Hara: Difference between revisions

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! rowspan="2"| Labial
! rowspan="2"| Labial
! rowspan="2"| Coronal
! rowspan="2"| Coronal
! rowspan="2"| Palatal/ <br /> Postalveolar
! rowspan
! rowspan="2"| Palatal
! colspan="2"| Velar
! colspan="2"| Velar
! rowspan="2"| Glottal
! rowspan="2"| Glottal
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! Labial
! Labial
! Dental
! Dental
! Coronal
! Alveolar
! Palatal/ <br /> Postalveolar
! Retroflex/ <br /> Postalveolar
! Palatal
! Velar
! Velar
! Labiovelar
! Glottal
! Glottal
|-
|-
! colspan = "2" | Nasal
! colspan = "2" | Nasal
| m
| m
| colspan="2"| n
| colspan="3"| n ~ ɳ²
| ɲ
| ɲ
| ŋ
| ŋ
| ŋʷ
|
|
|-
|-
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| p
| p
| colspan="2"| t
| colspan="2"| t
| tʃ
| ʈ
| c ~ tʃ
| k
| k
| kʷ
| ʔ
| ʔ
|-
|-
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| b
| b
| colspan="2"| d
| colspan="2"| d
| dʒ
| ɖ
| ɟ ~ dʒ
| ɡ
| ɡ
|
| ɡʷ
|  
|-
|-
! implosive
! implosive
| ɓ
| ɓ
| colspan="2"| ɗ
| colspan="3"| ɗ
| ʄ
| ʄ
| ɠ
| ɠ
| ɠʷ
|
|
|-
|-
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| s
| s
| ʃ
| ʃ
|
| (x)
| (x)
|
| h
| h
|-
|-
! voiced
! voiced
| β
| rowspan="2"| β
| (ð)
| (ð)
| (z)
| (z)
| ʒ
|  
|
| (ɣ)
| (ɣ)
|
|
|  
|-
|-
! colspan = "2" | Approximant
! colspan = "2" | Approximant
| w
| colspan="2"| l
| colspan="2"| l
| rowspan="2"| ɽ ~ ɻ
| j
| j
| ɰ
| ɰ
| w
|  
|  
|-
|-
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|  
|  
| colspan="2"| ɾ
| colspan="2"| ɾ
| ɽ
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|-
|-
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'''Notes:'''
'''Notes:'''


¹ In native words, tenuis and voiced stops/affricates are in complementary distribution, with voiced stops/affricates occuring after nasals (which are always homorganic) and tenuis stops/affricates occuring otherwise. Likewise, /β, ɾ, ʒ, ɰ/ were originally intervocalic allophones of /p, t, tʃ, k/, and they still behave as such in native words. However, the above distinctions have been phonemized due to the introduction of loanwords.
¹ In native words, tenuis and voiced stops are in complementary distribution, with voiced stops occuring after nasals (which are always homorganic) and tenuis stops occuring otherwise.<!-- Likewise, /β, ɾ, ɰ/ were originally intervocalic allophones of /p, t, k/, and they still behave as such in native words.--> However, the distinction has been phonemized due to the introduction of loanwords.


² Phonemes in brackets exclusively occur in loanwords.
² /n/ is pronounced [ɳ] before retroflex stops.
 
³ Phonemes in brackets exclusively occur in loanwords.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 288: Line 305:
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
====Prenasalization====
====Prenasalization====
When a stem-initial tenuis stop is preceded by a nasal, it merges with the nasal to become the corresponding prenasalized stop.
When a prefix ending in a nasal is attached to a word, the following mutations occur:
====Palatalization====
* Tenuis stop > voiced
*/N/ + /t, ɾ/ > /nd/
*/N/ + /ɽ, l/ > /ɳɖ/
*/N/ + /p, β/ > /mb/
*/N/ + /k, ɰ/ > /ŋɡ/
<!--*/N/ + /j/ > /ɲɟ/-->
*/N/ + /c, j/ > /ɲɟ/
*/N/ before vowel > /ɲ/ (before front vowels), /ŋ/ (otherwise)
*/N/ before /h/ or /ʔ/ > /ŋ/
*/N/ + /w/ > /ŋʷ/
*/N/ + nasal > geminated nasal
 
====Gemination====
When a geminating prefix is attached to a word, the following consonants mutate:
*/ɸ, β/ > /pː/
*/ɾ, h, ʔ/ > /tː/
*/ɽ, l/ > /ʈː/
*/ɰ/ > /kː/
*/j/ > /cː/
*/w/ > /kʷː/
Before a vowel, the gemination is replaced with /t/.
 
====Lenition====
In leniting environments, the following mutations occur:
*/p/ > /β/
*/t/ > /ɾ/
*/l/ > /ɽ/
*/c/ > /j/
*/k/ > /ɰ/
*/kʷ/ > /w/
 
====Palatalization and Labialization====
Palatalization and labialization only affect native velar consonants. In such environments, the affected consonants is replaced with its palatal or labiovelar counterpart respectively.
*'''Palatalization:'''
**/ŋ/ > /ɲ/
**/k/ > /c/
**/ɡ/ > /ɟ/
**/ɠ/ > /ʄ/
**/ɰ/ > /j/
*'''Labialization:'''
**/ŋ/ > /ŋʷ/
**/k/ > /kʷ/
**/ɡ/ > /ɡʷ/
**/ɠ/ > /ɠʷ/
**/ɰ/ > /w/
<!--
Palatalization occurs before endings beginning in /j/ (which merges with the palatalized consonant) or /i/-->


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
===Nouns===
====Declension====
====Case====
Case in nouns is marked by final vowel:
Case in nouns is marked by final vowel:
*''-u'': Nominative
*''-u'': Nominative
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Case endings are dropped after nouns whose stems end in a long vowel.
Case endings are dropped after nouns whose stems end in a long vowel.


A few nouns have long case endings (i.e. ''-uu'' for nominative, ''-aa'' for accusative, and ''-ii'' for genitive).
====Number====
With the exception of a few common nouns, plural is marked with the suffix ''-aar-'', inserted between the stem and case ending.
With the exception of a few common nouns, plural is marked with the suffix ''-aar-'', inserted between the stem and case ending.
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
Line 310: Line 375:
Derivational morphology
Derivational morphology
-->
-->
====Definiteness====
The definite article is ''-ràà'' attached after the case ending<!--, which is repeated after the article with a low tone. In other words, the full suffix is:
*''-rù'': nominative
*''-rà'': accusative
*''-rì'': genitive-->.
====Genitive phrase====
A genitive phrase can be formed simply by putting the posessor in the genitive case.
Alternatively, the posessor can be preceded with the particle ''tù'' (which becomes ''tà'' in the accusative, ''tì'' in the genitive). This particle can be used on its own, completely replacing the posessee.
====Negation====
Negation of nouns is accomplished with the prefix ''lee-''.


====Noun derivation====
====Noun derivation====
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*''sa-'': for peoples - e.g. ''sàhàřàà'' "Hara people"
*''sa-'': for peoples - e.g. ''sàhàřàà'' "Hara people"
*''me-'': for lands - e.g. ''mèhàřàà'' "land of the Hara"
*''me-'': for lands - e.g. ''mèhàřàà'' "land of the Hara"
Derivational suffixes include:
*''-aay-'': nisba suffix


===Adjectives===
===Adjectives===
Adjectives are declined similarly to nouns and agree with the modified noun in number and case.
===Personal pronouns===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|  !! rowspan="2"| Independent subject !! colspan="3" | Clitic<!-- !! rowspan="2"| Comments-->
|-
! Imperfect subject !! Perfect subject !! Non-subject
|-
! rowspan="5" | Singular
! 1
| nii
| n(i)-
| -éé
| -nii
|-
! 2M
| ndaa
| t(i)-
| -aqáá
| -qaa
|-
! 2F
| ndii
| t(i)-ii-
| -ayíí
| -yii
|-
! 3M
| huu
| y(i)-
| -óó
| -huu
|-
! 3F
| haa
| y(i)-ii-
| -áá
| -haa
|-
! rowspan="5" | Plural
! 1
| niinaa
| n(i)-uu-
| -anáá
| -naa
|-
! 2M
| ndumuu
| t(i)-uu-
| -aqumúú
| -qumuu
|-
! 2F
| ndiinaa
| t(i)-aa-
| -ayináá
| -yinaa
|-
! 3M
| humuu
| y(i)-uu-
| -oomúú
| -humuu
|-
! 3F
| hiinaa
| y(i)-aa-
| -eenáá
| -hinaa
|-
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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==Example texts==
==Example texts==
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
<!--Kuťťu tù sàvaari -->
==Other resources==
==Other resources==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->

Latest revision as of 18:12, 6 October 2023

Hara (/hɑɹə/, native: fòhàřàà /ɸòhàɽàː/) is a South Semitic language.

Introduction

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Retroflex/
Postalveolar 		Palatal Velar Labiovelar Glottal
Nasal m n ~ ɳ² ɲ ŋ ŋʷ
Stop tenuis p t ʈ c ~ tʃ k kʷ ʔ
voiced¹ b d ɖ ɟ ~ dʒ ɡ ɡʷ
implosive ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ ɠʷ
Fricative voiceless ɸ (θ) s ʃ (x) h
voiced β (ð) (z) (ɣ)
Approximant l ɽ ~ ɻ j ɰ w
Tap ɾ

Notes:

¹ In native words, tenuis and voiced stops are in complementary distribution, with voiced stops occuring after nasals (which are always homorganic) and tenuis stops occuring otherwise. However, the distinction has been phonemized due to the introduction of loanwords.

² /n/ is pronounced [ɳ] before retroflex stops.

³ Phonemes in brackets exclusively occur in loanwords.

Vowels

Vowel phonemes
  Front Central Back
High i, iː u, uː
Mid e, eː o, oː
Low a, aː

Diphthongs do not exist in native words.

Nasals can be syllabic.

A long vowel consists of two moras. A syllabic nasal is considered a mora.

Tones

A mora can have either a high tone or low tone. High tone is considered the default/unmarked form.

Tones are usually not indicated in writing. In this article, a low tone is indicated with a grave accent (à).

Prosody

Stress

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Prenasalization

When a prefix ending in a nasal is attached to a word, the following mutations occur:

  • Tenuis stop > voiced
  • /N/ + /t, ɾ/ > /nd/
  • /N/ + /ɽ, l/ > /ɳɖ/
  • /N/ + /p, β/ > /mb/
  • /N/ + /k, ɰ/ > /ŋɡ/
  • /N/ + /c, j/ > /ɲɟ/
  • /N/ before vowel > /ɲ/ (before front vowels), /ŋ/ (otherwise)
  • /N/ before /h/ or /ʔ/ > /ŋ/
  • /N/ + /w/ > /ŋʷ/
  • /N/ + nasal > geminated nasal

Gemination

When a geminating prefix is attached to a word, the following consonants mutate:

  • /ɸ, β/ > /pː/
  • /ɾ, h, ʔ/ > /tː/
  • /ɽ, l/ > /ʈː/
  • /ɰ/ > /kː/
  • /j/ > /cː/
  • /w/ > /kʷː/

Before a vowel, the gemination is replaced with /t/.

Lenition

In leniting environments, the following mutations occur:

  • /p/ > /β/
  • /t/ > /ɾ/
  • /l/ > /ɽ/
  • /c/ > /j/
  • /k/ > /ɰ/
  • /kʷ/ > /w/

Palatalization and Labialization

Palatalization and labialization only affect native velar consonants. In such environments, the affected consonants is replaced with its palatal or labiovelar counterpart respectively.

  • Palatalization:
    • /ŋ/ > /ɲ/
    • /k/ > /c/
    • /ɡ/ > /ɟ/
    • /ɠ/ > /ʄ/
    • /ɰ/ > /j/
  • Labialization:
    • /ŋ/ > /ŋʷ/
    • /k/ > /kʷ/
    • /ɡ/ > /ɡʷ/
    • /ɠ/ > /ɠʷ/
    • /ɰ/ > /w/

Morphology

Nouns

Case

Case in nouns is marked by final vowel:

  • -u: Nominative
  • -a: Accusative
  • -i: Genitive

Case endings are dropped after nouns whose stems end in a long vowel.

A few nouns have long case endings (i.e. -uu for nominative, -aa for accusative, and -ii for genitive).

Number

With the exception of a few common nouns, plural is marked with the suffix -aar-, inserted between the stem and case ending.

Definiteness

The definite article is -ràà attached after the case ending.

Genitive phrase

A genitive phrase can be formed simply by putting the posessor in the genitive case.

Alternatively, the posessor can be preceded with the particle tù (which becomes tà in the accusative, tì in the genitive). This particle can be used on its own, completely replacing the posessee.

Negation

Negation of nouns is accomplished with the prefix lee-.

Noun derivation

Various prefixes and suffixes are used to derive nouns.

Derivational prefixes include:

  • fo-: for languages - e.g. fòhàřàà "Hara language"
  • sa-: for peoples - e.g. sàhàřàà "Hara people"
  • me-: for lands - e.g. mèhàřàà "land of the Hara"

Derivational suffixes include:

  • -aay-: nisba suffix

Adjectives

Adjectives are declined similarly to nouns and agree with the modified noun in number and case.

Personal pronouns

Independent subject Clitic
Imperfect subject Perfect subject Non-subject
Singular 1 nii n(i)- -éé -nii
2M ndaa t(i)- -aqáá -qaa
2F ndii t(i)-ii- -ayíí -yii
3M huu y(i)- -óó -huu
3F haa y(i)-ii- -áá -haa
Plural 1 niinaa n(i)-uu- -anáá -naa
2M ndumuu t(i)-uu- -aqumúú -qumuu
2F ndiinaa t(i)-aa- -ayináá -yinaa
3M humuu y(i)-uu- -oomúú -humuu
3F hiinaa y(i)-aa- -eenáá -hinaa

Syntax

Constituent order

Noun phrase

Verb phrase

Sentence phrase

Dependent clauses

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Other resources

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