz
|-
|-
! 11
! 11
Line 1,142: Line 1,284:
|-
|-
! 40
! 40
| *hwatrōginþō
| *hwetrōginþō
| *hwatrōginsǭ
| *hwetrōginsǭ
|
|
|
|
Line 1,184: Line 1,326:
|-
|-
! 1000
! 1000
| *smīgislī
| *smīgillī
| *smīgislidǭ
| *smīgillidǭ
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
|}-->
'''Notes:'''
 
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 1
| *twō, *twai
| *ainaz
| *twōi
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
| *twō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 2
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
| *twō
| *alþeraz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 3
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *þrēz
| *þriþjǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! 4
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| *hwettwōr
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 5
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *hwinhw
| *hwinhtǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 6
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
| *sehs
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *sehstǭ
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 7
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| *siftį
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
| *siftumǭ
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 8
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
| *ahtō
| *ahtōwǭ
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 9
| colspan="3"| þrijǫ̂, *þrēsą
| *nawį
| *naunǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! 10
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
| *tihį
| *tehumǭ
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 11
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
| *ainatigį
| *ainatehumǭ
|-
! 12
| *twatigį
| *twatehumǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 13
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
| *þritigį
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
| *þritehumǭ
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending ''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
 
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
| -ai || -istai || -id || -amaz || -istiz || -ēri
! 14
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
|-
|-
|}
! 15
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
| *hwinhtigį
 
| *hwinhtehumǭ
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*stêō'' "I stand" > ''*steþai'' "I stood"
 
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-'' (underlyingly *''-aē-'', as revealed by the past participle)
 
The past participle of strong verbs was formed with the suffix ''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become ''-taz'', ''-daz'', or ''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually ''-a-'' (or ''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akizi'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 16
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *sehstigį
| *sehstehumǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 17
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *siftintigį
| *siftintehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 18
| *ahtōtigį
| *ahtōtehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! 19
| *nawintigį
| *nawintehumǭ
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! 20
| *twīginþī
| *twīginsimǭ
|-
|-
! 1S
! 30
| *ak'''jō'''
| *þrīginþō
| *ak'''jōr'''
| *þrīginsimǭ
| *ak'''jǭ'''
| *ak'''jār'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 40
| *ak'''iz'''
| *hwetrōginþō
| *ak'''izar'''
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēz'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! 3S
! 50
| *ak'''id'''
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *ak'''idar'''
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
| *ak'''jād'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk'''id'''
| *ēk'''izēd'''
| *ak'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 60
| *ak'''jamaz'''
| *sehsōginþō
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *sehsōginsimǭ
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 70
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *seftumōginþō
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *seftumōginsimǭ
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 80
| *ak'''jand'''
| *ahtōginþō
| *ak'''jānd'''
| *ahtōginsimǭ
| *ak'''jēri'''
| *ak'''izēnd'''
| *ak'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
! 90
 
| *naunōginþō
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahizi'' "to do, make"'''
| *naunōginsimǭ
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''izi'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 100
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
| *hinþą
| *hinsimǭ
|-
! 1000
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *smīgillisimǭ
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
|}
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
'''Notes:'''
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! Nominative
| *twō, *twai
| *twōi
| *twō
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
! Accusative
| *twanz
| *twōnz
| *twō
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
|-
|-
! 1S
! Dative
| *dah'''jō'''
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *dēh'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! Instrumental
| *dah'''iz'''
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *dah'''izar'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *dēh'''izēz'''
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
|}
| *dah'''id'''
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
| *dah'''idar'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *dah'''jād'''
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
| *dag'''jādar'''
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
| *dēh'''id'''
| *dēh'''izēd'''
| *dah'''jô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! Nominative
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
|-
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
! Accusative
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|-
|-
! 2P
! Dative
| *dah'''idiz'''
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! Instrumental
| *dah'''jand'''
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
| *dah'''jānd'''
| *dag'''jēri'''
| *dag'''izēnd'''
| *dag'''janþô'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"


'''Example: *''þragizi'' (class 6) "to sing"'''
===Verbs===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
====Strong verbs====
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''izi'''
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *-ai || *-istai || *- || *-amaz || *-istiz || *-ēri
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
|}
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
|-
 
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
|-
#'''Class 1:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-i-''. It had two subclasses:
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
#:'''a.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ai-'' — e.g. ''*'''wit'''ēō'' "I see" > ''*'''wait'''ai'' "I saw", ''*'''wis'''saz'' "seen"
|-
#:'''b.''' The past stem was formed by changing the stem vowel to *''-ī-'' — e.g. ''*'''winh'''ō'' "I conquer" > ''*'''wīh'''ai'' "I conquered", ''*'''wih'''taz'' "conquered"
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
#'''Class 2:''' This class had a present stem vowel of *''-u-'' which changed to *''-au-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''buk'''jō'' "I flee" > ''*'''bauk'''ai'' "I fled", ''*'''buk'''adaz'' "fled"
|-
#'''Class 3:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'', *''-e-'', or *''-i-'' that became *''-ē-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''dah'''jō'' "I do" > ''*'''dēh'''ai'' "I did", ''*'''dah'''taz'' "done"
! 1S
#'''Class 4:''' This class had a present stem vowel *''-a-'' that became *''-ō-'' in the past stem — e.g. ''*'''skab'''ō'' "I scratch" > ''*'''skōb'''ai'' "I scratched", ''*'''skab'''adaz'' "scratched"
| *þrag'''ō'''
#'''Class 5:''' The past stem had the same stem vowel as the present stem — e.g. ''*'''fip'''ō'' "I drink" > ''*'''fip'''ai'' "I drank", ''*'''fip'''adaz'' "drunk"
| *þrag'''ōr'''
#<b>Class 6:</b> The past stem was derived from the present stem by adding *''-s-'' — e.g. ''*<b>þrag</b>ō'' "I drag" > ''*<b>þrahs</b>ai'' "I dragged", ''*'''þrah'''taz'' "dragged"  
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
#'''Class 7:''' The past stem was formed by reduplication of the first consonant followed by ''-e-''. In some verbs, there was also be a vowel change (usually *''-e/i-'' to *''-a-'') — e.g. ''*'''han'''ō'' "I sing" > ''*'''hehan'''ai'' "I sang"
| *þrag'''ār'''
#'''Irregular:''' The past stem was formed in another way besides those above — e.g. ''*'''stê'''ō'' "I stand" > ''*'''steþ'''ai'' "I stood"
| *þrahs'''ai'''
 
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
Some strong verbs had irregular presents. This affected the present tense (both indicative and subjunctive), present participle, infinitive, and imperative. There were three types of irregularities, and they could co-occur:
# A ''j''-suffix. Such verbs are said to be ''j''-presents, and could be light or heavy. This affected the present tense suffixes in much the same way as it did in nouns and adjectives.
#An nasal infix. This did not affect the verb's endings, but affected the present stem. Such verbs are called nasal presents.
#A vowel suffix (usually *''-ō-'' or *''-ē-''). Such verbs are called ''ō''-presents or ''ē''-presents respectively. They conjugated similarly to class 2 or 3 weak verbs respectively in the present forms. There was also the exceptional verb ''*stêsi'' which had the suffix *''-ê-''.
 
The past participle of all verbs was formed with the suffix *''-þaz'' which, depending on the environment, could become *''-taz'', *''-daz'', or *''-saz''. Some verbs had a connector vowel, while others did not. For those that did, it was usually *''-a-'' (or *''-i-'' in the case of ''j''-presents). Verbs with nasal infixes or vowel suffixes did not exhibit these in the past participle.
 
The infinitive was formed with the suffix *''-mį'' added to the present stem (including any irregularities). ''j''-presents used a connector vowel of *''-i-'' (light) or *''-ī-'' (heavy). Otherwise, if the present stem did not end in a vowel, the connector vowel *''-a-'' was used.
 
'''Example (class 3): *''akamį'' "to do, act"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *ak'''amį'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''iz'''
| colspan="3"| *ak'''inþs'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *þrahs'''izēz'''
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| *þrag'''id'''
| colspan="3"| *ah'''taz'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *þrag'''ād'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *þrahs'''id'''
| *þrahs'''izēd'''
| *þrag'''ô'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
| *þrag'''and'''
| *þrag'''ānd'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *þrahs'''izēnd'''
| *þrag'''anþô'''
|-
|-
|}
! 1S
 
| *ak'''jō'''
'''Example: *''hanizi'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
| *ak'''jōr'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *ak'''jǭ'''
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| *ak'''jār'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''izi'''
| *ēk'''ai'''
| *ēk'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2S
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
| *ak'''iz'''
| *ak'''izar'''
| *ak'''jāz'''
| *ak'''jāzar'''
| *ēk'''istai'''
| *ēk'''izēs'''
| *ak
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 3S
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
| *ak'''id'''
| *ak'''idar'''
| *ak'''jā'''
| *ak'''jādar'''
| *ēk''' '''
| *ēk'''izē'''
| *ak'''idō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! 1P
|-
| *ak'''jamaz'''
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''iminai'''
| *ak'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *ak'''jāminai'''
| *ēk'''amaz'''
| *ēk'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *ak'''idiz'''
| *ak'''jādiz'''
| *ēk'''istiz'''
| *ēk'''izēþiz'''
| *ak'''id'''
|-
! 3P
| *ak'''jand'''
| *ak'''jān'''
| *ēk'''ēri'''
| *ēk'''izēn'''
| *ak'''jandō'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example (class 3, light ''j''-present): *''dahimį'' "to do, make"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *dah'''imį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dag'''inþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *dah'''taz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *han'''ō'''
| *dah'''jō'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *dah'''jōr'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *dah'''jǭ'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *dah'''jār'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *dēh'''ai'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
| *dēg'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *han'''iz'''
| *dah'''iz'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *dah'''izar'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *dah'''jāz'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *dag'''jāzar'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *dēg'''istai'''
| *hegan'''izēz'''
| *dēg'''izēs'''
| *han
| *dah
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *dah'''idar'''
| *han'''ād'''
| *dah'''jā'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *dag'''jādar'''
| *hehan'''id'''
| *dēh''' '''
| *hegan'''izēd'''
| *dēg'''izē'''
| *han'''ô'''
| *dah'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *han'''amaz'''
| *dah'''jamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''iminai'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| *dag'''jāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *dag'''jāminai'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *dēh'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
| *dēg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *han'''idiz'''
| *dah'''idiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *dag'''jādiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *dēg'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *dēg'''izēþiz'''
| *han'''id'''
| *dah'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *han'''and'''
| *dah'''jand'''
| *han'''ānd'''
| *dah'''jān'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *dēg'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''izēnd'''
| *dag'''izēn'''
| *han'''anþô'''
| *dag'''jandō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīzi'' "to stuff"'''
'''Example: *''þragamį'' (class 6) "to drag"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īzi'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
| colspan="3"| *þrag'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
| colspan="3"| *þrah'''taz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,560: Line 1,712:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *barh'''ijō'''
| *þrag'''ō'''
| *barh'''ijōr'''
| *þrag'''ōr'''
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
| *þrag'''ǭ'''
| *barh'''ijār'''
| *þrag'''ār'''
| *bebarh'''ai'''
| *þrahs'''ai'''
| *bebarg'''īsǭ'''
| *þrahs'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *barh'''īz'''
| *þrag'''iz'''
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *þrag'''izar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *þrag'''āz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *þrag'''āzar'''
| *bebarg'''īstai'''
| *þrahs'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''īsēz'''
| *þrahs'''izēs'''
| *barh
| *þrag
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *barh'''īd'''
| *þrag'''id'''
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *þrag'''idar'''
| *barh'''ijād'''
| *þrag'''ā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *þrag'''ādar'''
| *bebarh'''īd'''
| *þrahs''' '''
| *bebarg'''īsēd'''
| *þrahs'''izē'''
| *barh'''ijô'''
| *þrag'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| *þrag'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''iminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| *þrag'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *þrag'''āminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *þrahs'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēmaz'''
| *þrahs'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *barg'''īþiz'''
| *þrag'''idiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *þrag'''ādiz'''
| *bebarg'''īstiz'''
| *þrahs'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''īzēþiz'''
| *þrahs'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
| *þrag'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *þrag'''and'''
| *barh'''ijānd'''
| *þrag'''ān'''
| *barg'''ijēri'''
| *þrahs'''ēri'''
| *barg'''īzēnd'''
| *þrahs'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijanþô'''
| *þrag'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


'''Example: *''stêsi'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
'''Example: *''hanamį'' (class 7) "to sing"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êsi'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''amį'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''inþs'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
| colspan="3"| *han'''þaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
Line 1,627: Line 1,779:
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *st'''êō'''
| *han'''ō'''
| *st'''êōr'''
| *han'''ōr'''
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *han'''ǭ'''
| *st'''êār'''
| *han'''ār'''
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *hehan'''ai'''
| *stiþ'''izǭ'''
| *hegan'''izǭ'''
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *st'''êz'''
| *han'''iz'''
| *st'''êsar'''
| *han'''izar'''
| *st'''êāz'''
| *han'''āz'''
| *st'''êāsar'''
| *han'''āzar'''
| *stid'''istai'''
| *hegan'''istai'''
| *stiþ'''izēz'''
| *hegan'''izēs'''
| *st'''ê'''
| *han
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *st'''êd'''
| *han'''id'''
| *st'''êþar'''
| *han'''idar'''
| *st'''êād'''
| *han'''ā'''
| *st'''êāþar'''
| *han'''ādar'''
| *stiþ'''id'''
| *hehan''' '''
| *stiþ'''izēd'''
| *hegan'''izē'''
| *st'''êô'''
| *han'''idō'''
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *han'''amaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''iminai'''
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *han'''āmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| rowspan="3"| *han'''āminai'''
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *hegan'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
| *hegan'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *han'''idiz'''
| *st'''êāþiz'''
| *han'''ādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *hegan'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *hegan'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
| *han'''id'''
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *st'''ênd'''
| *han'''and'''
| *st'''êānd'''
| *han'''ān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *hegan'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēnd'''
| *hegan'''izēn'''
| *st'''ênþô'''
| *han'''andō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Weak verbs====
'''Example (class 7, heavy ''j''-present): *''bargīmį'' "to stuff"'''
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they toom the following endings in the past indicative:
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īmį'''
|-
|-
| -bǭ || -bōz || -bōd || -bōmaz || -bōþiz || -bōnd
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *barg'''īnþs'''
|-
|-
|}
! colspan="2" | Present participle
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the weak verb class.
| colspan="3"| *barh'''taz'''
 
|-
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
<!--
|-
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
<!--
|-
#'''Class 1:'''
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
#*The present stem contained a ''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
|-
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
! 1S
-
| *barh'''ijō'''
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
| *barh'''ijōr'''
====='''Class 1'''=====
| *barh'''ijǭ'''
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
| *barh'''ijār'''
 
| *bebarh'''ai'''
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
| *bebarg'''izǭ'''
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
 
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*minizi'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtizi'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōssaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōsi'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swidizi'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swēssaz'' "accustomed"
*''*imizi'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*sinizi'' "to be allowed", ''*sīsai'' "I am allowed", ''*sinabǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrinizi'' "to be determined", ''*hrīsai'' "I am determined", ''*hrinabǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēsi'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enoigh"
*''*þilizi'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afizi'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōzi'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bu/bū-''. They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *issi
| colspan="2"| *būizi
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
! 2S
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| *barh'''īz'''
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
| *barg'''īzar'''
| *barh'''ijāz'''
| *barg'''ijāzar'''
| *bebarg'''istai'''
| *bebarg'''izēs'''
| *barh
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
! 3S
| colspan="2"| —
| *barh'''īd'''
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
| *barg'''īdar'''
| *barh'''ijā'''
| *barg'''ijādar'''
| *bebarh''' '''
| *bebarg'''izē'''
| *barh'''īdō'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
! 1P
| *barg'''ijamaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''īminai'''
| *barg'''ijāmaz'''
| rowspan="3"| *barg'''ijāminai'''
| *bebarh'''amaz'''
| *bebarg'''izēmaz'''
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
! 2P
| *barg'''īdiz'''
| *barg'''ijādiz'''
| *bebarg'''istiz'''
| *bebarg'''izēþiz'''
| *barg'''īþ'''
|-
|-
! !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' 1 !! ''*būizi'' 2 !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*būizi'' !! ''*issi'' !! ''*būizi
! 3P
| *barh'''ijand'''
| *barh'''ijān'''
| *bebarg'''ēri'''
| *bebarg'''izēn'''
| *barg'''ijandō'''
|-
|}
 
'''Example: *''stêmį'' (irregular, present suffix ''-ê-'') "to stand"'''
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="3"| *st'''êmį'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *st'''ênþs'''
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="3"| *sta'''þaz'''
|-
! !! colspan="4" | Present !! colspan="2"| Past !! rowspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! Subjunctive
|-
! !! Active !! Passive !! Active !! Passive !! Active!! Active !! Active
|-
|-
! 1S
! 1S
| *izą
| *st'''êō'''
| *būō
| *st'''êōr'''
| *buzą
| *st'''êǭ'''
| *sijǭ
| *st'''êār'''
| *buzǭ
| *steþ'''ai'''
| *bebūai
| *stid'''izǭ'''
| *issǭ
| *bebūzǭ
|-
|-
! 2S
! 2S
| *iz
| *st'''ês'''
| *būiz
| *st'''êsar'''
| *buz
| *st'''êāz'''
| *sijēz
| *st'''êāzar'''
| *buzāz
| *stid'''istai'''
| *bebūistai
| *stid'''izēs'''
| *issēz
| *st'''ê'''
| *bebūzēz
| *bū
|-
|-
! 3S
! 3S
| *ist
| *st'''êþ'''
| *būid
| *st'''êþar'''
| *bust
| *st'''êā'''
| *sijēd
| *st'''êādar'''
| *buzād
| *steþ''' '''
| *bebūid
| *stid'''izē'''
| *issēd
| *st'''êdō'''
| *bebūzēd
|-
|-
! 1P
! 1P
| *samaz
| *st'''êmaz'''
| *būamaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êminai'''
| *buzamaz
| *st'''êāmaz'''
| *sijēmaz
| rowspan="3"| *st'''êāminai'''
| *buzāmaz
| *steþ'''amaz'''
| *stid'''izēmaz'''
|-
! 2P
| *st'''êþiz'''
| *st'''êādiz'''
| *stid'''istiz'''
| *stid'''izēþiz'''
| *st'''êd'''
|-
! 3P
| *st'''ênþ'''
| *st'''êān'''
| *sted'''ēri'''
| *stid'''izēn'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|}
 
====Weak verbs====
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! 1S !! 2S !! 3S !! 1P !! 2P !! 3P
|-
| *-bǭ || *-bōs || *-bō || *-bōmaz || *-bōþiz || *-bōn
|-
|}
The *''-b-'' was usually preceded with a connector vowel, which depended on the verb's class. The same connector vowel was also used to form the infinitive.
 
The past subjunctive endings were also added to the present stem. A connector vowel was also used, which can be predicted from the connector vowel of the past indicative.
<!--
Weak verbs can be categorized into the following classes:
<!--
#'''Class 1:'''
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-(i)ja-'', while the past subjunctive and past participle had a connector vowel *''-i/ī-''. In both cases, the suffixes followed Siever's law.
 
====='''Class 2'''=====
Class 2 weak verbs had the following characteristics:
*The present stem ended in *''-ō-'', which absorbed any following short vowels and contracted with 1S *''-ō-'' to *''-ô-''. In the present subjunctive, expected **''-ōǭ'' contracted to *''-ǫ̂'', while expected **''-ōā-'' became *''-ōē-''.
*The connector vowel in the past (both indicative and subjunctive) and past participle was *''-ō-'', as in the present stem.
 
====='''Class 3'''=====
There were two subclasses of class 3 weak verbs.
 
The first subclass was conjugated with the suffixed vowel *''-ē-'', which absorbed following short vowels (similar to the *''-ō-'' of class 2) but did not contract with long vowels. The past participle dropped the *''-ē-'' suffix and instead had the connector vowel *''-a-''.
 
The second subclass was conjugated similarly to the first subclass but with the following exception: The present subjunctive were conjugated similarly to class 1 weak verbs (i.e. without the vowel *''-ē-'' and with a palatal suffix). The past participle had the connector vowel *''-i-''.
 
====='''Class 4'''=====
Class 4 weak verbs did not have a suffix. Their non-past conjugation followed that of non-''j''-stem strong verbs.
 
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
 
====Preterite-present verbs====
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
 
For example:
*''*menamį'' "to remember", ''*memanai'' "I remember", ''*menabǭ'' "I remembered", ''*minþaz'' "remembered"
*''*ōtamį'' "to hate", ''*ōtai'' "I hate", ''*ōtabǭ'' "I hated", ''*ōsaz'' "hated"
*''*(ga)knōmį'' "to know, be familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōai'' "I know, am familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōbǭ'' "I knew, was familiar (with)", ''*(ga)knōþaz'' "known"
*''*(ga)swedamį'' "to be used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedai'' "I am used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swedabǭ'' "I was used/accustomed to", ''*(ga)swessaz'' "accustomed"
*''*emamį'' "to have, own", ''*ēmai'' "I have, own", ''*emabǭ'' "I had, owned", ''*imþaz'' "had, owned"
*''*simį'' "to be allowed", ''*sisai'' "I am allowed", ''*sibǭ'' "I was allowed", ''*siþaz'' "allowed"
*''*hrimį'' "to be determined", ''*hrisai'' "I am determined", ''*hribǭ'' "I was determined", ''*hriþaz'' "determined"
*''*(ga)flēmį'' "to suffice, be enough", ''*(ga)flēai'' "I suffice, am enough", ''*(ga)flēþaz'' "sufficed, enough"
*''*þelamį'' "to owe, have to", ''*þeþalai'' "I owe, have to", ''*þelabǭ'' "I owe, had to", ''*þelþaz'' "owed, had to"
*''*afamį'' "to be necessary/suitable", ''*ēfai'' "I am necessary/suitable", ''*afabǭ'' "I was necessary/suitable", ''*aftaz'' "necessary/suitable"
<!--
*''jawōmį'' "to be suitable", ''*jawazai'' "I am suitable", ''*jawōbǭ'' "-->
 
====The verb "to be"====
<!--
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*bū/bus-''.<!-- They can be treated as two separate verbs sharing past indicative and imperative forms.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
| colspan="2"| *immį
| colspan="2"| *būamį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="2"| *sinþs
| colspan="2"| *būinþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="2"| —
| colspan="2"| *būadaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' 1 !! ''*būamį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*būamį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*būamį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *būō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebūai
| *issǭ
| *bebūizǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *būiz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebūistai
| *issēz
| *bebūizēz
| *bū
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *būid
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebū
| *issē
| *bebūizē
| *būidō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *būamaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebūamaz
| *bebūamaz
| *issēmaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebūzēmaz
| *bebūizēmaz
|-
|-
! 2P
! 2P
| *istiz
| *istiz
| *būidiz
| *būidiz
| *bustiz
| *bustiz
| *sijēþiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebūistiz
| *bebūistiz
| *issēþiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebūzēþiz
| *bebūizēþiz
| *būid
| *būid
|-
|-
! 3P
! 3P
| *sind
| *sind
| *būind
| *būind
| *buzind
| *buzind
| *sijēnd
| *sijēn
| *buzānd
| *buzān
| *bebūēri
| *bebūēri
| *issēnd
| *issēn
| *bebūzēnd
| *bebūizēn
|-
| *būindō
|}
|-
 
|}-->
==Syntax==
 
===Constituent order===
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
===Noun phrase===
 
===Verb phrase===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
===Sentence phrase===
! colspan="2"| Infinitive
===Dependent clauses===
| colspan="2"| *immį
<!-- etc. etc. -->
| colspan="2"| *biumį
|-
! colspan="2" | Present participle
| colspan="4"| *beunþs
|-
! colspan="2" | Past participle
| colspan="4"| *beudaz
|-
! !! colspan="5" | Present !! colspan="3"| Past !! rowspan="3"| Imperative
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Indicative !! colspan="2" | Subjunctive !! Indicative !! colspan="2"| Subjunctive
|-
! !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' 1 !! ''*biumį'' 2 !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*biumį'' !! ''*immį'' !! ''*biumį''
|-
! 1S
| *izą
| *bewō
| *buzą
| *sijǭ
| *buzǭ
| *bebewai
| *issǭ
| *bebeuzǭ
|-
! 2S
| *iz
| *beuz
| *buz
| *sijēz
| *buzāz
| *bebeustai
| *issēz
| *bebeuzēz
| *beu
|-
! 3S
| *ist
| *beud
| *bust
| *sijē
| *buzā
| *bebeu
| *issē
| *bebeuzē
| *beudō
|-
! 1P
| *samaz
| *beumaz
| *buzamaz
| *sīmaz
| *buzāmaz
| *bebeumaz
| *issēmaz
| *bebeuzēmaz
|-
! 2P
| *istiz
| *beudiz
| *bustiz
| *sīþiz
| *buzāþiz
| *bebiustiz
| *issēþiz
| *bebeuzēþiz
| *beud
|-
! 3P
| *sind
| *beund
| *buzind
| *sīn
| *buzān
| *bebewēri
| *issēn
| *bebeuzēn
| *beundō
|-
|}
 
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Noun phrase===
===Verb phrase===
===Sentence phrase===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
|}
<!--
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| January ||
|-
| February ||
|-
| March ||
|-
| April ||
|-
| May ||
|-
| June ||
|-
| July ||
|-
| August ||
|-
| September ||
|-
| October ||
|-
| November ||
|-
| December ||
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - '' ''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| Sunday ||
|-
| Monday ||
|-
| Tuesday ||
|-
| Wednesday ||
|-
| Thursday ||
|-
| Friday ||
|-
| Saturday ||
|-
|}
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| noon ||
|-
| afternoon ||
|-
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
<!--
| dusk ||
|-
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
|-
<!--
| midnight ||
-->
|}
'''Notes:'''
 
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
<!--
| second ||
|-
| minute ||
-->
|-
| hour ||
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|}
 
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
| then || *þan
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||
|-
| earlier || *anþ
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
|-
| later ||
|-
| always || *simfer
|-
| often || *saif
|-
| sometimes ||
|-
| rarely ||
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
|-
| ever || *aiwą
|-
| still, yet || *int
|-
| already || *anþ
<!--
|-
| today ||
|-
| tonight ||
-->
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
<!--
|-
| last night ||
-->
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
|-
<!--
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
-->
|}
 
===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
|-
| white || *albaz
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
|-
| black || *ōþraz
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
|-
<!--
| orange ||
|-
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
|-
<!--
| pink ||
|-
| purple ||
|-
| golden ||
|-
-->
|}
 
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
 
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
 
'''PPT:''' Opnēs ɣomones louðeroi co(m)-plānoi-kʷe com deknotāti jowesi-kʷe co(m)-tlātai sent. Sois addōnātāi sent ratjō co(m)skijentijā-kʷe, et alterois anamām βrātrālim prōðomen tetolēri.
 
'''Classical Latin cognates:''' Omnēs hominēs līberī *complānīque cum dignitāte iūreque collātī sunt. *Sīs *addōnātae sunt ratiō cōnscientiaque, et alterīs animam *frātrālem *prōdimen tetulēre.
<!--
Allai manniz frijai galīkaihw midi werþō rehtamizuh gaburanai sindi. Þaimaz atgebanō sindi midwissį̄ gahugdizuh, auk anþiraimaz anadanų brōþurlīkanǭ augijaną skulun.-->
<!--Opnēs hemones deknotāti jowezikʷe louðeroi parēskʷe gnāskontor, ratijones komskijentijāskʷe partikapes sont, kʷois enter se komkordijās studēōd agontinom est.-->


==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
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