Kola: Difference between revisions

'''Kola''' (Native: ጅቆለ /d͡ʒɨˈkʼolə/, Ethiopianist Latin script: ''Jïqolä'', Bantuist Latin script: ''Jïkolä'') is a Bantu language spoken by the Kola people (ወቆለ ''wäqolä'')<!-- in Eritrea and the Tigray Region of Ethiopia.-->.

There are two Latin alphabets: a more common one based on the Semitic and Cushitic languages of Ethiopia ("Ethiopianist"), and a less common one based on other Bantu languages ("Bantuist"). The biggest difference between them is in the treatment of voiceless stops and affricates. In the Ethiopianist alphabet, the aspirated versions are treated as the unmarked forms and the ejective versions are treated as marked (as they are in Semitic and Cushitic languages). In the Bantuist alphabet, however, the ejectives are treated as unmarked and the aspirates as marked (as they are in Bantu languages). Since Kola is Bantu, the Bantuist alphabet more accurately represents the phonemes' status in the language; however, this article uses the more common Ethiopianist alphabet.

In both alphabets, clusters that can be confused with digraphs are separated with an apostrophe - e.g. ''s'h'' /sh/ vs ''sh'' /ʃ/. Stress is not normally indicated in writing, but this article uses an acute accent.

! Ethiopianist !! Bantuist

! Ethiopianist !! Bantuist

Dahl's Law: (N)C_UVC_U > (N)C_VVC_U (where C_U = unvoiced consonant, C_V = voiced consonant)

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate] > [+voiced] / in grammatical prefixes (perhaps due to analogy with words affected by Dahl's law)

wɨ, jɨ > u, i / C_C

wə, jə > o, e / C_C

Kola used to have a pitch accent system with two distinctive tones: high/rising (indicated with an acute accent) and low/falling (indicated with a grave accent). This distinction has been lost in most modern varieties. The general development of tone pre-loss was as follows (after taking tone shifts due to vowel reduction into account):

*Distinction between /ʒ/ and /d͡ʒ/.

*Distinction between dental and alveolar stops, and between sibilant and non-sibilant alveolar fricatives. The alveolar stops/affricates (/t͇’ ~ t͡ɬ’, t͇ʰ ~ t͡ɬʰ, d͇ ~ d͡ɮ/) and non-sibilant alveolar fricatives (/θ͇ ~ ɬ, ð͇ ~ ɮ/) correspond to Proto-Bantu palatals before non-front vowels, which in the standard language merged with other palatals.

! rowspan="2" | Class !! rowspan="2" | Noun prefix !! colspan="5" | Concord prefixes<small>¹</small> || rowspan="2" | Typical meaning(s)<small>²</small>

! pronominal !! extended <br /> pronominal !! subject !! object !! adjective

| mï-; - || yï- || ye- || ya- || mï- || mï- || Humans*, kinship terms, personification*, animate*

| wä- || wä- || wo- || colspan="2" | wa- || wä- || Plural of class 1

| mï- || wï- || wo- || colspan="2" | wu- || mï- || Plants (and derivatives)*, natural phenomena, <!--elongated objects, active things, motion, -->non-paired body parts, various*

| mï- || jï- || jo- || colspan="2" | ji- || mï- || Plural of class 3

| zï-; - || lï- || lo- || colspan="2" | li- || zï- || Augmentatives*, amelioratives*, paired body parts, natural phenomena, expanses, individual things found in groups, various*

| mä- || yä- || yo- || colspan="2" | ya- || mä- || Plural of classes 5 & 14, mass nouns, collectives, collective actions

| jï- || shï- || sho- || colspan="2" | shi- || jï- || Tools/artefacts, diminutives*, languages*, resemblance, amelioratives*, derogatives*, disabilities/diseases, various*

| vï- || vï- || vo- || colspan="2" | vi- || vï- || Plural of class 7

| ⁿ-; -<small>³</small> || yï- || yo- || colspan="2" | yi- || ⁿ- || Animals, inanimate, loanwords*, various*

| ⁿ-; - || ĵï- || ĵo- || colspan="2" | ĵi- || ⁿ- || Plural of classes 9 & 11

| lï- || lï- || lo- || colspan="2" | lu- || lï- || Abstract, manner/way/culture*, localized mass nouns, long or broad objects

| gä- || gä- || go- || colspan="2" | ga- || gä- || Diminutives*, derogatives*, amelioratives*

| dï- || dï- || do- || colspan="2" | du- || dï- || Plural of class 12

| wï-; ïw-<small>⁴</small> || wï- || wo- || colspan="2" | wu- || wï- || Abstract*, countries/lands*, location terms*

| g(w/ï)-<small>⁵</small> || g(w/ï)- || go- || colspan="2" | gu- || g(w/ï)- || Infinitives*

| bä- || bä- || bo- || colspan="2" | ba- || bä- || Specific/definite location*, "at/on/by"*, "from"*, "against"*, "to the detriment of"*, ablative*, instrumental*

| g(w/ï)- || g(w/ï)- || go- || colspan="2" | gu- || g(w/ï)- || Nonspecific/approximate location*, direction/destination*, recepient*, "for/to"*, "to the benefit of"*

| mu- || mu- || mo- || colspan="2" | mu- || mu- || Internal location*, "in"*

<small>¹</small> Subject and object concords are used for the subject and object of a verb respectively, and adjective concords are used with adjectives. Most other words use pronominal concords. The extended pronominal concords are used to form pronouns (see [[Kola#Pronouns|pronouns]]) and with quantifiers - e.g. ዎቸ ''wócä'' "all (animate pl.)" (stem: ''-cä'') <!-- maybe low -->.

Using the full set of concord prefixes is considered formal and old-fashioned, and they are normally replaced with animacy-based concords. Words agreeing with animate nouns use classes 1/2, while those agreeing with inanimate nouns use classes 9/10 (most common), 5/6, or some combination (e.g. 9/6). When a modifier is used with a noun, the concord prefix may be omitted in colloquial contexts.<!-- With verbs, class 16-18 prefixes are used even in informal language; others are replaced with animacy concords.-->

The locative classes (classes 16-18) most often behave as prepositions, with the prefix appearing at the beginning of the noun phrase. However, there are some nouns inherently in these classes; these behave as nouns in any other class - e.g. በት ''bä́tt'' "place", ግት ''gḯtt'' "direction", ሙት ''mútt'' "interior"<!-- were low -->.

<small>³</small> ⁿ- = initial fortition

<small>⁴</small> Metathesized to ''ïw-'' before stems beginning in ''w-''.

<small>⁵</small> Inanimate nouns (especially those whose plural form is identical to their singular) can form an alternative plural by adding the class 6 prefix ''mä-'' to either their singular or plural. Similarly, animate nouns (especially those not already in class 1) can add the class 2 prefix ''wä-''.

::class 5 ዝት ''zḯtt'' "giant; great person" (stem: ''-́tt'') → class 6 መት ''mä́tt'' or class 2 ወመት ''mä́tt'' / ወዝት ''wäzḯtt''<!-- were low --> "giants; great people"

<small>⁶</small> Diminutive and augmentative prefixes may be added before the prefix of the base noun or directly to the stem. Locative prefixes are always added to the beginning of the noun phrase before any other prefixes and/or modifiers.

*'''Absolutive''': Unmarked. Used as the citation form, for nominal complements, for objects of adpositions<!--, for the direct object of verbs-->, and for focused nominals.

*'''Genitive''': Formed with the possessive prefix ''a- / -ä-'' (with the appropriate concord prefix).

The definite article is ለ ''lä'' (invariant), which attaches to the beginning of the noun phrase, immediately after any locative prefixes or other prepositions - e.g. ለዚጨ ''läzíchä'' "the eye"; በለዚጨ ''bäläzíchä'' "in the eye".

! rowspan="2" | Person !! colspan="2"|  Independent !! colspan="4"| Concord prefixes

! absolute <!-- were low -->!! clitic<!-- were low --> !! extended <br /> pronominal !! pronominal !! subject !! object  

| እሚ ïmí || ሚ mí || ኜ- nye- || colspan="3" | ኝ- nyï-  

| እዌ ïwé || ዌ wé || ዌ- we- || colspan="2" | ው- wï- || ግ/ጕ- g(ï/w)-  

| እዬ ïyé || ዬ yé || ዬ- ye- || ይ- yï- || ያ- ya- || ም- mï-  

| እዮ ïyó || ዮ yó || ዮ- yo- || ይ- yï- || colspan="2" | ዪ- yi-  

| እሲ ïsí || ሲ sí || ዶ- do- || colspan="3" | ዲ- di-

| እኒ ïní || ኒ ní || ኖ- no- || colspan="3" | ኒ- ni-

| እዎ ïwó || ዎ wó || ዎ- wo- || ወ- wä- || colspan="2" | ዋ- wa-  

| እጆ ïĵó || ጆ ĵó || ጆ- ĵo- || ጅ- ĵï- || colspan="2" | ጂ- ĵi-  

| እቶ ïtó || ቶ tó || ቶ- to- || ት- tï- || colspan="2" | ቱ- tu-  

Ordinal numbers are formed with the relativizing particle ''a-'' and therefore are actually possessives. For example, አቁም ''aqúm'' "tenth" literally means "of ten". አጓዝ ''agwáz'' "first" literally means "of the beginning" (from ጓዝ ''gwaz'' "beginning; to begin", root: ''-az-'').

| መሲ mä́si || ሙ mú || ምሙ mïmú || ሙ mú || ሽሙ shïmú || አጓዝ agwáz || የጓዝ yägwáz || ዋጓዝ wagwáz <!-- mAsi were low -->

| ውሊ wḯli || ውሊ wḯli || ዎሊ/ወውሊ wóli/wä́wli || ብሊ bḯli || ቩሊ vúli || አውሊ áwli || ዮሊ/የውሊ yóli/yä́wli || ዋውሊ wáwli <!-- wIli were low -->

| ጣጥ tháth || ጣጥ tháth || ወጣጥ wätháth || ታጥ táth || ቭጣጥ vïtháth || አጣጥ atháth || የጣጥ yätháth || ዋጣጥ watháth

| ዳጥ dáth || ዳጥ dáth || ወዳጥ wädáth || ዳጥ dáth || ቭዳጥ vïdáth || አዳጥ adáth || የዳጥ yädáth || ዋዳጥ wadáth

| ኔ né || ኔ né || ወኔ wäné || ኔ né || ቭኔ vïné || አኔ ané || የኔ yäné || ዋኔ wané <!-- were low -->

| ጫን chán || ጫን chán || ወጫን wächán || ቻን cán || ቭጫን vïchán || አጫን achán || የጫን yächán || ዋጫን wachán <!-- were low -->

| ቃጘ qángä || ቃጘ qángä || ወቃጘ wäqángä || ካጘ kángä || ቭቃጘ vïqángä || አቃጘ aqángä || የቃጘ yäqángä || ዋቃጘ waqángä

| ጦሎ thólo || ጦሎ thólo || ወጦሎ wäthólo || ቶሎ tólo || ቭጦሎ vïthólo || አጦሎ athólo || የጦሎ yäthólo || ዋጦሎ wathólo

| ናኔ náne || ናኔ náne || ወናኔ wänáne || ናኔ náne || ቭናኔ vïnáne || አናኔ anáne || የናኔ yänáne || ዋናኔ wanáne

| ሰጛን sängán || ሰጛን sängán || ወሰጛን wäsängán || ሰጛን sängán || ቭሰጛን vïsängán || አሰጛን asängán || የሰጛን yäsängán || ዋሰጛን wasängán <!-- were low -->

| ቁም qúm || colspan="4" | ቁም qúm || አቁም aqúm || የቁም yäqúm || ዋቁም waqúm

| ቁምነ መሲ qúmnä mä́si || ቁምነ ሙ qúmnä mú || ቁምነ ምሙ qúmnä mïmú || ቁምነ ሙ qúmnä mú || ቁምነ ሽሙ qúmnä shïmú || አቁምነ ሙ aqúmnä mú || የቁምነ ሙ yäqúmnä mú || ዋቁምነ ሙ waqúmnä mú

| ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || colspan="4" | ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || አብሊ ቁም ábli qúm || የብሊ ቁም yä́bli qúm || ዋብሊ ቁም wábli qúm

| ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || colspan="4" | ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || አብሊ ቁም ábli qúm || የብሊ ቁም yä́bli qúm || ዋብሊ ቁም wábli qúm

| ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || colspan="4" | ብሊ ቁም bḯli qúm || አብሊ ቁም ábli qúm || የብሊ ቁም yä́bli qúm || ዋብሊ ቁም wábli qúm

Native verbs normally end in unaccented ''-ä/a'', which is dropped upon the addition of suffixes. <!--Suffixes ending in ''-ä'' similarly drop it when another suffix is added. -->Verbs ending in other vowels add suffixes after the final vowel of the stem. The suffixes used for irregular verbs are shown in curly brackets where they differ from regular verbs. Accented suffixes override the verb's native accent.

'''Agent''' nouns are class 1/2. They are formed by adding the class 1/2 prefix to the nominalized verb stem. In regular verbs, the nominalized stem is formed by removing the final vowel and spirantizing the final consonant (if applicable). Verbs ending in other vowels simply use the verbal stem.

:e.g. ሜዝ ''<b>m</b>ézz'' "walker; companion" (pl: ዌዝ ''<b>w</b>ézz'').

::ከዌዴ ''<b>kä</b>weddé'' "do not walk", የያሴዴ ''yäya<b>s</b>eddä'' "that does not walk"

::ግሴደ ''gï<b>s</b>éddä'' "to not walk", ምሴዝ ''mï<b>s</b>ézz'' "one who does not walk"  

*''-ä-'': relativizer

*''nï-'' (with subjunctive): "that" - e.g. ንኜዴ ''nïnyeddé'' "that I walk"

*''nï-'' (with indicative): places focus on verb - e.g. ንኜዴ ''nïnyedde'' "I did walk" (i.e. "(it is true) that I walked")

*''sï-'': negative counterpart of ''nï-'' - e.g. ስኜዴ ''sïnyeddé'' "that I do not walk", ስኜዴ (ዪኝዋለ) ''sïnyeddé (yinywálä)'' "I must not walk", ስኜዴ ''sïnyedde'' "I did not walk" (i.e. "(it is true) that I did not walk")

*''kä-'': primary negation prefix

*''bä-'': "when, if; because"

*''g(w)ï-'': "so that, in order that"

*''mu-'': "while" (functions as participle)

*''-gä-'': itive - motion away from speaker/frame of reference, "go and -, go to -"

*''-ĵï-'': venitive - motion towards speaker/frame of reference, "come and -, come to -"

*''-jï-'': persistive - "still, continue to -"

*''-wa-'': inchoative - "start to -"

*''-me-'': anterior - event that occurred before the frame of reference and has present relevance, "have -ed"

*''-lï-'': progressive - "be -ing"

*''-vu-'': habitual - event that occurs/occurred regularly

*''-nä-'': conditional - "would -"

*''-la-'': future - event that will occur after frame of reference, "will, going to -"

*''-dä-'': event that is expected or hoped to occur in the future, "hopefully -, will probably"

*''-le-'' (with perfect): event that almost occurred, "almost -ed"

'''Perfect''' is formed with the ending ''-e'' {''-re''}. Suffix-derived verbs may form it irregularly (see [[Kola#Verb_extensions|verb extensions]]).

:e.g. ኤዳ ''edd<b>á</b>'' "walk", ውዪድሌ ''wïyeddïl<b>é</b>'' "walk to it", ኤድኒ ''eddï<b>ní</b>'' "walk (pl.)", ኒዬድልኒ ''niyeddïl<b>ní</b>'' "walk (pl.) to it"

When verb extensions (other than the passive and intensive) are added, the verb always ends in the vowel ''-ä'' in the present.

'''Passive''' is formed with the ending ''-́wa'' in the present and ''-́we'' in the perfect. With stems ending in a velar or guttural, labialize the final consonant and add ''-́a'' (present) / ''-́e'' (perfect).

'''Causative''' is formed with the suffix ''-ísh-'' {''-́sh-''}, which becomes ''-íz-'' {''-́z-''} before the perfect ending. This suffix spirantizes and palatalizes preceding consonants wherever applicable; however, loanwords may not be affected.

'''Applicative''' is formed with the suffix ''-(ï)l-''. This suffix causes velar/guttural consonants to be palatalized; again, loanwords may not be affected.

'''Reciprocal''' is formed with the suffix ''-än-'' {''-n-''}.

'''Extensive''' is formed with the suffix ''-äng-'' {''-ng-''}. It indicates a large quantity.

'''Middle''' is formed with the suffix ''-(ï)q-''. It has various uses including: forming the anticausative of lexically causative verbs (e.g. ግዙጘ ''gïzúngä'' "to cook (trns.)" → ዪዙጝቀ ''yizúng<b>q</b>ä'' "it cooks (intr.)"); forming de-agentivized passives (e.g. ግኝለ ''gï̀nglä'' "to sell" → ዪጝልቄ ''yingï̀lqe'' "it was sold"); and forming potentials (e.g. ግሌ ''gïlé'' "to eat" → ዪሌቀ ''yiléqä'' "it is edible"; ግላለ ''gïlálä'' "to sleep" → ዪላልቀ ''yilálqä'' "it can be slept on").

*'''''-́l''''' (highly defective verb): used only in affirmative present indicative, no final vowel, can be dropped when clear from context.

*'''''-wá''''' (defective verb): "to exist, be present, to be (locative, temporary), etc" - not used in perfect, used suppletively in negative and subjunctive for ''-́l''.

*'''''-qá''''' (normal verb): "to stay, to be (locative, permanent), to live (at), etc" - occurs in all tenses and moods, perfect is used suppletively for ''-́l'' and ''-wá''.

*'''''-ná''''' (normal verb): "to have"

*'''ni-''' :

**(with nominals): places focus on the nominal - e.g. ኒሚ ኛዬዴ ''<b>nimí</b> nyayédde.'' "<b>It is I</b> who walked." (compare: ሚኒ ኜዴ ''míni nyédde.'' "I walked.")

*'''si-''' : negative counterpart of ''ni''

*'''nï-''' :

*'''sï-''' : negative counterpart of ''nï-''

**(with nominals): negates and places focus on the nominal - e.g. ስሚ ኛዬዴ ''<b>sïmí</b> nyayédde.'' "<b>It is not I</b> who walked." (compare:  ንሚ ኛየሴዴ ''nïmí nyayasédde.'' "It is I who did not walk."; ሚኒ ከኜዴም ''míni känyéddem.'' "I did not walk.")

*'''-nä''': "and" - joins components in a clause

*'''na''': "and" - joins clauses

Relativizing particle: ''a-'' (with prefix: ''-ä-'')

When used with a verb, the relativizing particle takes pronominal concord prefixes and precedes the subject concord prefix. The verb occurs in the indicative. When the subject is first/second person, either first/second or third person subject prefixes can be used - e.g. ኘኝልዪዙጘ ኘመ ''nyänyïlyizúngä nyämä'' or ኘያልዪዙጘ ኘመ ''nyäyalyizúngä nyämä'' "meat that I cooked" (more literally, "that-I-cooked-it meat"). It is negated with the post-subject secondary negation morpheme -ሲ- ''-si-''.

The relativizing particle is also used with nouns/pronouns for the possessive, in which case it attaches to the possessor. With possession, concord prefixes agree with the possessed (but are optional).

'''Ge'ez script:''' ወት ዎቸኒ በዋቫሏ ወናጻ ዋል ና በክብሪነ በሓቂ ዋልገነ። ዓቅሊነ ኮለ በዋሜጂጳሏ፣ ባውልጙ መንፈስ ኒዋጅለኔ ዪዋዋለ።

'''Phonetic Ge'ez script:''' <u>ወ</u>ት፞ <u>ዎ</u>ቸኒ በዋ<u>ቫ</u>ሏ ወ<u>ና</u>ጻ <u>ዋ</u>ል ና በ<u>ክ</u>ብሪነ በ<u>ሓ</u>ቂ <u>ዋ</u>ልገነ። <u>ዓ</u>ቅሊነ <u>ኮ</u>ለ በዋሜጂ<u>ጳ</u>ሏ፣ ባው<u>ል</u>ጙ መን<u>ፈ</u>ስ ኒዋ<small>ጅ</small>̣ለ፞<u>ኔ</u> ዪዋ<u>ዋ</u>ለ።

'''Ethiopianist script:''' Wätt wocäni bäwavalwa wänaxa wal na bäkïbrinä bähhaqqi walgänä. Qhaqlinä kolä bäwamejiphalwa, bawlïngu mänfäs niwajïlläne yiwawalä.

'''Bantuist script:''' Wätth wochäni bäwavalwa wänatsa wal na bäkhïbrinä bäxhakki walgänä. Qhaklinä kholä bäwamejipalwa, bawlïngu mänfäs niwajïlläne yiwawalä.

'''This article's script:''' Wä́tt wócäni bäwaválwa wänáxa wál na bäkḯbrinä bähháqqi wálgänä. Qháqlina kólä bäwameĵiphálwa, bawlḯngu mänfä́s niwaĵïlläné yiwawálä.

'''IPA (phonemic):''' /ˈwətʰː ˈwot͡ʃʰəni bəwəˈvalʷa wəˈnat͡sʼa ˈwal na bəˈkʰɨbrinə bəˈħakʼːi ˈwalgənə ˈʕakʼlinə ˈkʰolə bəwaˌmed͡ʒiˈpʼaˑlʷa bawˈlɨŋu mənˈfəs niwaˌd͡ʒɨlːəˈne jiwaˈwalə/

'''IPA (phonetic):''' [ˈwɞ̞tʰː ˈwo̞ˑt͡ʃʰæni bɞ̞wɒ̈ˈväˑlʷɒ̈ wɞ̞ˈnät͡sʼä ˈwɒ̈l nä bɐˈkʰɪ̈brinɐ bɐˈħäkʼːi ˈwɒ̈lgɐnɐ ˈʕäkʼlinɐ ˈkʷʰo̞ˑlɐ bɞ̞wɒ̈ˌme̞d͡ʒiˈpʼäˑlʷɒ̈ bɒ̈wˈlɪ̈ŋʷu mɐɱˈfɐs niwɒ̈ˌd͡ʒɪlːɐˈneˑ jiwɒ̈ˈwɒ̈ˑlɐ]

'''Gloss:''' <small>C2</small>.people <small>AGR₂</small>-all-<small>NOM</small> when-<small>SM₂</small>-give_birth-<small>PASS</small>-<small>PRES</small> <small>AGR₂</small>-free <small>SM₂</small>-be-<small>PRES</small> and <small>C16</small>-<small>C9</small>.dignity and <small>C16</small>-<small>C10</small>.rights <small>SM₂</small>-be_equal-<small>PRES</small>. <small>C9</small>.reason and <small>C9</small>.conscience because-<small>SM₂</small>-<small>ANT</small>-<small>OM₁₀</small>-give-<small>APP</small>-<small>PASS</small>-<small>PRES</small>, with-<small>POSS</small>-<small>C14</small>.brotherhood <small>C3</small>.spirit that-<small>SM₂</small>-<small>OM₁₀</small>-act-<small>APP</small>-<small>REC</small>-<small>SUBJ</small> <small>SM₉</small>-<small>OM₂</small>-be-<small>APP</small>.<small>PRES</small>.

'''Literal translation:''' All people, when they are born, are free and are equal in dignity and rights. They have been given reason and conscience, and there is on them that they act to each other in a spirit of brotherhood.