Kola: Difference between revisions

'''Kola''' (Native: ጅቆለ /d͡ʒɨˈkʼolə/, Arabic script: جقوله, Ethiopicist Latin script: ''Jïqolä'', Bantuist Latin script: ''Jïkolä'') is a Bantu language spoken by the Kola people (ወቆለ ''wäqolä'')<!-- in Eritrea and the Tigray Region of Ethiopia.-->.

 

Kola is a Bantu language spoken in northwestern Ethiopia and Eritrea.

 

====Ge'ez abugida====

|አ<!--(ኧ)-->||ኡ||ኢ||ኣ||ኤ||እ||ኦ||colspan="6" style="background:#cccccc"|&nbsp;

^{<small>1</small>} The base forms for non-labialized guttural (uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal) consonants are not normally used, since they do not occur with the vowel /ə/ except in ideophones, interjections, and<!--, in the case of uvulars,--> loanwords. <!---When the base forms do appear for pharyngeals or glottals, they are pronounced with /a/. In ideophones, /(ʔ)ə/ is written as ኧ; the rest simply use their base forms (despite the ambiguity for /h/, /ħ/, and /ʕ/).-->

 

 

 

|<big><big> كُوَ </big></big> || kʷə ||

|<big><big> كُوِي </big></big> || kʷi ||

 

There are two standardized Latin alphabets: a more common one based on the Semitic and Cushitic languages of Ethiopia ("Ethiopicist"), and a less common one based on other Bantu languages ("Bantuist"). The biggest difference between them is in the treatment of voiceless stops and affricates. In the Ethiopicist alphabet, the aspirated versions are treated as the unmarked forms and the ejective versions are treated as marked (as they are in Semitic and Cushitic languages). In the Bantuist alphabet, however, the ejectives are treated as unmarked and the aspirates as marked (as they are in Bantu languages). Since Kola is Bantu, the Bantuist alphabet more accurately represents the phonemes' status in the language; however, this article uses the more common Ethiopicist alphabet.

 

In both alphabets, clusters that can be confused with digraphs are separated with an apostrophe - e.g. ''s'h'' /sh/ vs ''sh'' /ʃ/. Labialization is indicated with a following ''w''. Stress is not normally indicated in writing, but this article uses an acute accent.

! Ethiopicist !! Bantuist

|A a || A a || a

|Ä ä || Ä ä || ə

|B b || B b || b

|C c || Ch ch || t͡ʃʰ

|Ch ch || C c || t͡ʃ’

|D d || D d || d

|E e || E e || e

|F f || F f || f

|G g || G g || ɡ

|Gh gh || Q q || ʁ

|H h || H h || h

|Hh hh || Xh xh || ħ

|I i || I i || i

|Ï ï || Ï ï || ɨ

|J j || J j || d͡ʒ

|K k || Kh kh || kʰ

|Kh kh || X x || χ

|L l || L l || l

|M m || M m || m

|N n || N n || n

! Ethiopicist !! Bantuist

|Ny ny || Ny ny || ɲ

|Ng ng || Ng ng || ŋ

|O o || O o || o

|P p || Ph ph || pʰ

|Ph ph || P p || p’

|Q q || K k || k’

|Qh qh || Qh qh || ʕ

|R r || R r || r

|S s || S s || s

|Sh sh || Sh sh || ʃ

|T t || Th th || tʰ

|Th th || T t || t’

|U u || U u || u

|V v || V v || v

|W w || W w || w

|X x || Ts ts || t͡s’

|Y y || Y y || j

|Z z || Z z || z

|Zh zh || Zh zh || ʒ

|’ || ’ || ʔ

! colspan="2" | Pharyngeal

<small>¹</small> The distinction between /d͡ʒ/ and /ʒ/ has been lost in the standard language (except in a few loanwords), but is still present in some dialects.

<small>³</small> All consonants have labialized allophones before the rounded vowels /o/ and /u/. The distinction between plain and labialized velars/gutturals is neutralized in this position.<!-- Most consonants can also occur labialized before other vowels, but they behave more as sequences of consonant + /w/.-->

|+'''Vowel phonemes'''^{<small>1</small>}

! Central^{<small>2</small>}

! Mid^{<small>3</small>}

^{<small>1</small>} The vowels /ɨ, ə/ are considered "weak", and the rest are considered "strong". <!--In some circumstances, weak vowels may allophonically be pronounced strong or vice versa. In these cases, the underlying form is taken into consideration in any relevant processes (prosody, sandhi, etc). Note that diphthongs and triphthongs are treated as strong if they are within a single morpheme.-->Strong vowels are slightly lengthened when accented in open syllables - e.g. ምጢ ''mïthí'' [mɪ̈tʼíˑ].

^{<small>2</small>} The central vowels /ɨ, ə, a/ are actually pronounced closer to [ɪ̈, ɜ ~ ɐ, ä] respectively. They have front allophones [ɪ, ɛ ~ æ, a] after palatal/postalveolar consonants and rounded allophones [ʊ̈, ɞ ~ ɞ̞, ɒ̈] after labialized consonants and adjacent to /w/. <!--The front and rounded allophones of the weak vowels are somewhat interchangeable with the corresponding front/rounded strong vowels; in this article, the underlying forms are used.-->

^{<small>3</small>} The mid vowels /e, o/ are generally pronounced [e̞, o̞]. <!--They may be lowered to [ɛ, ɔ] when followed by geminate or clustered consonants and raised to [e, o] in open syllables.-->

 

^{<small>4</small>} The weak vowel /ə/ becomes /a/ after guttural consonants, and the two vowels often alternate with each other when followed by a guttural consonant (especially if said guttural is followed by a central or null vowel).

In practice, the tone difference does not have much functional value.

The maximum allowed syllable structure is CRVC word-internally and CRVCC word-finally (C = consonant, R = glide/liquid, V = vowel). Labialized consonants cannot occur before. Consonant clusters with more than two consonants are broken up by inserting the epenthetic vowel /ɨ/. /ɨ/ is also added (in speech only) after a word-final consonant cluster when the following word begins in a vowel.

*Sonorant + non-glottal obstruent - e.g. /nt, mpʼ, lf, rg/

*Velar/guttural or labial obstruent + coronal obstruent or /ʃ/ - e.g. /bd, kʼt, ħʃ, ʔs/ (some speakers may separate these with /ɨ/)

*Fricative + stop - e.g. /st, ftʼ, ʃkʼ/

Any other word-final cluster is broken with /ɨ/. Alternatively, a word-final /i/ may be added, especially in loanwords - e.g. ዓቅሊ ''qháqli'' /ˈʕakʼli/ "reason, common sense" (from Arabic عقل /ʕaql/). Many loanwords ending in two consonants add an ''-i'' even when not the cluster does not violate phonotactics - e.g. ከልቢ ''kä́lbi'' "dog" (from Arabic كلب /kalb/)<!-- were low -->.

Within a word, most two-consonant clusters are allowed (in theory). Some clusters do not occur due to coalescence (e.g. ''l'' + ''r'' → ''rr''; ''t'' + ''d'' → ''dd'') Guttural consonants do not normally cluster with each other, except in some loanwords (where they often fuse anyway) - e.g. ማዕሃድ ''máqh'had'' /ˈmaʕhad/ "institute" (also ማሓድ ''máhhad'' /ˈmaħad/)<!-- were low -->.

*The first two can cluster in word-final position and the last two can cluster in word-initial position  - e.g. ጅንግሊዚ ''Jïn'glízi'' /d͡ʒɨŋˈɡlizi/ "English (language)".

Note that the glides ''y'' and ''w'' after a vowel do not fall under the above restrictions and are treated as part of the syllable nucleus.-->

 

*u > w / K_V (i.e. labializes velars/gutturals)

====Allophony and variation====

*All consonants are labialized before the vowels ''o'' and ''u''. The distinction between plain and labial velars/gutturals is lost in this circumstance.

*The vowels ''ä'' or ''ï'' can alternate with ''e'' or ''i'' respectively after palatal consonants.

*Word-initial vowels are pronounced with a preceding glottal stop.

(dialectal: d͡ʒ > ʒ)

k’, kʰ, g > χ, ħ, ʕ (dialectal: f, f, v)

ŋ > ʁ (dialectal: v)

=====Fortition=====

g > d͡ʒ

 

ʁ, ʕ > d͡ʒ (dialectal: ʒ)

====Grand master plan====

ɟ > Ø / (ɪ/i)_(ɪ/i) - for class 5/6 nouns, the *ɟ is also dropped from the plural by analogy

k, g > k͡x, g͡ɣ / _u

 

{in some dialects: k͡x, g͡ɣ > k͡f, g͡v}

Dahl's Law: (N)C_UVC_U > (N)C_VVC_U / in roots (where C_U = unvoiced consonant, C_V = voiced consonant)

 

[-voiced -aspirated +stop/affricate] > [+voiced] / in grammatical affixes

χ(ʷ), ʁ  > ħ(ʷ), ʕ (not in all dialects)

ʁʷ > w (not in all dialects)

{ʒ > d͡ʒ}

wɨ, jɨ > u, i / C_C, C_#

wə, jə > o, e / C_C, C_#

! rowspan="2" | Class !! rowspan="2" style="column-width:150px" | Noun prefix !! colspan="6" | Concord prefixes<small>¹</small> || rowspan="2" | Typical meaning(s)<small>²</small>

! pronominal !! extended <br /> pronominal !! relative !! subject !! object !! adjective

| mï-/ïm-³; - || yï- || ye- || ya- || ya- || mï- || mï- || Humans*, kinship terms, personification*, animate*

| wä- || wä- || wo- || wa- || colspan="2" | wa- || wä- || Plural of class 1

| mï-/ïm-³ || wï- || wo- || wa- || colspan="2" | wu- || mï- || Plants (and derivatives)*, natural phenomena, <!--elongated objects, active things, motion, -->non-paired body parts, various*

| mï-/ïm-³ || jï- || jo- || ja- || colspan="2" | ji- || mï- || Plural of class 3

| zï-/ïz-³; - || lï- || lo- || la- || colspan="2" | li- || zï- || Augmentatives*, amelioratives*, paired body parts, natural phenomena, expanses, individual things found in groups, various*

| mä- || yä- || yo- || ya- || colspan="2" | ya- || mä- || Plural of classes 5 & 14, mass nouns, collectives, collective actions

| jï-/ïj-³ || shï- || sho- || sha- || colspan="2" | shi- || jï- || Tools/artefacts, diminutives*, languages*, resemblance, amelioratives*, derogatives*, disabilities/diseases, various*

| vï-/ïv-³ || vï- || vo- || va- || colspan="2" | vi- || vï- || Plural of class 7

| ⁿ-; -<small>⁴</small> || yï- || yo- || ya- || colspan="2" | yi- || ⁿ- || Animals, inanimate, loanwords*, various*

| ⁿ-; -<small>⁴</small> || ĵï- || ĵo- || ĵa- || colspan="2" | ĵi- || ⁿ- || Plural of classes 9 & 11

| lï-/ïl-³ || lï- || lo- || lwa- || colspan="2" | lu- || lï- || Abstract, manner/way/culture*, localized mass nouns, long or broad objects

| gä- || gä- || go- || ga- || colspan="2" | ga- || gä- || Diminutives*, derogatives*, amelioratives*, various

| dï-/ïd-³ || dï- || do- || dwa- || colspan="2" | du- || dï- || Plural of class 12

| wï-/ïw-<small>³</small> || wï- || wo- || wa- || colspan="2" | wu- || wï- || Abstract*, countries/lands*, location terms*

| g(w/ï)-<small>⁵</small>/ïg(w)-³ || g(w/ï)- || go- || gwa- || colspan="2" | gu- || g(w/ï)- || Infinitives & verbal nouns*

| bä- || bä- || bo- || ba- || colspan="2" | ba- || bä- || Specific/definite location*, "at/on/by"*, "from"*, "against"*, "to the detriment of"*, ablative*, instrumental*

| g(w/ï)-/ïg(w)-³ || g(w/ï)- || go- || gwa- || colspan="2" | gu- || g(w/ï)- || Nonspecific/approximate location*, direction/destination*, recepient*, "for/to"*, "to the benefit of"*, plural of class 16

<small>¹</small> Subject and object concords are used for the subject and object of a verb respectively, and adjective concords are used with adjectives. Most other words use pronominal concords. The extended pronominal concords are used to form pronouns (see [[Kola#Pronouns|pronouns]]) and with quantifiers - e.g. ዎቸ ''wócä'' "all (animate pl.)" (stem: ''-cä'') <!-- maybe low -->. The relative concords are used for relativized verbs and possessives.

 

 

 

<small>²</small> Productive meanings are marked with an asterisk.

<small>³</small> Class prefixes of the form Cï- are metathesized to ''ïC-'' before stems beginning in ''C-'' (where ''C'' refers to the consonant in the prefix). Note that for the purposes of this metathesis, labialized velars are treated as their plain counterparts and vice versa - i.e. metathesis of the class 15 and 17 prefixes occurs whether the stem begins in ''g-'' or ''gw-'', and in both cases the stem consonant merges with the stem-initial consonant. Note that the class 17 prefix does not metathesize when it is used as a preposition/case prefix.

<small>⁴</small> ⁿ- = initial fortition<!--. The initial consonant of class 9 & 10 nouns/adjectives is geminated when a prefix ending in a weak vowel is added.-->

<small>⁵</small> (w/ï) = -w- added before vowels

Inanimate nouns (especially those whose plural form is identical to their singular) can form an alternative plural by adding the class 6 prefix ''mä-'' to either their singular or plural. Similarly, animate nouns (especially those not already in class 1) can add the class 2 prefix ''wä-''.

:e.g. class 3 ምጢ ''mïthí'' "tree" (stem: ''-thí'') → class 4 ምጢ ''mïthí'' or class 6 መምጢ ''mämthí'' "trees"

::class 5 ዚጨ ''zíchä'' "eye" (stem: ''-íchä'') → class 6 ሜጨ ''méchä'' or መሜጨ ''mäméchä'' / መዚጨ ''mäzíchä'' "eyes"

::class 5 ዝት ''zḯtt'' "giant; great person" (stem: ''-́tt'') → class 6 መት ''mä́tt'' or class 2 ወመት ''wämä́tt'' / ወዝት ''wäzḯtt''<!-- were low --> "giants; great people"

Younger speakers tend to add the prefixes to the noun's singular form, while older speakers add them to the plural forms or don't add them at all. In this article, the traditional plurals are used.

Diminutive and augmentative prefixes may be added before the prefix of the base noun or directly to the stem. Locative prefixes are always added to the beginning of the noun phrase before any other prefixes and/or modifiers.

:e.g. ''gä-'' + ''zíchä'' → ጌጨ ''géchä'' or ገዚጨ ''gäzíchä'' "little eye"

::''bä-'' + ''zíchä'' → በዚጨ ''bäzíchä'' (NOT *ቤጨ ''béchä'') "in (an) eye"

::''bä-'' + ''lä-'' "the" + inanimate concord + ''-ngólä'' "red" + ''zíchä'' → በለጎለ ዚጨ ''bälägólä zíchä'' "in the red eye" <!-- ngola were low -->

 

The definite article is ለ- ''lä-'' (invariant), which attaches to the beginning of the noun phrase, immediately after any locative prefixes or other prepositions - e.g. ለዚጨ ''läzíchä'' "the eye"; በለዚጨ ''bäläzíchä'' "in the eye".

Kola does not have an indefinite article, though the numeral ሙ ''mú'' "one" can be used.

 

When taking a prefix or suffix, the clitic pronoun forms are used. For example, possessive pronouns/adjectives are formed by prefixing the relativizing particle to the clitic pronouns. The absolute pronouns can be used more or less interchangeable with the corresponding referential demonstratives (formed by reduplicating the clitic pronouns; see [[Kola#Demonstratives|demonstratives]]).

 

The impersonal can be used to form passives and pseudopassives - e.g. ቴደ ''téddä'' "one walks"; ቱልዪዙጘ ''tulyizúngä'' "one is cooking it; it is being cooked" (the latter meaning can also be expressed with the passive extension: ዪልዙጟ ''yilzúngwa'' "it is being cooked").

! rowspan="2" | Person !! colspan="2"|  Independent !! colspan="5"| Concord prefixes

! absolute <!-- were low -->!! clitic<!-- were low --> !! extended <br /> pronominal !! relative !! pronominal !! subject !! object  

| እሚ ïmí || ሚ mí || ኜ- nye- || ኛ- nya- || colspan="3" | ኝ- nyï-  

| እዌ ïwé || ዌ wé || ዌ- we- || ዋ- wa- || colspan="2" | ው- wï- || ግ/ጕ- g(ï/w)-

| እዬ ïyé || ዬ yé || ዬ- ye- || ያ- ya- || ይ- yï- || ያ- ya- || ም- mï-  

! 3SI

| እዮ ïyó || ዮ yó || ዮ- yo- || ያ- ya- || ይ- yï- || colspan="2" | ዪ- yi-  

| እሲ ïsí || ሲ sí || ዶ- do- || ዳ- da- || colspan="3" | ዲ- di-

| እኒ ïní || ኒ ní || ኖ- no- || ና- na- || colspan="3" | ኒ- ni-

| እጆ ïĵó || ጆ ĵó || ጆ- ĵo- || ጃ- ĵa- || ጅ- ĵï- || colspan="2" | ጂ- ĵi-

| እቶ ïtó || ቶ tó || ቶ- to- || ቷ- twa- || ት- tï- || colspan="2" | ቱ- tu-  

! REF

| እጦ ïthó || ጦ thó || ጦ- tho- || ጧ- thwa- || ጡ- thu- || – || ጡ- thu-  

Adjectives agree with the noun they modify, taking the appropriate adjective concord prefixes (see [[Kola#Noun_classes|noun classes]]). However, except in very formal language, the full set of prefixes is not used and is replaced with animacy concords. Adjectives modifying animate nouns use class 1/2 prefixes (for the singular/plural repectively), and those modifying inanimate nouns use class 9/10 or 5/6 or 9/6 prefixes (9/10 is the most common and is used by this article). In very informal language, the concord prefixes can be dropped entirely.

In the below table, like the rest of this article, animacy concord is used (with 9/10 for inanimate). Class 7/8 forms are also given in order to demonstrate the effects of sandhi, particularly in the forms for "two". Note that 10 and higher numbers do not take concord prefixes.

Ordinal numbers are formed with the relativizing particle ''a-'' and therefore are technically possessives. For example, አቁም ''aqúm'' "tenth" literally means "of ten". አጓዘ ''agwázä'' "first" literally means "of the beginning" (from ጓዘ ''gwazä'' "beginning; to begin", stem: ''-azä'').

! rowspan="3" | !! colspan="5"| Cardinal !! colspan="3" | Ordinal

! rowspan="2" | Counting !! colspan="4" | Adjective !! rowspan="2" | no prefix !! rowspan="2" | singular  !! rowspan="2" | plural animate

! stem !! animate (1/2) !! inanimate (9/10) !! 7/8

| መሲ mä́si || ሙ mú || ምሙ mïmú || ሙ mú || ሽሙ shïmú || አጓዘ agwázä || ያጓዘ yagwázä || ዋጓዘ wagwázä <!-- mAsi were low -->

| ውሊ wḯli || ውሊ wḯli || ዎሊ/ወውሊ wóli/wä́wli || ብሊ bḯli || ቩሊ vúli || አውሊ áwli || ያውሊ yáwli || ዋውሊ wáwli <!-- wIli were low -->

| ጣጥ tháth || ጣጥ tháth || ወጣጥ wätháth || ታጥ táth || ቭጣጥ vïtháth || አጣጥ atháth || ያጣጥ yatháth || ዋጣጥ watháth

| ኔ né || ኔ né || ወኔ wäné || ኔ né || ቭኔ vïné || አኔ ané || ያኔ yané || ዋኔ wané <!-- were low -->

| ጫን chán || ጫን chán || ወጫን wächán || ቻን cán || ቭጫን vïchán || አጫን achán || ያጫን yachán || ዋጫን wachán <!-- were low -->

| ቃጘ qángä || ቃጘ qángä || ወቃጘ wäqángä || ካጘ kángä || ቭቃጘ vïqángä || አቃጘ aqángä || ያቃጘ yaqángä || ዋቃጘ waqángä

| ጦሎ thólo || ጦሎ thólo || ወጦሎ wäthólo || ቶሎ tólo || ቭጦሎ vïthólo || አጦሎ athólo || ያጦሎ yathólo || ዋጦሎ wathólo

| ናኔ náne || ናኔ náne || ወናኔ wänáne || ናኔ náne || ቭናኔ vïnáne || አናኔ anáne || ያናኔ yanáne || ዋናኔ wanáne

| ሰጛን sängán || ሰጛን sängán || ወሰጛን wäsängán || ሰጛን sängán || ቭሰጛን vïsängán || አሰጛን asängán || ያሰጛን yasängán || ዋሰጛን wasängán <!-- were low -->

| ቁም qúm || colspan="4" | ቁም qúm || አቁም aqúm || ያቁም yaqúm || ዋቁም waqúm

| ቁምነ መሲ qúmnä mä́si || ቁምነ ሙ qúmnä mú || ቁምነ ምሙ qúmnä mïmú || ቁምነ ሙ qúmnä mú || ቁምነ ሽሙ qúmnä shïmú || አቁምነ ሙ aqúmnä mú || ያቁምነ ሙ yaqúmnä mú || ዋቁምነ ሙ waqúmnä mú

 

'''Infinitive''' is a class 15 noun. It is formed by adding the class 15 prefix to the verb stem - e.g. ጔደ ''<b>gw</b>éddä'' "to walk" (root: ''-édd-''), ግዙጘ ''<b>gï</b>zúngä'' "to cook (trs.)" (root: ''-zúng-'').

 

'''Agent''' nouns are class 1/2. They are formed by adding the class 1/2 prefix to the verb stem. An older agent noun with a spirantized final consonant may also exist, often with a specialized meaning.<!-- In regular verbs, the nominalized stem is formed by removing the final vowel and spirantizing the final consonant (if applicable). Verbs ending in other vowels simply use the verbal stem.-->

:e.g. ሜደ ''<b>m</b>éddä'' "walker; traveller; stranger" (pl: ዌደ ''<b>w</b>éddä''); ሜዝ ''<b>m</b>ézz'' "companion; traveller" (pl: ዌዝ ''<b>w</b>ézz'').

'''Negation''' is accomplished with the circumfix ከ-ም ''kä-m'' in main clauses, the prefix ከ- ''kä-'' for subjunctive verbs, and the post-subject prefix -ሲ- ''-si-'' for relative verbs and derived nouns.

:e.g. ኜደ ''nyéddä'' "I walk" → ከኜደም ''<b>kä</b>nyéddä<b>m</b>'' "I do not walk"