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² Voiceless stops and affricates are voiced before voiced consonants except /v/.
² Voiceless stops and affricates are voiced before voiced consonants except /v/.


³ Voiceless fricatives are voiced when they occur between voiced sounds (including vowels). To remain unvoiced in such environments, they can be written doubled.
³ Voiceless fricatives are voiced when they occur between voiced sounds (including vowels). To remain unvoiced in such environments, they can be written doubled. Such doubling is maintained in a word's stem even when it occurs word-finally.


⁴ Free variation (depending on speaker and dialect).
⁴ Free variation (depending on speaker and dialect).
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|-->
|-->
This palatalization is also known as "obstruent palatalization".
This palatalization is also known as "obstruent palatalization".
In this article, obstruent palatalization is represented as {j-o}


====Second palatalization====
====Second palatalization====
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By default, "palatalization" refers to the second palatalization unless specified otherwise.
By default, "palatalization" refers to the second palatalization unless specified otherwise.


In this article, palatalization is represented as {j}.
====U-umlaut====
====U-umlaut====
*a > o
*a > o
*ă, â > u
*ă, â > u
 
Represented as {u}.
====I-umlaut====
====I-umlaut====
*a > e
*a > e
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*Otherwise: o > e
*Otherwise: o > e
*u > i
*u > i
Represented as {i}.
====Disappearing ''-g-''====
Some verbs have a stem-final ''-g-'' that appears in certain morphological environments and disappears in others.


====Disappearing ''-g-''====
The environments where ''-g-'' appears are:
*Some verbs have a stem-final ''-g-'' that appears in certain morphological environments and disappears in others.
*Strong verbs: In the past participle and the plural forms of the past tense.
*Preterite-present verbs: In the <!--infinitive, -->present participle, imperative, and the plural forms of the present tense.
 
In this article, disappearing ''-g-'' is represented as {g}.


====Disappearing ''-j-, -v-,'' and palatalization====
====Disappearing ''-j-, -v-,'' and palatalization====
*Some consonant-final verbs, nouns, and adjectives have a final ''-j-'' or ''-v-'' or a palatalization of the final consonant which appear before vowels but are lost in other environments.
Some consonant-final verbs, nouns, and adjectives have a final ''-j-'' or ''-v-'' or a palatalization of the final consonant which appear before vowels but are lost in other environments.


====Dental past suffix====
====Dental past suffix====
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*''-t-'' > after orthographic voiceless consonants, and after disappearing ''-g-'' (which is dropped in this environment)
*''-t-'' > after orthographic voiceless consonants, and after disappearing ''-g-'' (which is dropped in this environment)
**Expected *''-tt-'' is simplified to ''-t-''.
**Expected *''-tt-'' is simplified to ''-t-''.
*''-d-'' > after nasals and ''l''
*''-d-'' > after ''-n-, -m-, -l-, -d-'' and ''-ð-''.
**Expected *''-dd-'' and *''-ðd-'' are simplified to ''-d-''.
*''-ð-'' > otherwise
*''-ð-'' > otherwise


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! rowspan="2"| Singular
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
! nom./acc.
| ses
| þess
| sesă
| þessă
| set
| þet
|-
|-
! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
| ses
| þess
| seši
| þešši
| sesu
| þessu
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
! nom./acc.
| sešir
| þeššir
| sesăr
| þessăr
| ses
| þess
|-
|-
! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| sesum
| colspan="3"| þessum
|-
|-
|}
|}
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! gen./dat.
! gen./dat.
| alds
| alds
| aldzi
| aldři
| oldu
| oldu
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|}
|}
===Adjectives===
====Declension====
Adjectives can be declined either strong or weak. Weak forms are used when modifying definite nouns, while strong forms are used otherwise. However, certain adjectives can only take one of the two patterns irrespective of definiteness.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Strong adjective declension
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| -
| -ă
| -t¹
|-
! gen./dat.
| -s²
| -(ř)i³
| {u}-u
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| -ir
| -ăr
| {u}-
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| {u}-(u)m⁴
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ Dental consonants (''-t-, -d-, -þ-, -ð-,'' and ''-n-'') assimilate to ''-t'' and are dropped.
² ''-s'' is dropped after postalveolar consonants.
³ ''-ř-'' is dropped after the consonants ''-r-, -s-, -n-,'' and ''-l-'', which are then palatalized in its stead.
⁴ ''-u-'' is dropped after a vowel.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Weak adjective declension
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| colspan="3"| -ă¹
|-
! gen./dat.
| -ă¹
| -u
| -ă¹
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| colspan="3" rowspan="2"| -u
|-
! gen./dat.
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ ''-ă'' is dropped after a vowel.
====Placement====
Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify. When a weak adjective is used with a definite noun, the definite article is attached to whichever word comes last (whether it is the noun or adjective).
====Comparative and superlative====
* Comparative: ''mer'' "more" + adjective
* Superlative: ''mest'' "most" + adjective
* Some adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives.
===Numbers===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Numbers
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
|-
! 0
| nul; zero
| nuldă
|-
! 1
| en, enă, et (en)
| first
|-
! 2
| tvir, tver, tvau (tvo)
| tvoðă
|-
! 3
| þřir, þřor, þřu (þři)
| þřiză
|-
! 4
| fjořir, fjorăr, fjor (fjor)
| fjorðă
|-
! 5
| fim
| fimtă
|-
! 6
| ses
| setă
|-
! 7
| šau
| šundă
|-
! 8
| otă
| otândă
|-
! 9
| niu
| nindă
|-
! 10
| ciu
| cindă
|-
! 11
| enpociu
| enpocindă
|-
! 12
| tvopociu
| tvopocindă
|-
! 13
| þřipociu
| þřipocindă
|-
! 14
| fjorpociu
| fjorpocindă
|-
! 15
| fimpociu
| fimpocindă
|-
! 20
| tvociu
| tvocindă
|-
! 21
| tvociu ok en
| tvocindă ok first
|-
! 30
| þřiciu
| þřicindă
|-
! 40
| fjorciu
| fjorcindă
|-
! 50
| fimciu
| fimcindă
|-
! 100
| hundrăð
| hundrădă
|-
! 101
| hundrăð ok en
| hundrădă ok first
|-
! 200
| tvau hundruð
| tvau hundrădă
|-
! 1000
| þusund
| þusundă
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
¹ All ordinal numbers are weak adjectives, except ''first'' which can be strong or weak.
² ''En'' (1) is declined as a strong adjective. ''Tvir'' (2) is declined as the plural third person pronoun (''þir''). ''Fjořir'' (4) is declined as a plural strong adjective. ''Þřir'' (3) is declined irregularly. These numbers (1-4) also have indeclinable variants.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''en'' "one"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Singular
! nom./acc.
| en
| enă
| et
|-
! gen./dat.
| ens
| eňi
| ens
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| eňir
| enăr
| en
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| enum
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| en
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''tvir'' "two"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| tvir
| tver
| tvau
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| tvem
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| tvo
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''þřir'' "three"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| þřir
| þřor
| þřu
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| þřim
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| þři
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align: center"
|+ Declension of ''fjořir'' "four"
! Number !! Case !! Masc. !! Fem. !! Neut.
|-
! rowspan="2"| Plural
! nom./acc.
| fjořir
| fjorăr
| fjor
|-
! gen./dat.
| colspan="3"| fjorum
|-
! colspan="2"| Indeclinable
| colspan="3"| fjor
|}
''Hundrăð'' (100) and ''þusund'' (1000) are declined as neuter nouns. All other numbers are indeclinable.


===Nouns===
===Nouns===
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**Note: The ''-r'' of the feminine plural/genitive-dative is not pronounced before the definite article. For example, ''džavărnăr'' "the gifts (nom./acc.)" is pronounced as if it were written ''*džavănăr''.
**Note: The ''-r'' of the feminine plural/genitive-dative is not pronounced before the definite article. For example, ''džavărnăr'' "the gifts (nom./acc.)" is pronounced as if it were written ''*džavănăr''.
*The final consonant of the noun is palatalized before undropped ''-i-'' of the definite article whenever possible.
*The final consonant of the noun is palatalized before undropped ''-i-'' of the definite article whenever possible.
===Verbs===
====Verb stems====
A verb can have up to 5 stems:
*'''Primary present stem (represented as <Pr>)'''
**Used in the plural present tense and the imperative.
*'''Secondary present stem (represented as <Pr`>)'''
**Used in the present participle and singular present tense.
**Either identical to the primary present stem, or derived from it via i-umlaut.
*'''Primary past stem (represented as <Pa>)'''
**Used in the plural past tense.
**For weak verbs and preterite-present verbs, it is formed from the primary present stem with the ending ''-ð-'' (or one of its allomorphs).
**For strong verbs, it is formed by ablaut. Some strong verbs additionally add the ending ''-r-'' followed by weak verb endings.
*'''Secondary past stem (represented as <Pa`>)'''
**Used in the singular past tense.
**Identical to the primary past stem for the majority of verbs.
*'''Past participle stem (represented as <PP>)'''
**Used in the past participle.
**For weak verbs and preterite-present verbs, it is identical to the past stem.
**For strong verbs, it is formed by ablaut along with the ending ''-in-''.
====Verb classes====
Verbs fall into 3 main categories:
# Strong verbs
# Weak verbs
# Preterite-present verbs
====Strong verbs====
Strong verbs are characterized by ablaut variations between the present, past, and past participle stems.
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Strong verb declension
! colspan="7" | Non-finite forms
|-
! colspan="3"| Form
! colspan="2"| Active
! colspan="2"| Middle
|-
<!--
! colspan="3" | Infinitive
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(ă)
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(ă)sk
|-
-->
! colspan="3"| Present participle
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(â)ndă
| colspan="2"| <Pr`>-(â)ndziskă
|-
! colspan="3"| Past participle
| colspan="2" | <PP>-({j}i)n
| colspan="2" | <PP>-({j}i)nsk
|-
! colspan="7"| Finite forms
|-
! rowspan="2"| Person/<br /> Number
! colspan="2"| Present
! colspan="2"| Past
! colspan="2"| Imperative
|-
! Active
! Middle
! Active
! Middle
! Active
! Middle
|-
! 1S
| <Pr`>-
| rowspan="3"| <Pr`>-sk
| <Pa`>-
| rowspan="3"| <Pa`>-sk
|-
! 2S
| rowspan="2"|<Pr`>-r
| <Pa`>-t
| <Pr>-
| <Pr>-sk
|-
! 3S
| <Pa`>-
|-
! 1P
| <Pr>{u}-(u)m
| <Pr>{u}-(u)msk
| <Pa>{u}-(u)m
| <Pa>{u}-(u)msk
| <Pr>{u}-(u)m
| <Pr>{u}-(u)msk
|-
! 2P
| <Pr>-({j}i)ð
| <Pr>-({j}i)sk
| <Pa>{u}-(u)ð
| <Pa>{u}-(u)sk
| <Pr>-({j}i)ð
| <Pr>-({j}i)sk
|-
! 3P
| <Pr>-(ă)
| <Pr>-(ă)sk
| <Pa>{u}-u
| <Pa>{u}-usk
|-
|}
'''Notes:''' Vowels in brackets are dropped after stems ending in vowels.
====Weak verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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