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{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = Wendlandish | |name = Wendlandish | ||
|nativename = lyngra Vinnurlænska | |nativename = lyngra Vinnurlænska | ||
|pronunciation = | |pronunciation = ˈlʏŋːra ʋinʉɐ̯ˈlænska | ||
|states | |states = the Wendlands | ||
|region = Alt-Northern Europe | |region = Alt-Northern Europe | ||
|ethnicity = Wends/Wendlanders (''Vinnurlænsker'') | |ethnicity = Wends/Wendlanders (''Vinnurlænsker'') | ||
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|fam3 = Romance | |fam3 = Romance | ||
|fam4 = Northern Romance | |fam4 = Northern Romance | ||
| | |ancestors = Latin | ||
|creator = | |creator = User:Lili21 | ||
|created = Jul 2016 | |created = Jul 2016 | ||
|setting = Alt-Earth | |setting = Alt-Earth | ||
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|nation = the Wendlands | |nation = the Wendlands | ||
|agency = Academy of the Wendlandish Language<br/>''akademíla ið lyngra Vinnurlænska'' | |agency = Academy of the Wendlandish Language<br/>''akademíla ið lyngra Vinnurlænska'' | ||
|notice = ipa | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Wendlandish''', natively ''Vinnurlænska'' or ''lyngra Vinnurlænska'', is a Romance language spoken in an uchronic Earth, in the area of real-world Pomerania. | '''Wendlandish''', natively ''Vinnurlænska'' or ''lyngra Vinnurlænska'', is a Romance language spoken in an uchronic Earth, in the area of real-world Pomerania. | ||
The only member of the Northern Romance branch, Wendlandish has, due to relative and long isolation from the rest of the Romance-speaking world, followed its own path of evolution and has absorbed lots of words, grammatical features, and influence on phonology, from its neighboring languages: most prominently Old Norse, but also Proto-Slavic, Baltic languages, Low German and, more recently, Standard High German and Polish. | The only member of the Northern Romance branch, Wendlandish has, due to relative and long isolation from the rest of the Romance-speaking world, followed its own path of evolution and has absorbed lots of words, grammatical features, and influence on phonology, from its neighboring languages: most prominently Old Norse, but also Proto-Slavic, Baltic languages, Low German and, more recently, Standard High German and Polish. | ||
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==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
===External history=== | ===External history=== | ||
Wendlandish | Wendlandish started as [[User:Lili21|my]] first "serious" attempt at an a posteriori conlang. I wanted to do a language radically different from other ones in its family, so I decided for this (somewhat unrealistic, I admit) setting: a Romance language spoken in what in the real world is Pomerania (roughly between Schwerin and Gdańsk, up to 50-60 km inland from the coast), with lots of Old Norse, Slavic, Baltic, and Polish influences, totally cut off for ages from other Romance-speaking peoples, and in the end becoming in the 20th century a part of the Soviet Union, something that further characterizes the language. | ||
'''NOTE:''' Even if it started out seriously, it later became the closest thing to a jokelang I've done. I actually like Wendlandish and still work on it once in a while, but I tend to add things more because I like them rather than because they would make sense conhistorically. | |||
===Internal history=== | ===Internal history=== | ||
Wendlandish is the official and national language of Wendland — natively ''Vinnurlond'', "the Wendlands" —, officially the Soviet Republic of the Wendlands (''repuvlik savjetska Vinnurlandana''), a sovereign state in Northern Europe, bordering in the west and south with Germany (''Þysklond'') and in the south and east with Poland (''Sløvjænlond''); it has a long coast on the Baltic Sea (''mær Vinnurlandana'', Sea of the Wendlands), which divides it from Denmark (''Danmork'') and Sweden (''Sværikur'').<br/> | Wendlandish is the official and national language of Wendland — natively ''Vinnurlond'', "the Wendlands" —, officially the Soviet Republic of the Wendlands (''repuvlik savjetska Vinnurlandana''), a sovereign state in Northern Europe, bordering in the west and south with Germany (''Þysklond'') and in the south and east with Poland (''Sløvjænlond''); it has a long coast on the Baltic Sea (''mær Vinnurlandana'', Sea of the Wendlands), which divides it from Denmark (''Danmork'') and Sweden (''Sværikur'').<br/> | ||
The capital and largest city, with 980,000 inhabitants, is ''Vænfjørðin''<ref>In real world Poland, on the banks of the Dziwna river, partially on the island of Wolin and partially on the mainland.</ref>. Other major cities are '' | The capital and largest city, with 980,000 inhabitants, is ''Vænfjørðin''<ref>In real world Poland, on the banks of the Dziwna river, partially on the island of Wolin and partially on the mainland.</ref>. Other major cities are ''Þyskarhøjfn'' (pop. about 75,000) in the west, on the coast opposite the country's largest island, ''Rygn''<ref>Real world Rügen.</ref>; and ''Løgurðurp''<ref>In real world in northern Szczecinek county, West Pomeranian voivodeship.</ref> (pop. about 98,000) in the east; most of the country is rural, with more than 70% of the population being concentrated in and around Vænfjørðin (the second-largest city is actually ''Praljetarski'', just north of Vænfjørðin, with about 160,000 inhabitants). | ||
The population of Wendland, at the last census (2014), amounted to about 1,600,000 people; the total number of native Wendlandish speakers is slightly higher, with at least 100,000 people of Wendlandish origin living in other former Soviet countries and a small community in southern Denmark, mostly descendants of people who escaped from Wendland during Soviet times. | The population of Wendland, at the last census (2014), amounted to about 1,600,000 people; the total number of native Wendlandish speakers is slightly higher, with at least 100,000 people of Wendlandish origin living in other former Soviet countries and a small community in southern Denmark, mostly descendants of people who escaped from Wendland during Soviet times. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
The digraphs '''aj, | The digraphs '''aj, av, ej, ov, '''and '''æj''' represent the diphthongs /<span>aɪ̯ aʊ̯ eɪ̯ ɔʊ̯ ɛɪ̯/ but are not treated as separate letters, unlike digraphs for consonants.</span> | ||
'''ng '''does not have an upper-case version as it does not appear at the beginning of words. | '''ng '''does not have an upper-case version as it does not appear at the beginning of words. | ||
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Loanwords are usually adapted without exceptions, like e.g. Polish ''zakład ''> ''zakvat ''"factory", or German ''Übermensch'' > ''ybermensj''. Foreign surnames from languages written in the Latin alphabet are usually however kept the same (except for a few personalities whose names are completely adapted, like ''Kristsafir Kolum ''(Christopher Columbus) or ''Jøna ið Ark ''(Joan of Arc)); names from other languages were formerly romanized into Wendlandish from their pronunciation (e.g. ''Лермонтов ''> ''Ljermantaf''), nowadays pure transliterations are preferred (e.g. ''Горбачёв'' > ''Gorbatjov'', pronounced either [gɔɐ̯baˈtʃɔʊ̯] or [ˈɣɔɐ̯batʃɔʊ̯]). | Loanwords are usually adapted without exceptions, like e.g. Polish ''zakład ''> ''zakvat ''"factory", or German ''Übermensch'' > ''ybermensj''. Foreign surnames from languages written in the Latin alphabet are usually however kept the same (except for a few personalities whose names are completely adapted, like ''Kristsafir Kolum ''(Christopher Columbus) or ''Jøna ið Ark ''(Joan of Arc)); names from other languages were formerly romanized into Wendlandish from their pronunciation (e.g. ''Лермонтов ''> ''Ljermantaf''), nowadays pure transliterations are preferred (e.g. ''Горбачёв'' > ''Gorbatjov'', pronounced either [gɔɐ̯baˈtʃɔʊ̯] or [ˈɣɔɐ̯batʃɔʊ̯]). | ||
Acute accents may be added on all vowels to mark stress; this is in formal writings mandatory word-finally (''-ǽ'' is very common because of Greek -τική words such as ''maþematikǽ'' "mathematics" or ''politikǽ'' "politics") and in some plurisyllabic words ending in ''-s'' if the vowel before it is stressed (e.g. ''granís'' "frontier, border"). In colloquial writing, this is not usually done. | |||
/j/ is sometimes written '''i''' instead of '''j''' when morpheme-final before a vowel-initial morpheme, e.g. ''skoliejtyk'' "school-", from ''skoli'' (school) + ''-ejtyk'' (adjectival suffix, < Lat. -āticum). | |||
====Cyrillic orthography==== | ====Cyrillic orthography==== | ||
There is an unofficial Cyrillic orthography for Wendlandish, mostly based on Russian, which was developed unofficially during Soviet times and is still commonly seen used by Soviet nostalgics. The Wendlandish Cyrillic is basically the Russian alphabet extended with the letters ө ү | There is an unofficial Cyrillic orthography for Wendlandish, mostly based on Russian, which was developed unofficially during Soviet times and is still commonly seen used by Soviet nostalgics. The Wendlandish Cyrillic is basically the Russian alphabet extended with the letters ө ү ѣ ҫ ҙ standing for Latin ø y æ þ ð. The letters ш ч ц stand for the Latin digraphs sj tj ts respectively. Russian words are usually never changed, even if they reflect sounds not distinguished in Wendlandish. | ||
Examples of official Latin script vs. unofficial Cyrillic orthography: | Examples of official Latin script vs. unofficial Cyrillic orthography: | ||
* The Wendlands are a country in Northern Europe. | * The Wendlands are a country in Northern Europe. | ||
: | : Vinnurlond sints un gasudarstva i Nurð ið Øyropa. | ||
: | : Виннурлонд синц ун государство и Нурҙ иҙ Өүропа. | ||
* Tjervona Vihtørala is a city located near the border | * Tjervona Vihtørala is a city located near the German border. | ||
: Tjervona Vihtørala | : Tjervona Vihtørala jatt una sjitæt sje lukatse yst þyskriska granísla. | ||
: Червона Вихтөрала | : Червона Вихтөрала ятт уна шитѣт ше лукаце үст ҫүскриска гранисла. | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
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Phonemic /v/ is however much more common than phonemic /g/, even if used by a minority of speakers. | Phonemic /v/ is however much more common than phonemic /g/, even if used by a minority of speakers. | ||
/z/ appears exclusively in Polish and Russian loanwords. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
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|ɔʊ̯ | |ɔʊ̯ | ||
|} | |} | ||
An unstressed schwa vowel appears in order to break some consonant clusters, like in some first person singular verbs - e.g. ''øml'' "I walk" - as well as in all synthetic past 3rd plural forms in -''rtn''. The realization of this vowel varies regionally: in Vænfjørðin and all other Central dialects it is usually [ə] (e.g. [ˈøməl], ''fyrtn'' [ˈfʏɐ̯tən]); it is [ɯ] across the Eastern Wendlands (e.g. [ˈømɯl], [ˈfʏɐ̯tɯn]), while the Western Wendlands are more varied, with notably [u] in areas around Þyskarhøyfn (e.g. [ˈømul], [ˈfʏɐ̯tun]). | |||
===Prosody=== | ===Prosody=== | ||
====Stress==== | ====Stress==== | ||
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Wendlandish nouns inflect for definitiveness and number; the definite article is suffixed and changes for gender, being ''-il'' for masculine nouns and ''-la'' for feminine ones (with ''l'' becoming ''r'' if there's another ''l'' in the stem).<br/> | Wendlandish nouns inflect for definitiveness and number; the definite article is suffixed and changes for gender, being ''-il'' for masculine nouns and ''-la'' for feminine ones (with ''l'' becoming ''r'' if there's another ''l'' in the stem).<br/> | ||
It is not always possible to know what is the gender of the noun; generally nouns in ''-a'' are feminine (e.g. ''margva'' "carrot", ''tøla'' "table") as are many in ''-e'' (e.g. ''førke'' "girl") but for many other nouns it is not possible to know it from the form, e.g. ''kan'' "cane" is feminine but ''kæn'' "dog" is masculine; similarly ''oran'' (eagle) and ''agjin'' (fire) are both masculine while ''jalin'' (deer) is feminine. | It is not always possible to know what is the gender of the noun; generally nouns in ''-a'' are feminine (e.g. ''margva'' "carrot", ''tøla'' "table") as are many in ''-e'' (e.g. ''førke'' "girl") but for many other nouns it is not possible to know it from the form, e.g. ''kan'' "cane" is feminine but ''kæn'' "dog" is masculine; similarly ''oran'' (eagle) and ''agjin'' (fire) are both masculine while ''jalin'' (deer) is feminine. Some nouns may be used in both genders: ''ælektra'' (tram/Stadtbahn), for example, is most commonly feminine but is also used as masculine due to its etymology (it is a shortening of ''ælektratsuk'' "electric train"; also "train", ''pojst'', is masculine). | ||
The basic pattern is as follows: | The basic pattern is as follows: | ||
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* Masculine nouns in '''-ð''' change this consonant to '''d''' in declined forms, e.g. '''ølð''' (ship): ølð - ølder - øldil - øldylir; | * Masculine nouns in '''-ð''' change this consonant to '''d''' in declined forms, e.g. '''ølð''' (ship): ølð - ølder - øldil - øldylir; | ||
** This change does not happen after ''-r'' and ''-j'', e.g. '''arvejð''' (work): arvejð - arvejðer - arvejðil - arvejðylir; | ** This change does not happen after ''-r'' and ''-j'', e.g. '''arvejð''' (work): arvejð - arvejðer - arvejðil - arvejðylir; | ||
* Some masculine nouns have plural indefinite in ''-ir'', as a result of non-regularized original Latin ''-ōs''. ''pufl'' (people) is possibly the most noticeable; | * Some masculine nouns have plural indefinite in ''-ir'', as a result of non-regularized original Latin ''-ōs''. ''pufl'' (people) is possibly the most noticeable; a loanword following this pattern is '''rubil''' (ruble): rubil - rublir - rublir - rublyllir; | ||
* Feminine nouns in '''-æt''' (< Latin ''-itate'') change this final ''t'' into ''ð'' in declined forms, e.g. '''frjæt''' "truth": frjæt - frjæðir - frjæðla - frjæðillar; | * Feminine nouns in '''-æt''' (< Latin ''-itate'') change this final ''t'' into ''ð'' in declined forms, e.g. '''frjæt''' "truth": frjæt - frjæðir - frjæðla - frjæðillar; | ||
* As seen in ''frjæt'', feminine nouns ending in a consonant have ''i'' as the thematic vowel for plural forms, e.g. ''forbindasj'' (''-asj'' < Lat. ''-ātiō'') "connection": forbindasj - forbindasjir - forbindasjla - forbindasjillar. | * As seen in ''frjæt'', feminine nouns ending in a consonant have ''i'' as the thematic vowel for plural forms, e.g. ''forbindasj'' (''-asj'' < Lat. ''-ātiō'') "connection": forbindasj - forbindasjir - forbindasjla - forbindasjillar. | ||
Some nouns are often used without article, unless it is qualified. This is true for most city names (''Vænfjørðin'' but ''mudern Vænfjørðinil'') and many names of sciences (''eterafrøj'' "meteorology" but ''eterafrøjla ið vintsisjm søkulir'' "20th century meteorology"). | |||
===Adjectives=== | ===Adjectives=== | ||
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: '''durf''' "cool" (colloquial): durf [ˈduɐ̯f] - durfa [ˈduːɐ̯fa] - durfs [ˈduɐ̯s] | : '''durf''' "cool" (colloquial): durf [ˈduɐ̯f] - durfa [ˈduːɐ̯fa] - durfs [ˈduɐ̯s] | ||
: '''lymb''' "beautiful": lymb [ˈlʏm] - limba [ˈliːmba] - lymbs [ˈlʏms] | : '''lymb''' "beautiful": lymb [ˈlʏm] - limba [ˈliːmba] - lymbs [ˈlʏms] | ||
: '''savjetsk''' "Soviet": savjetsk [saˈʋjetsk] - savjetska [saˈʋjetska] - savjetsks [saˈʋjes(k)s] | |||
Most adjectives are of the 1st declension; the 2nd declension ones mostly come from Latin ''-e'' adjectives or Middle High German ''-ik'' / Danish ''-ig'' ones (e.g. ''jegentsli'' "true, real"). There are, however, a few oddities, like ''tjervon'' (red), of Polish origin, being a 2nd declension adjective. | Most adjectives are of the 1st declension; the 2nd declension ones mostly come from Latin ''-e'' adjectives or Middle High German ''-ik'' / Danish ''-ig'' ones (e.g. ''jegentsli'' "true, real"). There are, however, a few oddities, like ''tjervon'' (red), of Polish origin, being a 2nd declension adjective. | ||
It should be kept in mind that two color terms have irregular declensions: '''ruds''' "brown" - fem. ''ruda'' and pl. ''rudar''; '''orants''' "orange" - fem. ''orantja'' and pl. ''orantjar''. | |||
====Comparatives and superlatives==== | |||
====Irregular adjectives==== | |||
There are eight (or nine) completely irregular adjectives with synthetic comparatives and superlatives, inherited from Latin — the reason for the count of eight or nine is that one of them, irregular from Latin, has been completely displaced in modern Wendlandish in its positive degree only by a Russian borrowing.<br/>All of them also follow irregular declensions (similar to ''ruds'' and ''orants''), but the comparative is invariable. | |||
The irregular adjectives are: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Positive !! Comparative !! Superlative | |||
|- | |||
| '''bin''' <small>(''buna'', ''bunar'')</small> "good" || ''milir'' "better" || ''øftym'' <small>(''øftma'', ''øftmar''<ref>The '''t''' is etymological and silent.</ref>)</small> "best" | |||
|- | |||
| '''møl''' <small>(''mala'', ''malar'')</small> "bad" || ''pjajir'' "worse" || ''pjasjym'' <small>(''pjasjima'', ''pjasjimar'')</small> "worst" | |||
|- | |||
| '''balsjoj''' <small>(''balsjaja'', ''balsjí'')</small> "big, large" || rowspan=2 | ''møyr'' "larger" || rowspan=2 | ''mesjym'' <small>(''mesjima'', ''mesjimar'')</small> "largest" | |||
|- | |||
| ''møyn'' <small>(''majna'', ''majnar'')</small> "big, large" (obsolete) | |||
|- | |||
| '''pør''' <small>(''parva'', ''parvar'')</small> "small" || ''minir'' "smaller" || ''minym'' <small>(''minima'', ''minimar'')</small> "smallest" | |||
|- | |||
| '''sufør''' <small>(''sufra'', ''sufrar'')</small> "high, tall, upper" || ''sufjarir'' "higher, taller" || ''sufrøm'' <small>(''sufrema'', ''sufremar'')</small> "highest, tallest, uppermost" | |||
|- | |||
| '''infør''' <small>(''infra'', ''infrar'')</small> "short, lower" || ''infjarir'' "shorter" || ''infym'' <small>(''infima'', ''infimar'')</small> "shortest, lowermost" | |||
|- | |||
| '''pistør''' <small>(''pistra'', ''pistrar'')</small> "(immediately) next, following" || ''pistjarir'' "next, following" (farther); "farther" || ''pistrøm'' <small>(''pistrema'', ''pistremar'')</small> "last; farthest" | |||
|- | |||
| '''jastør''' <small>(''jastra'', ''jastrar'')</small> "external, outside" || ''jastjarir'' "more external; protruding, farther" || ''jastrøm'' <small>(''jastrema'', ''jastremar'')</small> "last; farthest" | |||
|} | |||
More on ''pistjarir''/''jastjarir'' and ''pistrøm''/''jastrøm'': the forms of ''pistør'' are more often used when talking about things and their placement, as in a number - e.g. ''pistrema pørsjin'' "last position"; ''pistrøm køyðik ið sjirtiril'' "the writer's last book"; ''pistrema pisjuljæðla'' "the last chance". The forms of ''jastør'' are used when talking about spatial placement - e.g. ''jastrema kara i vegil'' "last house in the street". In some cases, both can be used - e.g. ''jastremar/pistremar persunar ið propkala'' "the last people of the queue"; some phrases are however mostly idiomatic, so that "last train" and "next train" seem ''pistjarir'' and ''pistrøm'' cases but the actual terms used are ''jastjarir pojst(il)'' and ''jastrøm pojst(il)''. | |||
====Possessive adjectives==== | ====Possessive adjectives==== | ||
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Note that '''ð''' is silent in the forms ''sjonð'' [ˈʃɔn], ''sjynð'' [ˈʃʏn], ''hvæjrð'' [ˈʋɛɪ̯ɐ̯], and ''hværð'' [ˈʋæɐ̯]. | Note that '''ð''' is silent in the forms ''sjonð'' [ˈʃɔn], ''sjynð'' [ˈʃʏn], ''hvæjrð'' [ˈʋɛɪ̯ɐ̯], and ''hværð'' [ˈʋæɐ̯]. | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns and demonstratives=== | ||
Wendlandish pronouns distinguish three forms — nominative, accusative, and indirect — as relics of the Latin case system | Wendlandish pronouns distinguish three forms — nominative, accusative, and indirect — as relics of the Latin case system, but not all pronouns distinguish all of them. The 3rd person pronouns derive from ''ipse'', ''ipsa'', ''ipsī'', ''ipsae''. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | 1sg | ! colspan=2 | 1sg | ||
| jag || maj || mi | | jag [ˈjaːɣ] || maj || mi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | 2sg | ! colspan=2 | 2sg | ||
| tsu || taj || tajv | | tsu || taj || tajv [ˈtaju] | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan=2 | 3sg !! M | ||
| ifju | | if || ifju || rowspan=2 | ifi | ||
|- | |- | ||
! F | ! F | ||
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| colspan=2 | vovr || vøym | | colspan=2 | vovr || vøym | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan= | ! rowspan=2 | 3sg !! M | ||
| ifi | | | ifi || ifov || rowspan=2 | ifir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! F | ! F | ||
| ifjæ || ifjar | | ifjæ || ifjar | ||
|} | |} | ||
The two main demonstratives, "this" and "that", derive from locutions like ''ille hīc'' and ''ille illīc''. The third demonstrative, "same", derives from ''īdem''. Demonstratives have a neuter invariable form used as a pronoun: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''lek'' (this) !! colspan=3 | ''lylik'' (that) !! colspan=3 | ide (the same) | |||
|- | |||
! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter | |||
|- | |||
! Singular | |||
| lek || lajk || rowspan=2 | lyk || lylik || lajlik || rowspan=2 | lyðlik || ide || jæde || rowspan=2 | ide | |||
|- | |||
! Plural | |||
| lik || læk || lilik || lælik || jide || jajde | |||
|} | |||
Wendlandish correlatives are the following ones: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Demonstrative !! Relative !! Interrogative !! Indefinite !! Universal | |||
|- | |||
! Person | |||
| talf || rowspan=2 | hval, hjeð || hjalf? || ælfeltalf || intestalf | |||
|- | |||
! Type | |||
| tal || hval? || ælfeltal || intestal | |||
|- | |||
! Thing | |||
| hvid || hvid, hjeð || hjid? || ælfelhvid || rowspan=2 | int | |||
|- | |||
! Quantity, number | |||
| tit || hjeð (hvit) || hvit? || ælfeltit | |||
|- | |||
! Location | |||
| tiv || yv || hjyv? || ælfeliv || intesiv | |||
|- | |||
! Manner | |||
| tølmi || hvumi || hvumi? || ælfelmið || intemið | |||
|- | |||
! Time | |||
| tan || hvan || hvan? || ælfeltsu || intetsu | |||
|} | |||
Negatives are formed by adding ''naj'' before the demonstrative, e.g. ''naj talf'' "no one". | |||
"Why" and "because" are both translated as ''hvofur''. Despite the similarity to e.g. Danish ''hvorfor'', it is actually a derivation from Latin ''quō pro''. | |||
===Numerals=== | ===Numerals=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 17 | ! 17 | ||
| | | siþets || | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 18 | ! 18 | ||
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# '''-æjr verbs''', that is, descendants of the Latin first conjugation, like ''mæjr ''"to love" (< amāre) or ''ømlæjr ''"to walk" (< ambulāre); | # '''-æjr verbs''', that is, descendants of the Latin first conjugation, like ''mæjr ''"to love" (< amāre) or ''ømlæjr ''"to walk" (< ambulāre); | ||
# '''-ajr verbs''', descendants of the Latin second conjugation, like ''viðajr ''"to see" (< vidēre) or ''sfajr ''"to be aware" (< sapēre); | # '''-ajr verbs''', descendants of the Latin second conjugation, like ''viðajr ''"to see" (< vidēre) or ''sfajr ''"to be aware" (< sapēre); | ||
# '''-ir verbs''', descendants of the Latin third and fourth conjugations - like ''hrajðir ''"to believe" (< crēdere), ''hnovskir ''"to know" (< gnōscere), or ''dirmir ''"to sleep" (< dormīre), ''inørnir ''"to intervene" (< intervenīre). Those which descend from the third conjugation are called the '''- | # '''-ir verbs''', descendants of the Latin third and fourth conjugations - like ''hrajðir ''"to believe" (< crēdere), ''hnovskir ''"to know" (< gnōscere), or ''dirmir ''"to sleep" (< dormīre), ''inørnir ''"to intervene" (< intervenīre). Those which descend from the third conjugation are called the '''-øjmur '''group as their first person plural present indicative ends like that (e.g. ''hriðøjmur ''"we believe"), while those which descend from the fourth one are the '''-ymur '''group (e.g. ''dirmymur ''"we sleep"). | ||
# '''-ær/-er verbs''', which do not descend from Latin but are instead made by a generalization of the pre-Wendlandish ''-er ''infinitive suffix added to other roots, like ''milær ''"to smile" (< Old Norse smíla). This is the only currently productive conjugation - e.g. ''forkastsær'' "to have lunch"; modern colloquial ''davnloder ''"to download", ''sælfijer'' "to take a selfie", ''buhojer'' "to get drunk". | # '''-ær/-er verbs''', which do not descend from Latin but are instead made by a generalization of the pre-Wendlandish ''-er ''infinitive suffix added to other roots, like ''milær ''"to smile" (< Old Norse smíla). This is the only currently productive conjugation - e.g. ''forkastsær'' "to have lunch"; modern colloquial ''davnloder ''"to download", ''sælfijer'' "to take a selfie", ''buhojer'' "to get drunk". | ||
==== Present indicative ==== | ==== Present indicative ==== | ||
The present indicative usually has two principal stems: a "stressed" stem, used for the singular and third plural, and an "unstressed" one for first and second plural. The infinitive stem is usually the unstressed one, except for ''-ir'' verbs of the ''- | The present indicative usually has two principal stems: a "stressed" stem, used for the singular and third plural, and an "unstressed" one for first and second plural. The infinitive stem is usually the unstressed one, except for ''-ir'' verbs of the ''-øjmur'' group. | ||
{| class=wikitable | {| class=wikitable | ||
! rowspan=2 | !! 1st (-æjr) !! 2nd (-ajr) !! 3rd (-ir (- | ! rowspan=2 | !! 1st (-æjr) !! 2nd (-ajr) !! 3rd (-ir (-øjmur)) !! 3rd (-ir (-ymur)) !! 4th (-ær) !! 4th (-er) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ømlæjr "to walk" !! viðajr "to see" !! hnovskir "to know" !! dirmir "to sleep" !! milær "to smile" !! | ! ømlæjr "to walk" !! viðajr "to see" !! hnovskir "to know" !! dirmir "to sleep" !! milær "to smile" !! rjaser "to cut" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! jag | ! jag | ||
| øml || vajð'''e''' || hnovsk || dørm || milæ || | | øml || vajð'''e''' || hnovsk || dørm || milæ || rjase | ||
|- | |- | ||
! tsu | ! tsu | ||
| øml''' | | øml'''ar''' || vajð'''ir''' || hnovsk'''ir''' || dørm'''ir''' || milæ'''r''' || rjase'''r''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! if / ifja | ! if / ifja | ||
| øml''' | | øml'''at''' || vajð'''it''' || hnovsk'''it''' || dørm'''it''' || milæ'''t''' || rjase'''t''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! novr | ! novr | ||
| øml'''ømur''' || við''' | | øml'''ømur''' || við'''øjmur''' || hnusk'''øjmur''' || dirm'''ymur''' || mil'''øjmur''' || rjas'''ymur''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! vovr | ! vovr | ||
| øml'''ætir''' || við'''ætir''' || hnusk'''ætir''' || dirm'''itir''' || mil'''ætir''' || | | øml'''ætir''' || við'''ætir''' || hnusk'''ætir''' || dirm'''itir''' || mil'''ætir''' || rjas'''itir''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ifi / ifjæ | ! ifi / ifjæ | ||
| øml'''ints''' || vajð'''ints''' || hnovsk'''unts''' || dørm'''unts''' || milæ'''nts''' || | | øml'''ints''' || vajð'''ints''' || hnovsk'''unts''' || dørm'''unts''' || milæ'''nts''' || rjase'''nts''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! (impersonal) | ! (impersonal) | ||
| øml'''itse''' || vajð'''itse''' || hnovsk'''itse''' || dørm'''itse''' || milæ'''tse''' || | | øml'''itse''' || vajð'''itse''' || hnovsk'''itse''' || dørm'''itse''' || milæ'''tse''' || rjase'''tse''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Endings are only stressed in the first and second plural forms, except in ''-er'' verbs ([ | Endings are only stressed in the first and second plural forms, except in ''-er'' verbs ([ˈrjaːsʏmuɐ̯], [ˈrjaːsitiɐ̯] but [miˈløʏ̯muɐ̯], [miˈlæːtiɐ̯]). | ||
Most third conjugation ''- | Most third conjugation ''-øjmur'' verbs have umlaut in their conjugation, namely: | ||
* '''i-umlaut''' in the second and third person singular: | * '''i-umlaut''' in the second and third person singular: | ||
:: ''pjatir'' (to ask): ''jag pjat'', ''tsu pjætir'', ''if pjætit'' | :: ''pjatir'' (to ask): ''jag pjat'', ''tsu pjætir'', ''if pjætit'' | ||
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:: ''hrajðir'' (to believe): ''jag hrajð'', ... ''ifi hrøyðunts'' | :: ''hrajðir'' (to believe): ''jag hrajð'', ... ''ifi hrøyðunts'' | ||
:: ''bivir'' (to drink): ''jag byv'', ''tsu bivir'', ... ''ifi byvunts'' | :: ''bivir'' (to drink): ''jag byv'', ''tsu bivir'', ... ''ifi byvunts'' | ||
:: ''esjajpir'' (to begin) has this change in the 1SG and 3PL despite having ''aj'' in other forms: ''jag esjyp'', ''tsu esjajpir'', ''if esjajpit'', ''novr esjipøjmur'', ''vovr esjipætir'', ''ifi esjypunts'' | |||
Some ''-æjr'' verbs have ''æj'' in the first person singular and ''a'' in all other stressed-stem forms: | Some ''-æjr'' verbs have ''æj'' in the first person singular and ''a'' in all other stressed-stem forms: | ||
:: ''mæjr'' (to love): ''jag æjm'', ''tsu amar'', ''if amat'', ''novr mømur'', ''vovr mætir'', ''if amints'', ''amatse'' | :: ''mæjr'' (to love): ''jag æjm'', ''tsu amar'', ''if amat'', ''novr mømur'', ''vovr mætir'', ''if amints'', ''amatse'' | ||
:: ''kanæjr'' (to sing): ''jag kæjnt'', ''tsu kantar'', ''if kantat'', ''novr kanømur'', ''vovr kanætir'', ''if kantints'', ''kantatse''. | :: ''kanæjr'' (to sing): ''jag kæjnt'', ''tsu kantar'', ''if kantat'', ''novr kanømur'', ''vovr kanætir'', ''if kantints'', ''kantatse''. | ||
A few verbs have ''ej'' in 1SG and 3PL (and sometimes in 1PL and 2PL too but unstressed) and ''ø'' in 2SG and 3SG. This is actually the result of ''i-umlaut'' on Latin ''au'' (/aʊ̯/ > */eʏ̯/ > /eɪ̯/) and not a kind of ''u-umlaut''. ''ejðir'' (to hear) is the prototypical example - note also the etymologically related ''iniðir'' (to learn): | |||
:: ''ejðir'' (to hear) < audīre: ''jag ejð'', ''tsu øðir'', ''if øðit'', ''novr ejðymur'', ''vovr ejðitir'', ''if ejðunts'', ''øðitse'' | |||
:: ''iniðir'' (to learn) < inaudīre: ''jag inejð'', ''tsu inøðir'', ''if inøðit'', ''novr iniðymur'', ''vovr iniðitir'', ''if inejðunts'', ''inøðitse'' | |||
=====Imperative===== | =====Imperative===== | ||
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''Jas'' is an exception as its imperative is ''si!'' (the same form as subjunctive 1sg). | ''Jas'' is an exception as its imperative is ''si!'' (the same form as subjunctive 1sg). | ||
==== Imperfect indicative ==== | |||
The imperfect indicative is regular, and has slightly different forms for all conjugations. Note that the 3rd ''-ymur'' were once distinct from the 3rd ''-øjmur'' ones, but the original forms (which often caused umlaut) have been regularized and replaced by the ''-øjmur'' forms. The stem is always the unstressed one. | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | !! 1st (-æjr) !! 2nd (-ajr) !! 3rd (-ir) !! 4th (-ær/-er) | |||
|- | |||
! ømlæjr "to walk" !! viðajr "to see" !! hnovskir "to know" !! milær "to smile" | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| øml'''æjma''' || við'''ema''' || hnusk'''jama''' || milæ'''ma''' | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| øml'''æjmar''' || við'''emar''' || hnusk'''jamar''' || milæ'''mar''' | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| øml'''aft''' || við'''aft''' || hnusk'''jaft''' || milæ'''ft''' | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| øml'''ømmur''' || við'''ømmur''' || hnusk'''jømmur''' || mil'''ømmur''' | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| øml'''æjmet''' || við'''emit''' || hnusk'''jamit''' || milæ'''met''' | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| øml'''æjnts''' || við'''ajnts''' || hnusk'''jants''' || milæ'''jants''' | |||
|- | |||
! (impersonal) | |||
| øml'''aftse''' || við'''aftse''' || hnusk'''jaftse''' || milæ'''ftse''' | |||
|} | |||
====Future==== | |||
The future tense, in Wendlandish, is formed analytically with the auxiliary verb '''kap''' (< Latin capiō) — which is defective and has only its present forms and the past participle — plus the infinitive. The conjugation of ''kap'' is: ''kap'' - ''kapir'' - ''kaft'' - ''køjmur'' - ''kapætir'' - ''køpunts'' - ''kaftse''. The past participle is ''kaft''. | |||
====Present participle and continuous tenses==== | ====Present participle and continuous tenses==== | ||
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: ''tsu jar jants'' "you are saying", ''tsu jarar jants'' "you were saying" | : ''tsu jar jants'' "you are saying", ''tsu jarar jants'' "you were saying" | ||
: ''if jatt forkastsænts'' "he is eating lunch", ''if jart forkastsænts'' "he was eating lunch" | : ''if jatt forkastsænts'' "he is eating lunch", ''if jart forkastsænts'' "he was eating lunch" | ||
: ''novr | : ''novr sørm arvejðænts'' "we are working", ''novr jørum arvejðænts'' "we were working" | ||
: ''vovr jæsts gljandænts'' "you (pl.) are looking", ''vovr jærits gljandænts'' "you (pl.) were looking" | : ''vovr jæsts gljandænts'' "you (pl.) are looking", ''vovr jærits gljandænts'' "you (pl.) were looking" | ||
: ''ifi | : ''ifi sints hrjæjnts'' "they are making", ''ifi jarants hrjæjnts'' "they were making" | ||
====Past, past participle, and perfect tenses==== | |||
The past in Wendlandish is formed by using the past participle preceded by the auxiliary verb ''hav'' (< ''habeō''). Past participles are invariable when used with verbs, but decline when used as adjectives or nouns.<br/> | |||
The past participle is formed with the unstressed stems and, generally: | |||
* for ''-æjr'', verbs by removing the ending and adding ''-øt'' (fem.: ''-ata'', pl. ''-ats'') | |||
* for ''-ajr'' and ''-ir'' verbs, by removing the ending and adding ''-yt'' (fem.: ''-ita'', pl. ''-its'') | |||
* for ''-ær'' and ''-er'' verbs, by removing the ''-(e)r'' and adding ''-t'', hence ''-æt''/''-t'' (fem.: ''-æta''/''-ta'', pl. ''-æts''/''-ts''). | |||
Examples: | |||
: ''ømlæjr'' "to walk" → ''ømløt'' "walked" (''ømlata, ømlats'') | |||
: ''delajr'' "to destroy" → ''delyt'' "destroyed" (''delita, delits'') | |||
: ''hnovskir'' "to know" (unstr. stem ''hnusk-'') → ''hnuskyt'' "known" (''hnuskita, hnuskits'') | |||
: ''ejðir'' "to hear" → ''ejðyt'' "heard" (''ejðita, ejðits'') | |||
: ''milær'' "to smile" → ''milæt'' "smiled" (''milæta, milæts'') | |||
: ''rjaser'' "to cut" → ''rjast'' "cut" (''rjasta, rjasts'') | |||
Some verbs have irregular participles, directly inherited from Latin ones and not remodelled, or further modified by other changes: | |||
: ''viðajr'' "to see" → ''vys'' "seen" (< ''vīsum''; fem.: ''vira'', pl. ''viss'') | |||
: ''inørnir'' "to intervene" → ''inørjønts'' (< ''interventum''; fem.: ''inørjanta'', pl. ''inørjantss''<ref>Silent ''-s'', only graphically marking the plural.</ref>) | |||
: ''jaðir'' "to eat" → ''øs'' "eaten" (< ''ēsum''; fem.: ''era'', pl. ''ess'') | |||
: ''fjarir'' "to carry, bear" → ''løt'' "carried" (< ''lātum''; fem. ''lata'', pl. ''lats'') | |||
:: ''aðfjarir'' [ˌaʊ̯ˈfjaːriɐ̯] "to give, bring" → ''adløt'' "given" (< ''adlātum''; fem. ''adlata'', pl. ''adlats'') | |||
:: ''defjarir'' "to take" → ''deløt'' "taken" (< ''dēlātum''; fem. ''delata'', pl. ''delats'') | |||
: ''vaðir'' "to go" → ''vøþt'' "went" (< analog. *vādītum; fem. ''vaþta'', pl. ''vaþts'') | |||
: ''tenajr'' "to have" → ''tytt'' "had" (< analog. *tenītum; fem. ''titta'', pl. ''titts'') | |||
: ''ljasjir'' "to read" → ''løht'' "read" (< ''lēctum''; fem. ''lajta'', pl. ''lajts'') | |||
:: ''idelajsjir'' "to understand" → ''ideljøt'' "understood" (< ''intellectum''; fem. ''ideljahta'', pl. ''ideljahts'') | |||
: ''pisir'' "to be able to" → ''puts'' "that could be done" (< analog. *possutum; fem. ''pitsa'', pl. ''pitss'') | |||
: ''vjal'' "to want" → ''vylt'' "wanted" (< analog. *volītum; fem. ''vølta'', pl. ''vølts'') | |||
: ''ditsir'' "to say" → ''føt'' "said" (< analog. *fātum; fem. ''fata'', pl. ''fats'') | |||
: ''prilufir'' "to talk" → ''lukut'' "talked" (< ''locūtum''; fem. ''lukuta'', pl. ''lukuts'') | |||
: ''eðpiskir'' "to find" → ''aðøft'' "found" (< ''adeptum''; fem. ''atjafta'', pl. ''atjats'') | |||
The '''past''' is formed by using the present forms of ''hav'' in front of the past participle. Its forms are: ''hav'' - ''hajs'' - ''hejt'' - ''høymur'' - ''hætir'' - ''hents'' - ''hejtse''.<br/> | |||
The '''past perfect''' is formed with the past forms of ''hav'' instead: ''højm'' - ''hømyst'' - ''hømyt'' - ''hømyr'' - ''hømysts'' - ''hørtn''<br/> | |||
The '''future perfect''' uses the present forms of ''hav'', followed by ''kaft'' (past participle of ''kap'') and the infinitive. | |||
Examples: ''fjør'' "I carry" - ''hav løt'' "I have carried" - ''højm løt'' "I had carried" - ''hav kaft fjarir'' "I will have carried" | |||
====The renarrative past==== | |||
The renarrative past is a tense derived by the old Latin perfect (with analogically created forms for formerly deponent verbs), but in Wendlandish it marks evidentiality and can be translated as "I've been told that X" or more generically "[subj] apparently X". Compare these two examples: | |||
: ''If jatt ipist, hvofur if hejt aðøft propka.'' "He is late because he found a traffic jam." (I know for sure he was stuck in a traffic jam, hence the regular past (hejt aðøft < *habet adeptum)) | |||
: ''If jatt ipist, hvofur if eðpiskerit propka.'' "He is late because, he told me, he found a traffic jam." (I'm just reporting what he told me, without knowing for sure he was stuck in a traffic jam, hence the renarrative past (eðpiskerit < *adipīscerit)). | |||
The renarrative past conjugation is notable for the widespread use of umlaut (often umlaut in the first person singular is the only distinction between it and the present) and for its high irregularities as, most often, Wendlandish kept the Latin irregular stems (cf. ''kaðir'' "to fall", ''if kæðit'' "he falls", but ''if kesjiþt'' "he apparently fell" (< cadere, cadit, cecidit)). | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | !! 1st (-æjr) !! 2nd (-ajr) !! 3rd (-ir) !! 4th (-ær/-er) | |||
|- | |||
! ømlæjr "to walk" !! viðajr "to see" !! øðir "to hear" !! milær "to smile" | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| øml'''ø''' || v'''y'''ð || øð'''i''' || mil'''ø''' | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| øml'''østi''' || v'''y'''ð'''sti'''<ref>''ðst'' is pronounced just [st], with a silent ''ð''.</ref> || øð'''sti''' || mil'''østi''' | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| øml'''øt''' || v'''y'''þ'''t''' || øþ'''t''' || mil'''øt''' | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| øml'''ørm''' || v'''y'''ð'''yrm''' || øð'''yrm''' || mil'''ørm''' | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| øml'''østir''' || v'''y'''ð'''stir''' || øð'''stir''' || mil'''østir''' | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| øml'''ørtn''' || v'''y'''ð'''ørtn''' || øð'''ørtn''' || mil'''ørtn''' | |||
|- | |||
! (impersonal) | |||
| øml'''øtse''' || v'''y'''þ'''tse''' || øþ'''tse''' || mil'''øtse''' | |||
|} | |||
Some of the most common irregular renarrative past stems (excluding completely irregular verbs, whose conjugations are found in the next section): | |||
: ''hnovskir'' "to know", ''if hnovskit'' "he knows", ''if hnøjt'' (stem ''hnøj-'') "he apparently knew" (< gnōscere, gnōscit, gnōvit) | |||
: ''kaðir'' "to fall", ''if kæðit'' "he falls", ''if kesjiþt'' (stem ''kesjið-'') "he apparently fell" (< cadere, cadit, cecidit) | |||
: ''kurir'' "to run", ''if kyrit'' "he runs", ''if kukyrt'' (stem ''kukyr-'') "he apparently ran" (< currere, currit, cucurrit) | |||
: ''mirðajr'' "to bite", ''if mirðit'' "he bites", ''if mumirþt'' (stem ''mumirð-'') "he apparently bit" (< mordēre, mordet, momordit) | |||
: ''paskir'' "to feed", ''if pæskit'' "he feeds", ''if pøjt'' (stem ''pøj-'') "he apparently fed" (< pāscere, pāscit, pāvit) | |||
: ''spindajr'' "to assure", ''if spindit'' "he assures", ''if spufønts'' (stem ''spufønd-'') "he apparently assured" (< spondēre, spondet, spopondit) | |||
: ''tangir'' "to touch, to get to know", ''if tængit'' "he touches", ''if tetajt'' (stem ''tetaj-'') "he apparently touched" (< tangere, tangit, tetigit) | |||
: ''tekir'' "to weave", ''if tikit'' "he weaves", ''if tøht'' (stem ''tøk-'') "he apparently wove" (< texere, texit, texuit) | |||
: ''vinsjir'' "to win", ''if vinsjit'' "he wins", ''if visjt'' (stem ''visj-'') "he apparently won" (< vincere, vincit, vīcit) | |||
The verb ''eðpiskir'' [eʊ̯ˈpiskiɐ̯] (to find) (< Pre-Wend. *adipīscere) shows a development common to all verbs whose renarrative past was only formed in Pre-Wendlandish because they were deponent in Latin and therefore had no perfect. Unlike what happens in their present, these verbs have some form of ''-ir'' throughout their renarrative past: ''jag eðpiskri'', ''tsu eðpiskersti'', ''if eðpiskerit'', ''novr eðpisklyrm'', ''vovr eðpiskerstir'', ''ifi eðpisklørtn''. (As for ''eðpiskir'', in some Western Wendlandish dialects it follows the same conjugation as ''hnovskir'', thus ''jag eðpi'', ''tsu eðpisjti'', ''if eðpit''...). | |||
A few verbs whose stems end in ''-j'' assimilate it to ''s'' in the second persons, e.g. ''paskir'' "to feed", ''if pøjt'' "he apparently fed" but ''tsu pøsjti'', ''vovr pøsjtir''.<br/> | |||
Verbs with ''ø'' (but not ''øj'') in the stem shift it to ''y'' in the second persons and to ''u'' in the third plural, e.g. ''tekir'' "to weave", ''if tøht'' "he apparently wove" but ''tsu tyksti'', ''vovr tykstir'', ''ifi tukørtn''. | |||
==== Irregular verbs ==== | ==== Irregular verbs ==== | ||
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! rowspan=2 | jas (to be) !! colspan=7 | Indicative !! colspan=2 | Subjunctive | ! rowspan=2 | jas (to be) !! colspan=7 | Indicative !! colspan=2 | Subjunctive | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Present !! Imperfect !! | ! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect !! Present !! Imperfect | ||
|- | |- | ||
! jag | ! jag | ||
| so || jarm || fy || | | so || jarm || fy || hav jøst || kap jas || højm jøst || hav kaft jas || si || firm | ||
|- | |- | ||
! tsu | ! tsu | ||
| jar || jarar || fysts || | | jar || jarar || fysts || hajs jøst || kapir jas || hømyst jøst || hajs kaft jas || sis || furir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! if / ifja | ! if / ifja | ||
| jatt || jart || fyt || | | jatt || jart || fyt || hejt jøst || kaft jas || hømyt jøst || hejt kaft jas || sit || firt | ||
|- | |- | ||
! novr | ! novr | ||
| | | sørm || jørum || fyrm || højmur jøst || køjmur jas || hømyr jøst || højmur kaft jas || syms || furøjmur | ||
|- | |- | ||
! vovr | ! vovr | ||
| jæsts || jærits || fysts || | | jæsts || jærits || fysts || hætir jøst || kapætir jas || hømysts jøst || hætir kaft jas || sits || firæjtir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ifi / ifjæ | ! ifi / ifjæ | ||
| | | sints || jarants || førtn || hents jøst || køpunts jas || hørtn jøst || hents kaft jas || sints || furints | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Pres. part. | ! Pres. part. | ||
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!Past part. | !Past part. | ||
| jøst | | jøst | ||
|} | |||
===== To go (vaðir) and other verbs of motion ===== | |||
Wendlandish, uniquely among Romance languages, has a verb for "to go" - ''vaðir'' - which is completely derived from ''vādere'' except for the synthetic past (which is that of ''īre''): | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | vaðir (to go) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| vøð || vaðema || y || hav vøþt || kap vaðir || højm vøþt || hav kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| væðr<ref>Silent '''ð'''.</ref> || vaðemar || ists || hajs vøþt || kapir vaðir || hømyst vøþt || hajs kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| væþ || vaðaft || yt || hejt vøþt || kaft vaðir || hømyt vøþt || hejt kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| vaðøjmur || vaðømmur || yrm || højmur vøþt || køjmur vaðir || hømyr vøþt || højmur kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| vaðætir || vaðemit || ists || hætir vøþt || kapætir vaðir || hømysts vøþt || hætir kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| vønts || vaðajnts || jer || hents vøþt || køpunts vaðir || hørtn vøþt || hents kaft vaðir | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| vaðjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| vøþt | |||
|} | |||
More interestingly, Wendlandish has kept a series of motion verbs derived by prefixed forms of Latin ''īre'' (plus ''sufrir'' derived by an analogically created form *superīre). These may be said to have their own conjugation, and are defined by a non-umlauted stem (used in the infinitive, participles, present 1SG and synthetic past 1SG, 3SG, and 1PL) and an umlauted stem (in all other forms). Here is the conjugation of ''aðir'' [aˈðiːɐ] (< ''adīre'') "to come" as example: | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | aðir (to come) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| aðø || eðima || aðy || hav aðyts || kap aðir || højm aðyts || hav kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| eðír || eðimar || eðists || hajs aðyts || kapir aðir || hømyst aðyts || hajs kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| eðít || eðimat || aðyt || hejt aðyts || kaft aðir || hømyt aðyts || hejt kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| eðøjmur || eðimmur || aðyrm || højmur aðyts || køjmur aðir || hømyr aðyts || højmur kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| eðitir || eðimit || eðists || hætir aðyts || kapætir aðir || hømysts aðyts || hætir kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| eðønt || eðints || eðjer || hents aðyts || køpunts aðir || hørtn aðyts || hents kaft aðir | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| aðjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| aðyts | |||
|} | |||
The other such verbs are: | |||
* '''amir''' (< abīre) "to leave; get away from" : ''jag amø'', ''tsu emír'' ... ''amjants'', ''amyts'' | |||
* '''ekir''' (< exīre) "to go out" : ''jag ekø'', ''tsu ekír'' ... ''ekjants'', ''ekyts'' | |||
* '''imir''' (< obīre) "to reach" : ''jag imø'', ''tsu ømír'' ... ''imjants'', ''imyts'' | |||
* '''inir''' (< inīre) "to go in" : ''jag inø'', ''tsu inír'' ... ''injants'', ''inyts'' | |||
* '''kir''' (< coīre) "to join": ''jag kø'', ''tsu kír'' ... ''kujants'', ''kujuts'' | |||
* '''reðir''' (< redīre) "to get/come back" : ''jag reðø'', ''tsu reðír'' ... ''reðjants'', ''reðyts'' | |||
* '''sufrir''' (< *superīre) "to go up" : ''jag sufrø'', ''tsu syfrír'' ... ''sufrjants'', ''sufryts'' | |||
* '''sumir''' (< subīre) "to go down" : ''jag sumø'', ''tsu symír'' ... ''sumjants'', ''sumyts'' | |||
* '''trasir''' (< trānsīre) "to cross" : ''jag trasø'', ''tsu tresír'' ... ''trasjants'', ''trasyts'' | |||
===== To have (tenajr) ===== | |||
Like in Ibero-Romance and most of Southern Italo-Dalmatian, the Wendlandish verb for "to have" is the reflex of Latin ''tenēre'', with ''habēre'' existing only as an auxiliary for the past and pluperfect. Note that the present forms presume an earlier, Pre-Wendlandish form *tenn-; the 3PL form shows an additional change *tjanints > ''tjænts''. | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | tenajr (to have) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| tjane<ref>Eastern Wendlandish has dialectal ''tajne'' which is also commonly heard in Vænfjørðin.</ref> || tenema || tyn || hav tytt || kap tenajr || højm tytt || hav kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| tjanir || tenemar || tynsti || hajs tytt || kapir tenajr || hømyst tytt || hajs kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| tjanit || tenaft || tynts || hejt tytt || kaft tenajr || hømyt tytt || hejt kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| tenøjmur || tenømmur || tynirm || højmur tytt || køjmur tenajr || hømyr tytt || højmur kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| tenætir || tenemit || tynstir || hætir tytt || kapætir tenajr || hømysts tytt || hætir kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| tjænts || tenajnts || tunørtn || hents tytt || køpunts tenajr || hørtn tytt || hents kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! (impersonal) | |||
| tjanitse || tenaftse || tyntsse || hejtse tytt || kaftse tenajr || hømytse tytt || hejtse kaft tenajr | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| tenjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| tytt | |||
|} | |||
===== To carry, bear (fjarir), to give (aðfjarir), to take (defjarir) ===== | |||
Wendlandish's verb for "to carry, to bear" - ''fjarir'' - is a direct descendant of Latin suppletive ''ferre'' (the infinitive from the analogical form *ferere). The same paradigm is used by the compound verbs ''aðfjarir'' (to give, < *adferere) and ''defjarir'' (to take, < *dēferere). | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | fjarir (to carry) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| før || ferema || tyl || hav løt || kap fjarir || højm løt || hav kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| fjars || feremar || tylst || hajs løt || kapir fjarir || hømyst løt || hajs kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| fjart || feraft || tylt || hejt løt || kaft fjarir || hømyt løt || hejt kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| fjørmur || ferømmur || tylmur || højmur løt || køjmur fjarir || hømyr løt || højmur kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| fjærts || feremit || tylstir || hætir løt || kapætir fjarir || hømysts løt || hætir kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| fjørts || ferajnts || tullants || hents løt || køpunts fjarir || hørtn løt || hents kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! (impersonal) | |||
| fjartse || feraftse || tyltse || hejtse løt || kaftse fjarir || hømytse løt || hejtse kaft fjarir | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| ferjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| løt | |||
|} | |||
===== To understand (idelajsjir) ===== | |||
The verb "to understand", ''idelajsjir'' < intelligere, has different stems and various irregularities as the different stress placements led to various instances of syncope. The former synthetic past 1SG ''ideljæk'' < intellexī (cf. the modern renarrative forms from intelleg-) has become fossilized and is the typical interjection for "ok, I understand". | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | idelajsjir (to understand) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| itjøluk || idelajsjma || ideljæj || hav ideljøt || kap idelajsjir || højm ideljøt || hav kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| itjælsjir || idelajsjmar || ideljæsjti || hajs ideljøt || kapir idelajsjir || hømyst ideljøt || hajs kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| itjælsjit || idelsjaft || ideljæjt || hejt ideljøt || kaft idelajsjir || hømyt ideljøt || hejt kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| idilsjøjmur || idelsjømmur || ideljøjrm || højmur ideljøt || køjmur idelajsjir || hømyr ideljøt || højmur kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| idilsjætir || idelajsjmit || ideljæsjtir || hætir ideljøt || kapætir idelajsjir || hømysts ideljøt || hætir kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| itjølsjunt || idelsjajnts || ideljørtn || hents ideljøt || køpunts idelajsjir || hørtn ideljøt || hents kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! (impersonal) | |||
| itjælsjitse || idelsjaftse || ideljæjtse || hejtse ideljøt || kaftse idelajsjir || hømytse ideljøt || hejtse kaft idelajsjir | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| idilsjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| ideljøt | |||
|} | |||
===== To be able to (pisir) ===== | |||
The conjugation of Latin ''posse'', due to different evolutions, greatly diverged from that of ''esse''; the imperfect has been analogically rebuilt from the infinitive. "To be able to" is '''pisir''' (< Pre-Wendl. *possere): | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | pisir (to be able to) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| pis || pisjama || pøt || hav puts || kap pisir || højm puts || hav kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| pur || pisjamar || pytsti || hajs puts || kapir pisir || hømyst puts || hajs kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| putt || pisjaft || pøtt || hejt puts || kaft pisir || hømyt puts || hejt kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| pysumur || pisjømmur || pøtyrm || højmur puts || køjmur pisir || hømyr puts || højmur kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| putæstir || pisjamit || pytstir || hætir puts || kapætir pisir || hømysts puts || hætir kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| pysunts || pisjants || putørtn || hents puts || køpunts pisir || hørtn puts || hents kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! (impers.) | |||
| puttse || pisjaftse || pøttse || hejtse puts || køpunts pisir || hømytse puts || hents kaft pisir | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| putjants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| puts | |||
|} | |||
===== To want (vjal)===== | |||
To want - '''vjal''' - is another irregular verb, directly continuing Latin ''velle'': | |||
{| class=wikitable | |||
! rowspan=2 | vjal (to want) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | |||
|- | |||
! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | |||
|- | |||
! jag | |||
| vil || vulema || vøl || hav vylt || kap vjal || højm vylt || hav kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! tsu | |||
| vir || vulemar || vylsti || hajs vylt || kapir vjal || hømyst vylt || hajs kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! if / ifja | |||
| vilt || vulaft || vølt || hejt vylt || kaft vjal || hømyt vylt || hejt kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! novr | |||
| vulmur || vulømmur || vølyrm || højmur vylt || køjmur vjal || hømyr vylt || højmur kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! vovr | |||
| vølts || vulemit || vylstir || hætir vylt || kapætir vjal || hømysts vylt || hætir kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! ifi / ifjæ | |||
| vults || vulajnts || vulørtn || hents vylt || køpunts vjal || hørtn vylt || hents kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! (impers.) | |||
| viltse || vulaftse || vøltse || hejtse vylt || kaftse vjal || hømytse vylt || hejtse kaft vjal | |||
|- | |||
! Pres. part. | |||
| vuljants || colspan=8 rowspan=2 | | |||
|- | |||
!Past part. | |||
| vylt | |||
|} | |} | ||
===== To say (ditsir) and to talk (prilufir) ===== | ===== To say (ditsir) and to talk (prilufir) ===== | ||
Two common irregular verbs are '''ditsir '''(to say) and '''prilufir '''(to talk). Both of them are suppletive: '''ditsir '''mostly comes from Latin dīcere, but the present and the past participle are from the originally deponent defective fārī (completed by analogy), and the present participle ''jants ''is from aientem, the present participle of āiō. '''Prilufir '''mostly comes from forms of prōloquī, through an analogically rebuilt active paradigm *prōloquere, but the participles are the ones of the unprefixed verb — ''lusjants ''and ''lukut ''from loquentem and locūtum respectively. '' | Two common irregular verbs are '''ditsir '''(to say) and '''prilufir '''(to talk). Both of them are suppletive: '''ditsir '''mostly comes from Latin dīcere, but the present and the past participle are from the originally deponent defective fārī (completed by analogy), and the present participle ''jants ''is from aientem, the present participle of āiō. '''Prilufir '''mostly comes from forms of prōloquī, through an analogically rebuilt active paradigm *prōloquere, but the participles are the ones of the unprefixed verb — ''lusjants ''and ''lukut ''from loquentem and locūtum respectively. Its renarrative past has also been rebuilt analogically by a stem ''luk-'' (from loquor). | ||
{| class=wikitable | {| class=wikitable | ||
! rowspan=2 | ditsir (to say) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | ! rowspan=2 | ditsir (to say) !! colspan=7 | Indicative | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Present !! Imperfect !! | ! Present !! Imperfect !! Renarr. Past !! Past !! Future !! Pluperfect !! Fut. Perfect | ||
|- | |- | ||
! jag | ! jag | ||
| fir || | | fir || ditjama || dik || hav føt || kap ditsir || højm føt || hav kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! tsu | ! tsu | ||
| færs || | | færs || ditjamar || diksti || hajs føt || kapir ditsir || hømyst føt || hajs kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! if / ifja | ! if / ifja | ||
| førd || | | førd || ditjaft || diht || hejt føt || kaft ditsir || hømyt føt || hejt kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! novr | ! novr | ||
| føm || | | føm || ditjømmur || dikyrm || højmur føt || køjmur ditsir || hømyr føt || højmur kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! vovr | ! vovr | ||
| fæmin || | | fæmin || ditjamit || dikstir || hætir føt || kapætir ditsir || hømysts føt || hætir kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ifi / ifjæ | ! ifi / ifjæ | ||
| førnt || | | førnt || ditjants || dikørtn || hents føt || køpunts ditsir || hørtn føt || hents kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! (impers.) | ! (impers.) | ||
| førdse || | | førdse || ditjaftse || dihtse || hejtse føt || kaftse ditsir || hømytse føt || hejtse kaft ditsir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Pres. part. | ! Pres. part. | ||
| Line 761: | Line 1,222: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! jag | ! jag | ||
| priluf || | | priluf || prilusjama || lyk || hav lukut || kap prilufir || højm lukut || hav kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! tsu | ! tsu | ||
| prilør || | | prilør || prilusjamar || lyksti || hajs lukut || kapir prilufir || hømyst lukut || hajs kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! if / ifja | ! if / ifja | ||
| priløft || | | priløft || prilusjaft || lyht || hejt lukut || kaft prilufir || hømyt lukut || hejt kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! novr | ! novr | ||
| priløfmur || | | priløfmur || prilusjømmur || lukyrm || højmur lukut || køjmur prilufir || hømyr lukut || højmur kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! vovr | ! vovr | ||
| priløftir || | | priløftir || prilusjamit || lykstir || hætir lukut || kapætir prilufir || hømysts lukut || hætir kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ifi / ifjæ | ! ifi / ifjæ | ||
| prilukunts || | | prilukunts || prilusjants || lukørtn || hents lukut || køpunts prilufir || hørtn lukut || hents kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! (impers.) | ! (impers.) | ||
| priløftse || | | priløftse || prilusjaftse || lyhtse || hejtse lukut || kaftse prilufir || hømytse lukut || hejtse kaft prilufir | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Pres. part. | ! Pres. part. | ||
| Line 788: | Line 1,249: | ||
|} | |} | ||
< | ===Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections=== | ||
Wendlandish general prepositions: | |||
* '''apsj''' — without (< Lat. ''absque'') | |||
* '''av''' — by (< ''ad'') | |||
* '''fru''' — to, in order to, for (< ''pro'') | |||
* '''ið''' — of (< ''de'') | |||
* '''ku''' — with (< ''cum'') | |||
* '''re''' — about (< ''rē'') | |||
Spatial and temporal prepositions: | |||
* '''ek''' — from (< ''ex'') | |||
* '''estar''' — outside (< ''extrā'') | |||
* '''i''' ('''j''' before vowels) — in (< ''in'') | |||
* '''intar''' — between (< ''inter'') | |||
* '''jant''' — in front of, before (< *in ante) | |||
* '''kyrg''' — around (< ''circum'') | |||
* '''obav''' — opposite (< *ob ad) | |||
* '''pertants''' — through (< *per trāns) | |||
* '''pist''' — behind, after (< ''post'') | |||
* '''suf''' — on, over (< ''super'') | |||
* '''sov''' — under (< ''sub'') | |||
* '''ultar''' — beyond (< ''ultrā'') | |||
* '''yst''' — near, close to (< ''iuxtā'') | |||
* '''øðusj''' — until (< ''adusque'') | |||
* '''øft''' — at (< ''apud'') | |||
Conjunctions and interjections: | |||
* '''et''' — and (< ''et'') | |||
* '''naj''' — not; no (< ''nē'') | |||
* '''nisj ... nisj''' — neither ... nor (< ''neque ... neque'') | |||
* '''si''' — if (< ''sī'') | |||
* '''sið''' — but (< ''sed'') | |||
* '''syt''' — yes (< ''sīcut'') | |||
* '''tak''' — yes (more colloquial) (< Polish ''tak'') | |||
* '''tam''' — however (< ''tamen'') | |||
* '''ylik''' — instead (< ''in locō'') | |||
* '''ørg''' — so, thus (< ''ergō'') | |||
* '''øt''' — or (< ''aut'') | |||
* '''øt ... øt''' — either ... or (< ''aut ... aut'') | |||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
| Line 809: | Line 1,299: | ||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
Despite being a Romance language, Wendlandish has a very high number of words of non-Latin origin, particularly from Old Norse and Proto-Slavic as the most ancient borrowings, then in the Middle Ages particularly from Middle Low German (and some words of Baltic origin), then Polish, and most recently Danish, High German, and up until the present day Russian, which was the prestige language in Soviet times and is still particularly high regarded and spoken in the present-day Wendlands. Examples of these borrowings are: | Despite being a Romance language, Wendlandish has a very high number of words of non-Latin origin, particularly from Old Norse and Proto-Slavic as the most ancient borrowings, then in the Middle Ages particularly from Middle Low German (and some words of Baltic origin), then Polish, and most recently Danish, High German, and up until the present day Russian, which was the prestige language in Soviet times and is still particularly high regarded and spoken in the present-day Wendlands. Examples of these borrowings are: | ||
* from Old Norse: ''kirkja'' (church (coexists with ''ikjesj'' from Latin ''ecclēsia'')), ''morgin'' (breakfast, from ''morginn'' "morning"), ''dravm'' (dream, < ''draumr''), ''oran'' (eagle, < ''ǫrn''), ''veg'' (street, < ''vegr''), ''faur'' (beautiful, < ''fag(u)r'' — coexists with ''lymb'', cognate of e.g. Portuguese ''lindo''), and notably ''Vinnurlont'' (< ''Vindurlǫnd'') and the Old Norse genitive ''Vinnurlandana'' (< ''Vindurlandana'') which is used as a learned genitive in modern Wendlandish. ''Vinnurlænsk'' derives from the same root with an added Latin suffix, thus Pre-Wendlandish *Vindurlandīsco. | * from Old Norse: ''kirkja'' (church (coexists with ''ikjesj'' from Latin ''ecclēsia'')), ''morgin'' (breakfast, from ''morginn'' "morning"), ''dravm'' (dream, < ''draumr''), ''oran'' (eagle, < ''ǫrn''), ''veg'' (street, < ''vegr''), ''faur'' (beautiful, < ''fag(u)r'' — coexists with ''lymb'', cognate of e.g. Portuguese ''lindo''), ''ejra'' (ear, < ''eyra''), and notably ''Vinnurlont'' (< ''Vindurlǫnd'') and the Old Norse genitive ''Vinnurlandana'' (< ''Vindurlandana'') which is used as a learned genitive in modern Wendlandish. ''Vinnurlænsk'' derives from the same root with an added Latin suffix, thus Pre-Wendlandish *Vindurlandīsco. | ||
* from Proto-Slavic: ''jalin'' (deer, < *elenь), ''ljað'' (winter, < *ledъ "ice"), ''lysøs'' (salmon, < *lososь), ''tjað'' (baby, < *čędo), ''sjer'' (gray, < *śěrь), ''muld'' (new, < *moldъ "young"), ''let'' (year, < *lěto) | * from Proto-Slavic: ''jalin'' (deer, < *elenь), ''ljað'' (winter, < *ledъ "ice"), ''lysøs'' (salmon, < *lososь), ''tjað'' (baby, < *čędo), ''sjer'' (gray, < *śěrь), ''muld'' (new, < *moldъ "young"), ''let'' (year, < *lěto), ''prætjel'' (friend, < *prijàteljь), also a few basic verbs like ''misjlær'' (to think, < *mysliti), ''rjaser'' (to cut, < *rězati), and ''gljandær'' (to look, < *ględati). | ||
* from Middle Low German: ''fangnits'' (prison, < ''vangnisse''), ''gafil'' (fork, < ''gaffel''), ''førke'' (girl,< ''vroiken''), ''arvejð'' (work, < ''arbeide'' (Latin ''labor'' > ''lamir'' came to mean "task", while the learned borrowing ''labor'' means "oeuvre", "work of art")), ''forkast'' (lunch, < ''vrōkost''); | * from Middle Low German: ''fangnits'' (prison, < ''vangnisse''), ''gafil'' (fork, < ''gaffel''), ''førke'' (girl,< ''vroiken''), ''arvejð'' (work, < ''arbeide'' (Latin ''labor'' > ''lamir'' came to mean "task", while the learned borrowing ''labor'' means "oeuvre", "work of art")), ''forkast'' (lunch, < ''vrōkost''); | ||
* from Polish the most notable ones are many colour names, like ''tjervon'' (red, < ''czerwony''), ''sjilon'' (yellow, < ''zielony''), and probably ''lilan'' "purple" from ''liliowy''. Colour names in Wendlandish show many borrowings, like the probably Baltic terms ''ruds'' (brown) and ''gælten'' (yellow). | * from Polish the most notable ones are many colour names, like ''tjervon'' (red, < ''czerwony''), ''sjilon'' (yellow, < ''zielony''), and probably ''lilan'' "purple" from ''liliowy''. Colour names in Wendlandish show many borrowings, like the probably Baltic terms ''ruds'' (brown) and ''gælten'' (yellow). | ||
It is worth noting that most Polish loans date before the changes in pronunciation of Pol. '''ó''' and '''ł''' and as such they usually have the values /ɔ/ (or /oː/) and /l/ in Wendlandish, e.g. in ''gosj'' /ɣoːʃ/ "nail" < ''gwóźdź'' and in ''mildo'' /ˈmiːldo/ "soap" < ''mydło''. Some terms were however adopted later and therefore have the "newer" values (e.g. ''zakvat'' /ˈzaːkʋat/ "factory" < ''zakład'').<br/>German words were often used before 1945, with Vænfjørðin having a sizeable German-speaking community; after the end of WW2, however, the Soviet government expelled them to East Germany and in the following years many of them were replaced with either native Wendlandish or Russian equivalents. Notable examples are "court" ''geriht'' → ''sut''; "market" ''mart'' → ''rinak''; "car" ''vagen'' → ''lada''/''masjina'' (pre-1990)/'' | It is worth noting that most Polish loans date before the changes in pronunciation of Pol. '''ó''' and '''ł''' and as such they usually have the values /ɔ/ (or /oː/) and /l/ in Wendlandish, e.g. in ''gosj'' /ɣoːʃ/ "nail" < ''gwóźdź'' and in ''mildo'' /ˈmiːldo/ "soap" < ''mydło''. Some terms were however adopted later and therefore have the "newer" values (e.g. ''zakvat'' /ˈzaːkʋat/ "factory" < ''zakład''). The city of Łódź is known as ''Lotj'' /ˈloːtʃ/ in Wendlandish.<br/>German words were often used before 1945, with Vænfjørðin having a sizeable German-speaking community; after the end of WW2, however, the Soviet government expelled them to East Germany and in the following years many of them were replaced with either native Wendlandish or Russian equivalents. Notable examples are "court" ''geriht'' → ''sut''; "market" ''mart'' → ''rinak''; "car" ''vagen'' → ''lada''/''masjina'' (pre-1990)/''vosjeni''; "train" ''tsuk'' → ''pojst''; the honorifics ''hær'' and ''frav'' → ''tavarisj'' (still the most common today). | ||
===Russian influence and ''Savjetskalgia''=== | ===Russian influence and ''Savjetskalgia''=== | ||
Russian influence in Wendlandish is mostly concentrated in the last century, but there's no doubt that it has tremendously impacted the language, not only in Soviet times but, possibly even more deeply, after the Soviet Union broke up. The early post-Soviet years were marked by a huge decline in the Wendlands and people immediately developed a strong sense of nostalgia for the Golden Age of the Wendlands - the days of the Soviet Union, when the Wendlands were a strategically important and cosmopolite part of the country due to it being its westernmost extent. This sense of nostalgia — called ''savjetskalgia'' as a portmanteau of ''savjetski'' (Soviet) and ''nostalgia'' — is still enormously visible in the prestige that the Russian language, emblem of the Soviet era, has in the Wendlands, probably even more than in Russia itself. Russian loans are entering Wendlandish en masse, often with a more "official" meaning when compared to the native Wendlandish term, and Russian is the preferred language of the Academy of the Wendlandish language in order to coin terms, to the extent that Wendlandish academics have recently coined terms from Russian roots that do not even exist in Russian, like ''vosjeni'' "car" (< ''воженный'' "driven"; though colloquial Wendlandish uses ''lada'' from the car brand) or ''hadifon'' for "mobile phone" (from ''ходить'' "to walk" and Wend./international ''telefon''). | |||
Russian influence in Wendlandish is mostly concentrated in the last century, but there's no doubt that it has tremendously impacted the language, not only in Soviet times but, possibly even more deeply, after the Soviet Union broke up. The early post-Soviet years were marked by a huge decline in the Wendlands and people immediately developed a strong sense of nostalgia for the Golden Age of the Wendlands - the days of the Soviet Union, when the Wendlands were a strategically important and cosmopolite part of the country due to it being its westernmost extent. This sense of nostalgia — called ''savjetskalgia'' as a portmanteau of ''savjetski'' (Soviet) and ''nostalgia'' — is still enormously visible in the prestige that the Russian language, emblem of the Soviet era, has in the Wendlands, probably even more than in Russia itself. Russian loans are entering Wendlandish en masse, often with a more "official" meaning when compared to the native Wendlandish term, and Russian is the preferred language of the Academy of the Wendlandish language in order to coin terms, to the extent that Wendlandish academics have recently coined terms from Russian roots that do not even exist in Russian, like '' | |||
Example of Russian loans into Wendlandish are: | Example of Russian loans into Wendlandish are: | ||
* political and learned terms, often Soviet-era borrowings: ''nizavisjmasts'' (independence, < ''независимость''), ''plosjats'' (a large square, mainly for parades, especially May 9 celebrations < ''площадь''), ''savjet'' (parliament; Soviet < ''совет''); | * political and learned terms, often Soviet-era borrowings: ''nizavisjmasts'' (independence, < ''независимость''), ''plosjats'' (a large square, mainly for parades, especially May 9 celebrations < ''площадь''), ''savjet'' (parliament; Soviet < ''совет''); | ||
* things used as honorifics when specifically talking about Communism or Soviet concepts: ''pavjeda'' (victory, < ''победа'' — c.f. May 9 ''dæj ið pavjedala''. Note that native ''vihtøra'' was still used in this sense when the city of ''Tjervona Vihtørala'' was founded); ''krasni'' (red, < ''красный''), ''pravitjelstva'' (government (only the Soviet and the Wendlandish ones, but colloquially often used for all), < ''правительство''). | * things used as honorifics when specifically talking about Communism or Soviet concepts: ''pavjeda'' (victory, < ''победа'' — c.f. May 9 ''dæj ið pavjedala''. Note that native ''vihtøra'' was still used in this sense when the city of ''Tjervona Vihtørala'' was founded); ''krasni'' (red, < ''красный''), ''pravitjelstva'' (government (only the Soviet and the Wendlandish ones, but colloquially often used for all), < ''правительство''). | ||
* many proper names, not just Russian ones like ''Vætjislaf'' (Вячеслав), ''Jyri'' (Юрий), or ''Lydmila'' (Людмила) but also words that have become used as names, like ''Giroj'' (''герой'', "hero"), as far as the "most uniquely Wendlandish name of all", namely ''Kamoj'', a portmanteau of ''коммунистический герой'' "Communist hero". | * many proper names, not just Russian ones like ''Vætjislaf'' (Вячеслав), ''Jyri'' (Юрий), or ''Lydmila'' (Людмила) but also words that have become used as names, like ''Giroj'' (''герой'', "hero"), as far as the "most uniquely Wendlandish name of all", namely ''Kamoj'', a portmanteau of ''коммунистический герой'' "Communist hero". | ||
* various words for things that were not part of everyday Wendlandish life before Soviet times | * various words for things that were not part of everyday Wendlandish life before Soviet times - e.g. ''plitá'' (gas/electric stove), ''haladilnik'' (fridge), ''marazilnik'' (freezer), ''tilivizar'' (television), ''rubil'' (ruble), ''kapjek'' (kopek), ''hrusjovka'' ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khrushchyovka khruščëvka]); | ||
* post-Soviet coinages from Russian roots or hybrid Russian-Wendlandish ones, like the '' | * post-Soviet coinages from Russian roots or hybrid Russian-Wendlandish ones, like the ''vosjeni'' and ''hadifon'' mentioned previously; ''viliksjetj'' (internet, from ''великая сеть'' "great net"), ''patpojst'' (subway < ''под'' (under) and ''поезд'' (train)), or ''elekpisjmó'' (e-mail, from ''электронное письмо'' (electronic letter)). | ||
===Days, months, seasons=== | |||
The days of the week in Wendlandish uniquely show a full retention of the pagan Latin names, due to the late spread of Christianity to the Wendlands. They are also less regular than in other Romance languages because the latter ''diem'' part (> ''dæj'', also the normal word for "day") was only retained in the names for Thursday and Sunday - where the named part had become too worn-down - and in the word for Tuesday, possibly in order to avoid a near homonymy with the word for March. The initial /d/ of ''diem'' can also still be seen as the last consonant in the words for Monday and Friday.<br/>Saturday is a peculiar development, as instead of expected ''Sāturni diem'', Wendlandish Vulgar Latin developed an adjectival form *satiūrnum (probably influenced by ''diurnum'') which became the current word. Pronunciations are given for irregularly-pronounced ones: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Day !! Name !! Shortening !! Pronunciation | |||
|- | |||
! Monday | |||
| luneð || lun || | |||
|- | |||
! Tuesday | |||
| mærtsdæj || mær || [ˈmæːtsdɛɪ̯] | |||
|- | |||
! Wednesday | |||
| mjørkyr || mjø || | |||
|- | |||
! Thursday | |||
| jøvsdæj || jøv || [ˈjøːzdɛɪ̯] | |||
|- | |||
! Friday | |||
| vjanirst || vja || [ˈʋjaːnest] | |||
|- | |||
! Saturday | |||
| stjurn || stj || | |||
|- | |||
! Sunday | |||
| sølsdæj || søl || [ˈsølzdɛɪ̯] | |||
|} | |||
Month names are less divergent, but the words for June and July show a remodelling based on the Latin forms instead of expected *yny, *yly. There is an alternative Russian borrowing ''aktjabir'' for October, which is however only used in relation to Soviet history and in place names. Note that ''tomjamur'' comes from an unattested *octembrem, by analogy with the other ''-jamur'' (-ember) months. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Month !! Name !! Shortening | |||
|- | |||
! January | |||
| jønær || jøn | |||
|- | |||
! February | |||
| fømrær || føm | |||
|- | |||
! March | |||
| mærsj || mær<ref>''mrs'' may be used if there's risk of mistaking it for ''mærtsdæj'' (Tuesday).</ref> | |||
|- | |||
! April | |||
| fril || fri | |||
|- | |||
! May | |||
| møj || møj | |||
|- | |||
! June | |||
| jynj || jyn | |||
|- | |||
! July | |||
| jylj || jyl | |||
|- | |||
! August | |||
| øgavtt || øga | |||
|- | |||
! September | |||
| sjiftjamur || sji | |||
|- | |||
! October | |||
| tomjamur || tom | |||
|- | |||
! November | |||
| nivjamur || niv | |||
|- | |||
! December | |||
| ditjamur || dit | |||
|} | |||
Seasons' names are derived from Latin, except for winter which is a Slavic borrowing (from "ice"). Their adjectives are formed with ''-ejtyk'' (< Lat. -āticum). | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Season !! Name !! Adjective | |||
|- | |||
! Spring | |||
| vjar || vjarejtyk | |||
|- | |||
! Summer | |||
| jastát || jastejtyk | |||
|- | |||
! Autumn | |||
| avtomm || avtomejtyk | |||
|- | |||
! Winter | |||
| ljað || ljadejtyk | |||
|} | |||
===Countries and demonyms=== | ===Countries and demonyms=== | ||
Note that every country ending in ''-lond'' is morphologically plural. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Line 837: | Line 1,415: | ||
| Germany || Þysklond || Berlin || þyskrisk | | Germany || Þysklond || Berlin || þyskrisk | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Denmark || Danmork || | | Denmark || Danmork || Kaupmanhøjfn || dænsk | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Sweden || Sværikur || Stokholmur || svæjsk | | Sweden || Sværikur || Stokholmur || svæjsk | ||
| Line 847: | Line 1,425: | ||
| Finland || Finlond || Helsenfors || finsk | | Finland || Finlond || Helsenfors || finsk | ||
|- | |- | ||
| Soviet Union || Savjetska ynin<br/><small>Ynin ið | | Italy || Itæla || Rim<ref>Wendlandish distinguishes ''Rim'' — the city of Rome today — from ''Ruma'', referring to Ancient Rome (most commonly the whole civilization)</ref> || itælsk | ||
|- | |||
| Soviet Union || Savjetska ynin<br/><small>Ynin ið Repuvlikallar Sosjalistsiks Savjetsks (YRSS)</small> || rowspan=2 | Maskvá || savjetsk | |||
|- | |- | ||
| Russia || Rusj || rusjisk | | Russia || Rusj || rusjisk | ||
| Line 881: | Line 1,461: | ||
==Example texts== | ==Example texts== | ||
===The Lord's Prayer=== | |||
:Part nitte, hjeð jatt i sjølir, | |||
:svønt sit Tsur nom, | |||
:venjants sit Tso kongartyðn, | |||
:fahta sit Tso vultjæt, | |||
:tælsj i sjølir et tælsj suf tajrla. | |||
:Da høð að nøym nittra pan køtjana | |||
:et ermit að nøym nøtti divter | |||
:tælsj tølmi novr ifov ermitøymur að nøtti divtirer | |||
:et naj iduk novr i tetæsjla | |||
:sið liver novr av møler. | |||
:Tso jatt kongartyðnlа, et pitintsla, et glørala, j int søkler ið søkler. | |||
:Amen. | |||
<small>Wendlandish Cyrillic: | |||
: Парт нитте, йеҙ ятт и шөлир, | |||
:свөнт сит Цур ном, | |||
:венянц сит Цо конгартүҙн, | |||
:фахта сит Цо вулчѣт, | |||
:тѣлш и шөлир ет тѣлш суф тайрла. | |||
:Да хөҙ аҙ нөүм ниттра пан көчана | |||
:ет ермит аҙ нөүм нөтти дивтер | |||
:тѣлш төлми новр ифов ермитөүмур аҙ нөтти дивтирер. | |||
:ет най идук новр и тетѣшла | |||
:сиҙ ливер новр ав мөлер. | |||
:Цо ятт конгартүҙнла, ет питинцла, ет глөрала, й инт сөклер иҙ сөклер. | |||
:Амен.</small> | |||
IPA: | |||
:[ˈpaɐt ˈnite jeð ˈjat i ˈʃøːliɐ̯ | |||
:ˈsvønt‿sit ˈtsuːɐ̯ ˈnoːm | |||
:veˈnjants‿sit ˈtsoː ˌkɔŋːaɐ̯ˈtʏð(ə)n | |||
:ˈfahta sit ˈtsoː vulˈtʃæːt | |||
:ˈtælʃ i ˈʃøːliɐ̯ e ˈtælʃ‿ʃuf ˈtaɪ̯ɐ̯la | |||
:ˈda ˈhøːð a‿ˈnøʏ̯m ˈnitra ˈpaːn køˈtʃaːna | |||
:et‿eɐ̯ˈmiːt a‿ˈnøʏ̯m ˈnøti ˈdiʊ̯teɐ̯ | |||
:ˈtælʃ ˈtølmi ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ ˈifoʊ̯ eɐ̯miˈtøʏ̯mʊɐ̯ a‿ˈnøti diʊ̯ˈtiːreɐ̯ | |||
:e ˈnaɪ̯ iˈduːk ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ i teˈtæʃla | |||
:sið ˈliːʋeɐ̯ ˈnɔʊ̯ɐ̯ aʊ̯ ˈmøːleɐ̯ | |||
:ˈtsoː ˈjat ˌkɔŋːaɐ̯ˈtʏðla e‿piˈtintsla e‿ˈɣløːrala, j‿int‿ˈsøkleɐ̯ i‿ˈsøkleɐ̯ | |||
:ˈaːmen] | |||
===UDHR Article 1=== | |||
Intar humanylir nasjunts i lintaðla et ifalir i dinjaðla et rektylir. Ifi sints dutats ku ratjinla et kisjentjala, et tjænts að æsjir kvøltur j una dusja ið fratrinæt. | |||
Wendlandish Cyrillic: | |||
: Интар хуманүлир нашунц и линтаҙла ет ифалир и диняҙла ет ректүлир. Ифи синц дутац ку рачинла ет кишенчала, ет чѣнц аҙ ѣшир квөлтур й уна душа иҙ фратринѣт. | |||
IPA: | |||
: [ˈintaɐ̯ ɦuˈmaːnʏlɪɐ̯ ˈnaːʃunt͡s i‿linˈtaðla et‿iˈfaːliɐ̯ i‿diˈnjaːðla e ˈre̞ktʏlɪɐ̯] [ˈiːfɪ ˈsint͡s duˈtaːt͡s ku‿raˈt͡ʃinla e kiˈʃent͡ʃala e ˈtʃænt͡s að‿ˈæːʃiɐ̯ ˈkvøltʉɐ̯ j‿una ˈduːɕa if‿ˈfratrɪnæt] | |||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== | ||
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | <!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. --> | ||