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**Shared with Catalan and Portuguese. | **Shared with Catalan and Portuguese. | ||
**E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'') | **E.g. IUVENE(M) > ''joven'' /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan ''jove'', Portuguese ''jovem'' vs. Spanish ''joven'', Asturian ''xoven'', Galician ''xove'', Aragonese ''choven'') | ||
*Intervocalic -I-, -DI- become /j/. | *Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/. | ||
**Differs from Catalan | **Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern. | ||
**E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major''). | **E.g. MAIORE(M) > ''mayor'' /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian ''mayor'', Galician/Portuguese ''maior'' vs Catalan ''major''). | ||
:::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan '' | :::HODIE > ''wey'' /wej/ "today" (Spanish ''hoy'', Asturian, Aragonese ''güe'', Catalan ''avui'' vs Portuguese ''hoje'', Galician ''hoxe''). | ||
:::FUGĪRE > ''fugir'' /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese ''fugir'', Asturian, Galician ''fuxir'' vs Spanish ''huir''). | |||
*Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/. | *Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/. | ||
**Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod). | **Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod). | ||
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*Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''. | *Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in ''-os''. | ||
**Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan. | **Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan. | ||
*Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/. | *Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/). | ||
**Shared with Aragonese. | **Shared with Aragonese. | ||
*-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes. | *-B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes. | ||
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===Phonological history=== | ===Phonological history=== | ||
*Final vowel dropping: | *Final vowel dropping: | ||
**''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s | **''-u'' and ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z''. | ||
**''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''. | **''-e'' but not ''-u'' dropped after post-vocalic ''c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt''. | ||
**''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''. | **''-u'' but not ''-e'' dropped after post-vocalic ''w''. | ||
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====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also | Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also occur in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic. | ||
====='''Regular plurals'''===== | ====='''Regular plurals'''===== | ||
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows: | Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows: | ||
Line 1,299: | Line 1,300: | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Verbs== | ===Verbs=== | ||
====Tenses and moods==== | ====Tenses and moods==== | ||
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods: | Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods: | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Gerundive | ! Gerundive | ||
| -ando || | | -ando || -endo || -indo | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Notes:''' | '''Notes:''' | ||
¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles | ¹ ''-er'' verbs may form their past participle in ''-ut'' instead of ''-it'' (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms. | ||
<!-- | |||
² Becomes ''-endo'' after palatal consonants. Merges with preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-yendo''.--> | |||
====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''===== | ====='''Simple tenses (indicative)'''===== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
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{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''- | |+ Simple indicative tenses (regular ''-ir'' verbs) | ||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | ! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,438: | Line 1,440: | ||
¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants. | ¹ The final ''-e'' in the 3S present of ''-er'' and ''-ir'' verbs is dropped after certain consonants. | ||
<!-- | |||
² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''. | ² When an ending begins in a rising diphthong (''-i-'' + vowel), ''-i-'' is dropped after palatal consonants and merges with a preceding ''-w-'' to form ''-y-''.--> | ||
====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''===== | ====='''Simple tenses (subjunctive)'''===== | ||
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**Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle | **Perfect infinitive: ''aver'' + participle | ||
**Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle | **Perfect participle: participle of ''aver'' + participle | ||
**Perfect gerundive: '' | **Perfect gerundive: ''avendo'' + participle | ||
*Indicative: | *Indicative: | ||
**Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle | **Present perfect: present of ''aver'' + participle | ||
Line 1,510: | Line 1,512: | ||
**Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | **Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | ||
**Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | **Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of ''aver'' + participle | ||
<!--- | |||
====='''Periphrastic tenses'''===== | |||
In addition to the usual simple and compound tenses, there are additional periphrastic tenses formed with auxiliary verbs. These can themselves take any simple or compound tense.--> | |||
====='''Passive'''===== | |||
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ''ser'' with the appropriately declined form of the past participle. | |||
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter. | |||
====Irregular verbs==== | ====Irregular verbs==== | ||
====='''General notes'''===== | ====='''General notes'''===== | ||
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**''-ch-'' > ''-it-'' | **''-ch-'' > ''-it-'' | ||
*Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply. | *Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply. | ||
*The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' formed by contraction. This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future. | *The future may have an irregular stem before ''-r-'' (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with ''-er'' verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future. | ||
*The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions): | *The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions): | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
Line 1,532: | Line 1,543: | ||
|- | |- | ||
!1P | !1P | ||
| - | | -én | ||
|- | |- | ||
!2P | !2P | ||
| - | | -ez | ||
|- | |- | ||
!3P | !3P | ||
| - | | -on | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
:The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''- | :The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing ''-n'' from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant. | ||
*Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below | *Regular verbs whose stems end in ''-c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch-'' have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below: | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks | ! Phoneme !! Before front vowels !! Before back vowels !! Remarks | ||
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|- | |- | ||
| /dʒ ~ ʒ/ | | /dʒ ~ ʒ/ | ||
| g || j || This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with ''-j-'', in which case | | g || j || This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with ''-j-'', in which case ''-j-'' spelling is maintained in all forms. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| /kw/ | | /kw/ | ||
Line 1,564: | Line 1,575: | ||
| gü || gu || | | gü || gu || | ||
|} | |} | ||
:Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change. | :Note that many verbs ending in ''-cer, -cir, -ger, -gir'' irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change. | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
*There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.--> | *There are various verbs ending in ''-uyir/-uwir''. These verbs, as well as ''oyir/owir'' "to hear" have two forms: a mostly regular form in ''-yir'', and a form in ''-wir'' with an irregular present indicative in the 1S and a present subjunctive where the ''-w-'' is replaced with ''-y-''.--> | ||
====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''===== | ====='''The verb ''ser'' "to be"'''===== | ||
The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular. | The verb ''ser'' "to be" is highly irregular. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Participle | ! Participle | ||
| sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito | | sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; <br/> | ||
sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹ | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Gerundive | ! Gerundive | ||
| | | sendo | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
¹ Archaic | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ | |+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be" | ||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | ! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 1P | ! 1P | ||
| son || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren | | son/sen || yeren || fuen || serén || sereven || fueren | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2P | ! 2P | ||
| soz || yérez || fuez || | | soz/sez || yérez || fuez || serez || serévez || fuérez | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3P | ! 3P | ||
Line 1,607: | Line 1,620: | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ | |+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''ser'' "to be" | ||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Future | ! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1S | ! 1S | ||
| siya || fuesse || fuere | | siya || fuesse || fuere || — | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2S | ! 2S | ||
| siyas || fuessas || fueras | | siyas || fuessas || fueras || sé | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3S | ! 3S | ||
| siya || fuesse || fuere | | siya || fuesse || fuere || siya | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1P | ! 1P | ||
| siyán || fuessan || fueran | | siyán || fuessan || fueran || siyán | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2P | ! 2P | ||
| siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz | | siyaz || fuéssaz || fuéraz || set | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3P | ! 3P | ||
| siyan || fuessan || fueran | | siyan || fuessan || fueran || siyan | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
== | ====='''The verb ''aver'' "to be"'''===== | ||
=== | The verb ''aver'' "to have" is an important irregular verb. | ||
== | {| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | ||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| aver | |||
<!- | |- | ||
! Participle | |||
| avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; <br /> | |||
avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹ | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| avendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
== | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
<!-- | |+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | ||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite² !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect² | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| e || eva || ovi || avré || avreva || overa | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| as || eves || oves || avrás || avreves || overes | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| a || eva || ovo || avrá || avreva || overa | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| avén || even || ovén || avrén || avreven || overen | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| avez || évez || ovez || avrez || avrévez || ovérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| an || even || ovon || avrán || avreven || overen | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Totos los seros umanos naxen horros ed equalos en dinitá y dreitos. Son dotatos de rachón y conxencha, y deven comportar-sen los unos colos otros en ruhu de germantá. | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''aver'' "to have" | |||
<p align=right> | ! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.² !! Future subj.² !! Imperative aff. | ||
توتس لس سارس أمانس نشن حرس ءاد ءاكوالس ءان دنتاه إي دريتس. سون دتاتس دا رچون إي كنشنچه، إي داڤن كمپرتارسن لس أونس كلس أترس ءان روح دا جرمانتاه | |- | ||
</p> | ! 1S | ||
| aya || ovesse || overe || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| ayas || ovessas || overas || a | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| aya || ovesse || overe || aya | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| ayán || ovessan || overan || ayán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| ayaz || ovéssaz || ovéraz || avet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| ayan || ovessan || overan || ayan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
'''Notes:''' | |||
¹ Participles in ''-ut-'' are considered archaic. | |||
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (''aví, aviés,'' etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular. | |||
====='''The verb ''andar'' "to go"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| andar | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| andando | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| vo || andava || andé || iré || ireva || andera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| vas || andaves || andés || irás || ireves || anderes | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| va || andava || andó || irá || ireva || andera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| andán || andaven || andén || irén || ireven || anderen | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| andaz || andávez || andez || irez || irévez || andérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| van || andaven || andón || irán || ireven || anderen | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''andar'' "to go" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj.³ !! Future subj.³ !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| vaya || andesse || andere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| vayas || andessas || anderas || anda | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| vaya || andesse || andere || vaya | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| vayán || andessan || anderan || vayán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| vayaz || andéssaz || andéraz || andat | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| vayan || andessan || anderan || vayan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''The verb ''facer'' "to do, make"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| facer | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| facendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| faco || feva || fici || faré || fareva || ficera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| fas || feves || fices || farás || fareves || ficeres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| fa || feva || ficho || fará || fareva || ficera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| facén || feven || ficén || farén || fareven || ficeren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| facez || févez || ficez || farez || farévez || ficérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| fan || feven || fichon || farán || fareven || ficeren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''facer'' "to do, make" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| faca || ficesse || ficere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| facas || ficessas || ficeras || fa | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| faca || ficesse || ficere || faca | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| facán || ficessan || ficeran || facán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| facaz || ficéssaz || ficéraz || facet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| facan || ficessan || ficeran || facan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====='''The verb ''dicer'' "to say"'''===== | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align: center | |||
|+ Non-finite forms of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Infinitive | |||
| dicer | |||
|- | |||
! Participle | |||
| dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito | |||
|- | |||
! Gerundive | |||
| dicendo | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present !! Imperfect !! Preterite !! Future !! Conditional !! Pluperfect | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| dico || diva || dixi || diré || direva || dixera | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| dices || dives || dixes || dirás || direves || dixeres | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| dich || diva || dixo || dirá || direva || dixera | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| dicén || diven || dixén || dirén || direven || dixeren | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| dicez || dívez || dixez || direz || dirévez || dixérez | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| dicen || diven || dixon || dirán || direven || dixeren | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Non-indicative tenses of the verb ''dicer'' "to say" | |||
! Person/<br />Number !! Present subj. !! Imperfect subj. !! Future subj. !! Imperative aff. | |||
|- | |||
! 1S | |||
| dica || dixesse || dixere || — | |||
|- | |||
! 2S | |||
| dicas || dixessas || dixeras || di | |||
|- | |||
! 3S | |||
| dica || dixesse || dixere || dica | |||
|- | |||
! 1P | |||
| dicán || dixessan || dixeran || dicán | |||
|- | |||
! 2P | |||
| dicaz || dixéssaz || dixéraz || dicet | |||
|- | |||
! 3P | |||
| dican || dixessan || dixeran || dican | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Syntax== | |||
===Constituent order=== | |||
===Noun phrase=== | |||
===Verb phrase=== | |||
===Sentence phrase=== | |||
===Dependent clauses=== | |||
<!-- etc. etc. --> | |||
==Vocabulary== | |||
===Time - ''Tiempu''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Seasons - ''Les çachones'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| spring || el verán | |||
|- | |||
| summer || el çiw | |||
|- | |||
| fall || l'otonh | |||
|- | |||
| winter || l'inviernu | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Hijri Months - ''Los mesos hijrís'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| Muharram || muhárram | |||
|- | |||
| Safar || sáfar | |||
|- | |||
| Rabi' al-Awwal || rabigh primer | |||
|- | |||
| Rabi' ath-Thani || rabigh second | |||
|- | |||
| Jumada al-Ula || jumada primera | |||
|- | |||
| Jumada al-Akhirah || jumada seconda | |||
|- | |||
| Rajab || rájab | |||
|- | |||
| Sha'ban || xaghbán | |||
|- | |||
| Ramadan || ramadán | |||
|- | |||
| Shawwal || xawal | |||
|- | |||
| Dhu'l-Qa'dah || zulcaghda | |||
|- | |||
| Dhu'l-Hijjah || zulhaja | |||
|- | |||
|}--> | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Greogorian months - ''Los mesos gregorianos'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| January || gener | |||
|- | |||
| February || fevrer | |||
|- | |||
| March || marchu | |||
|- | |||
| April || abril | |||
|- | |||
| May || mayu | |||
|- | |||
| June || junh | |||
|- | |||
| July || julhet | |||
|- | |||
| August || agoç | |||
|- | |||
| September || setiembre | |||
|- | |||
| October || ochombre | |||
|- | |||
| November || noviembre | |||
|- | |||
| December || deciembre | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Days of the week - ''Los diyes de la semana'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| Sunday || ahad | |||
|- | |||
| Monday || eçnén | |||
|- | |||
| Tuesday || çalaça | |||
|- | |||
| Wednesday || arbagha | |||
|- | |||
| Thursday || hamís | |||
|- | |||
| Friday || jumgha | |||
|- | |||
| Saturday || sabte | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Parts of the day - ''Los partes del diya'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| day || diya | |||
|- | |||
| dawn || alba | |||
|- | |||
| morning || manhana | |||
|- | |||
| noon || meyu-diya | |||
|- | |||
| afternoon || tarde | |||
|- | |||
| evening || serán | |||
|- | |||
| dusk || ocás | |||
|- | |||
| night || nueit | |||
|- | |||
| midnight || meya-nueit | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Units of time - ''Unitás del tiempu'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| second || secondu | |||
|- | |||
| minute || minut | |||
|- | |||
| hour || ora; sagha (pl: saghat) | |||
|- | |||
| day || día | |||
|- | |||
| week || semana | |||
|- | |||
| month || mes | |||
|- | |||
| season || çachón | |||
|- | |||
| year || anh | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Time adverbs - ''Adverbos temporales'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| now || agora | |||
|- | |||
| then || alora, entonce | |||
|- | |||
| recently, a short time ago || adiés | |||
|- | |||
| earlier || antes | |||
|- | |||
| soon, shortly || ayina | |||
|- | |||
| later || lueco | |||
|- | |||
| always || siempre | |||
|- | |||
| often || sovent | |||
|- | |||
| sometimes || a veces | |||
|- | |||
| rarely || raro | |||
|- | |||
| never || nunca; jamás; ábadan | |||
|- | |||
| ever || ábadan | |||
|- | |||
| still, yet || awún; ancora | |||
|- | |||
| already || ja | |||
|- | |||
| today || wey | |||
|- | |||
| tonight || ça nueit | |||
|- | |||
| yesterday || ayer | |||
|- | |||
| last night || anueit | |||
|- | |||
| tomorrow || cras | |||
|- | |||
| before yesterday || antes d'ayer | |||
|- | |||
| two nights ago || antes d'anueit | |||
|- | |||
| after tomorrow || depues de cras | |||
|- | |||
| this week || ça semana | |||
|- | |||
| last week || la semana passata | |||
|- | |||
| next week || la semana próxima | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Colours - ''Los colores''=== | |||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | |||
|+ Colours - ''Los colores'' | |||
! English !! Essanian | |||
|- | |||
| white || blancu | |||
|- | |||
| grey || gris | |||
|- | |||
| black || negru | |||
|- | |||
| red || vermelh | |||
|- | |||
| orange || anaranjat | |||
|- | |||
| brown || caçanh | |||
|- | |||
| yellow || amarielh | |||
|- | |||
| green || verde | |||
|- | |||
| blue || azur | |||
|- | |||
| pink || rosat | |||
|- | |||
| purple || rox | |||
|- | |||
| golden || dorat | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Example texts== | |||
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. --> | |||
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)=== | |||
'''La Declarachón Universala de los Dreitos Umanos (Artícul 1)''' | |||
Totos los seros umanos naxen horros ed equalos en dinitá y dreitos. Son dotatos de rachón y conxencha, y deven comportar-sen los unos colos otros en ruhu de germantá. | |||
<p align=right> | |||
توتس لس سارس أمانس نشن حرس ءاد ءاكوالس ءان دنتاه إي دريتس. سون دتاتس دا رچون إي كنشنچه، إي داڤن كمپرتارسن لس أونس كلس أترس ءان روح دا جرمانتاه | |||
</p> | |||
/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/ | /ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/ | ||
<!-- | |||
====Old Essanian==== | |||
Totos los seres humanos nascent ḥorros ed equales en dignitad i drehtos. Sont dotatos de rachón i consciencha, i devent comportar-se los unos con los outros en ruḥu de germantad.--> | |||
==Other resources== | ==Other resources== |
Latest revision as of 06:01, 6 December 2023
Essanian (/ɪˈseɪniən/, native: xanhán /ʃaˈɲan/) is an Iberian Romance language descended from Mozarabic.
Essanian | |
---|---|
La lengua xanhana لَلَِانْغُوَه شَنَّانَه | |
Pronunciation | [la ˈleŋgwa ʃaˈɲana] |
Created by | Shariifka |
Early forms | Mozarabic
|
Introduction
Etymology
The endonym xanhán is derived from the place name Xanha, from Latin Hispānia.
The English name Essanian is derived from Medieval Latin Essanianus, a Latinization of Middle Essanian exanyán.
Features
Phonological
- Initial I-, DI- (before vowels), G- (before front vowels) become /dʒ ~ ʒ/.
- Shared with Catalan and Portuguese.
- E.g. IUVENE(M) > joven /ˈdʒoven/ "young" (Catalan jove, Portuguese jovem vs. Spanish joven, Asturian xoven, Galician xove, Aragonese choven)
- Intervocalic -I-, -DI- usually become /j/.
- Differs from Catalan. However, there are many exceptions to this pattern.
- E.g. MAIORE(M) > mayor /maˈjor/ "bigger" (Spanish, Asturian mayor, Galician/Portuguese maior vs Catalan major).
- HODIE > wey /wej/ "today" (Spanish hoy, Asturian, Aragonese güe, Catalan avui vs Portuguese hoje, Galician hoxe).
- FUGĪRE > fugir /fuˈʒiɾ/ "to flee" (Catalan, Portuguese fugir, Asturian, Galician fuxir vs Spanish huir).
- Diphthongization of stressed Ŏ & Ĕ to /we/ and /je/.
- Shared with Aragonese, Astur-Leonese, Spanish (except before yod),Catalan (only before yod).
- E.g. PŎNTE(M) > puent /pwen/ (Spanish, Asturian puente vs Catalan pont, Galician/Portuguese ponte)
- ŎCTO > weito /ˈwejto/ "eight" (Aragonese ueit(o), obsolete Asturian uecho, Catalan vuit vs Spanish ocho, Galician/Portuguese oito)
- FĔRRU(M) > fierru /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Spanish hierro, Aragonese fierro, Asturian fierru vs Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ferro)
- Preservation of initial F-.
- Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
- E.g. FĔRRU(M) > fierru /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Galician/Portuguese, Catalan ferro, Aragonese fierro vs Spanish hierro)
- Preservation of initial L-.
- Differs from Astur-Leonese and Catalan.
- E.g. LUNA(M) > luna /ˈluna/ (Spanish, Aragonese luna, Portuguese lua vs Catalan, Asturian lluna)
- Preservation of initial N-.
- Differs from some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
- E.g. *NARICE(M) > narich /naˈɾitʃ/ "nose" (Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Aragonese nariz, Catalan nariu vs Asturian ñariz)
- Preservation of intervocalic -L- and -N-.
- Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
- E.g. LUNA(M) > luna /ˈluna/ "moon" (Spanish, Aragonese luna, Catalan, Asturian lluna vs Portuguese lua, Galician lúa)
- COLŌRE(M) > color /koˈloɾ/ "colour" (Spanish, Aragonese, Catalan color vs Galician/Portuguese cor)
- Monophthongization of falling diphthongs.
- Shared with Spanish, Catalan, and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
- E.g. AURU(M) > or /oɾ/ "gold" (Spanish, Aragonese oro, Asturian oru, Cataln or vs Galician/Portuguese, Mirandese ouro)
- E(G)O > yo /jo/ "I" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian yo, Catalan jo vs Galician/Portuguese eu, Mirandese/Leonese you)
- -LT- (after U) and -CT- become /jt/ after stressed vowels and /tʃ/ after unstressed vowels.
- The outcome after unstressed vowels is shared with Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese, while the outcome after stressed vowels is shared with the remaining Iberian Romance languages (except Catalan in the case of -LT-).
- E.g. MULTU(M) > muit /mujt/ "much, many" (Galician moito, Portuguese muito vs Spanish mucho, Asturian munchu, Catalan molt)
- LACTŪCA > lechuca /leˈtʃuka/ "lettuce" (Spanish lechuga, Asturian llechuga vs Galician/Portuguese leituga, Catalan lletuga)
- Palatalization of -LI-, -C'L-, -T'L-, -G'L- to /ʎ/.
- Differs from Spanish and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
- E.g. ŎCULU(M) > welh /weʎ/ "eye" (Portuguese olho, Galician ollo, Aragonese güello, Catalan ull, Mirandese uolho vs Spanish ojo, Asturian güeyu, Leonese güechu)
- Palatalization of -LL- to /ʎ/.
- Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
- E.g. ILLA > elha /ˈeʎa/ "she" (Spanish, Aragonese, Asturian, Catalan ella, Mirandese eilha vs Galician/Portuguese ela)
- Palatalization of -NN- to /ɲ/.
- Differs from Galician/Portuguese.
- E.g. ANNU(M) > anh /aɲ/ "year" (Catalan any, Spanish, Aragonese año, Mirandese anho, Asturian añu vs Galician/Portuguese ano)
- -M'N- becomes /m/.
- Differs from Spanish.
- E.g. HOMINE(M) > weme /ˈweme/ "man" (Catalan, Asturian, Galician home, Portuguese homem vs Spanish, Aragonese hombre)
- NOMEN > nueme /ˈnweme/ "name" (Galician/Portuguese nome, Catalan, Aragonese nom, Asturian ñome vs Spanish nombre)
- Palatalization of -X-, -PS-, -SC- (the latter before front vowels) to /ʃ/.
- Differs from Spanish.
- E.g. COXA > cuexa /ˈkweʃa/ "thigh" (Catalan, Aragonese cuixa, Galician/Portuguese coxa, Mirandese coixa vs Spanish cuja)
- Preservation of initial CL-, FL-, PL-.
- Shared with Catalan and Aragonese.
- E.g. CLAMARE > clamar /klaˈmaɾ/ "to call" (Catalan, Aragonese clamar vs Spanish, Asturian llamar, Galician/Portuguese chamar
- Preservation of intervocalic -T-, -P-, -C-.
- Shared with some Aragonese dialects.
- E.g. *SAPĒRE > saper /saˈpeɾ/ "to know" (Central Aragonese saper vs Catalan, Spanish, Galician/Portuguese, Asturian saber)
- Insertion of (or, in some cases, preservation of) /j/ before or after a front vowel to avoid hiatus.
- Shared with Aragonese and some varieties of Astur-Leonese.
- E.g. CADERE > cayer /kaˈjeɾ/ "to fall" (Asturian, Aragonese cayer vs Spanish, Galician caer, Portuguese cair)
- Dropping of final -U(M) in many environments.
- Shared with Catalan.
- E.g. CATTU(M) > gat /ɡat/ "cat" (Catalan gat vs Asturian gatu, Spanish, Galician/Portuguese gato)
- Preservation of non-dropped final -U(M) as /u/.
- Shared with Astur-Leonese and Portuguese (though it is likely a secondary development in the latter).
- E.g. FĔRRU(M) > fierru /ˈfjeru/ "iron" (Asturian fierru vs Spanish hierro, Aragonese fierro, Catalan ferro)
- Dropping of final -E(M) in many environments.
- Shared with Aragonese, Catalan, and (to some extent) Spanish.
- E.g. GRANDE(M) > grand /ɡɾan/ "big" (Aragonese gran vs Spanish, Aragonese, Galician/Portuguese grande)
- Preservation of voiced fricatives/affricates.
- Shared with Catalan, Portuguese, and Mirandese.
- E.g. UNDECI(M) > onge /ˈondʒe/ "eleven" (Catalan, Portuguese, Mirandese onze vs Aragonese, Asturian, Spanish once)
- Preservation of the distinction between /b/ and /v/.
- Shared with some varieties of Catalan and most varieties of Portuguese.
- E.g. HABĒRE > aver /aˈveɾ/ "to have" (Portuguese, Catalan haver vs Spanish, Asturian, Aragonese, Galician haber)
- The following features are unique to Essanian among the Iberian Romance languages:
- -ST- becomes /θ/ - e.g. CŎSTA(M) > cueça /ˈkweθa/ "slope" (Spanish cuesta).
- -STR- becomes /ð/ - e.g. STRATA(M) > zata "street" (Portuguese estrada)
- -SC- (non-palatalized) and -SP- become /ʃ/ - e.g. SPATULA(M) > xalha /ˈʃaʎa/ "shoulder" (Catalan espatlla); SCHOLA(M) > xuela /ˈʃwela/ "school" (Spanish escuela).
- Palatalization of C (before front vowels) and -TI- (before vowels) to /tʃ/ - e.g. RATIŌNE(M) > rachón /raˈtʃon/ "reason" (Spanish razón).
- Insertion of /w/ before or after a rounded vowel to avoid hiatus - e.g. TUA(M) > tuwa /ˈtuwa/ "your" (Portuguese tua).
- Preservation of W- in loanwords - e g. WARDARE > wardar /waɾˈdaɾ/ "to guard" (Aragonese guardar).
Morphological
- Pronouns and adjectives form a neuter in -o
- Shared with Asturian.
- Words ending in -a form their plural in -es.
- Shared with Asturian and Catalan.
- Words ending in -u form their plural in -os.
- Shared with Asturian.
- Most masculine words ending in a consonant form their plural in -os.
- Shared (to a limited extent) with Catalan.
- Final -TIS in second person plural verbs became /θ/ (through intermediate stage /ts/).
- Shared with Aragonese.
- -B- in imperfect preserved as /v/ in all verb classes.
- Shared with Aragonese, which preserves it as /β/.
Phonology
Orthography
Latin orthography
Alphabet
|
|
|
Consonants
Letter | Context | IPA | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
b | word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩ | [b] | buen "good"; ambos "both" | |
elsewhere (i.e. after a vowel, even across a word boundary, or after any consonant other than ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩) | [β̞] | sobre "over" | ||
utterance-final | [p] or [ɸ̞] | ob "where" | ||
c | before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ | [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect) | ceto "early; in the morning" | |
elsewhere | [k] | canta "song" | ||
before voiced consonants | [ɣ̞] | anécdota "anecdote" | ||
in the cluster ⟨ct⟩ | [ɣ̞] or [x̞] | actual "current" | ||
ch | everywhere | [tʃ] or [ʃ] (depending on the dialect) | xuchar "to listen" | |
ç | everywhere | [θ], [s], or [tʃ] (depending on the dialect) | cueça "slope" | |
d | word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨l⟩ or ⟨n⟩ | [d̪] | dar "to give"; caldu "hot" | |
after ⟨n⟩ word-finally | Ø | mond "world" | ||
elsewhere | [ð̞] | modos "ways, modes" | ||
utterance-final | [t̪] or [θ̞] | mod "way, mode" | ||
f | everywhere | [f] | formica "ant" | |
g | before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [dʒ] | germán "brother" | |
before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts | [ʒ] | viage "journey" | ||
not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [ɡ] | gat "cat" | ||
not before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts | [ɣ˕] | suegru "father-in-law" | ||
utterance-final | [k] or [x̞] | zigzag "zigzag" | In loanwords. | |
gh | everywhere | [ʕ] | ghada "tradition, custom" | In Arabic loanwords |
gu | before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [ɡw] | lengua "tongue, language" | |
before ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩, and not in the above contexts | [ɣ̞w] | Paraguay "Paraguay" | In loanwords. | |
before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [ɡ] | guitarra "guitar" | ||
before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts | [ɣ̞] | magues "witches, female Zoroastrians" | ||
gü | before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [ɡw] | lengües "tongues, languages" | |
before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and not in the above contexts | [ɣ̞w] | següey "Segway" | In loanwords. | |
h | everywhere | [h] or [ħ] or [x] | horru "free" | Generally occurs in loanwords. |
everywhere (rare) | Ø | honestu "honest" | Occurs in loanwords where the letter is silent in the original language. May be pronounced [h] as a spelling pronunciation. | |
j | either word-initial after a pause, or after ⟨n⟩ | [dʒ] | ja "already" | |
elsewhere | [ʒ] | viajar "to travel" | ||
utterance-final | [tʃ] or [ʃ] | alhaj "Hajj" | In loanwords. | |
k | rare; only occurs in a few loanwords and sensational spellings | [k] | kilogramu "kilogram" | Can generally be replaced with c or qu. |
l | everywhere | [l] | lengua "tongue, language" | |
lh | everywhere | [ʎ] | vielh "old" | |
m | everywhere except word-finally | [m] | mesa "table" | |
word-final | [n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect) | Adam "Adam" | ||
n | everywhere but before other consonants and word-finally | [n] | manes "hands" | |
before other consonants | [m]; [ɱ]; [n]; [n̪]; [ɲ]; [ŋ] | lengua "tongue, language" | Assimilates to the following consonant’s place of articulation. | |
word-finally | [n] or [ŋ] (depending on the dialect) | man "hand" | ||
nh | everywhere | [ɲ] | suenh "sleep, dream" | |
p | everywhere | [p] | padre "father" | |
in the consonant cluster ⟨pt⟩ | [β̞] or [ɸ̞] | aptu "apt" | ||
q | everywhere | [k] | Qátar "Qatar" | In loanwords. |
qu | before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ | [k] | que "what" | |
elsewhere | [kw] | quatro "four" | ||
qü | only occurs before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ | [kw] | aqües "waters" | |
r | word-initial, morpheme-initial,
or after ⟨l⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, or ⟨z⟩; in emphatic speech may also be used instead of [ɾ] in syllable-final (especially before ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, or ⟨d⟩) and word-final positions (before pause or consonant-initial words only) |
[r] | rat "rat" | |
elsewhere | [ɾ] | plorar "to cry" | ||
rr | only occurs between vowels | [r] | carru "car" | |
s | word-initial, morpheme initial, before a voiceless consonant, or utterance-final | [s] | salá "prayer" | |
everywhere else | [z] | mesa "table" | ||
ss | only occurs between vowels | [s] | passar "to pass" | |
t | everywhere | [t̪] | tu "you" | |
before voiced consonants | [ð̞] | atmósfera "atmosphere" | ||
after ⟨n⟩ word-finally | Ø | vient "wind" | ||
v | everywhere | [v] | vient "wind" | |
w | everywhere | [w] | welh "eye" | |
x | everywhere | [ʃ] | xuchar "to listen" | |
between vowels and word-finally | [ks] | toxina "toxin" | In words of Latin or Greek origin; may be replaced with ⟨cs⟩ or ⟨s⟩ (with the associated pronunciation change). | |
before a consonant | [ks] or [s] | textu "text" | In loanwords; may be replaced with ⟨s⟩ (and pronounced accordingly). | |
in the prefix ex- | [z]; [s] before a plosive | examen "exam" | ||
y | everywhere except when acting as a vowel | [j] | yerva "grass" | |
z | utterance-final or before a voiceless consonant | [θ] or [s] (depending on the dialect) | arroz "rice" | |
everywhere else | [ð] or [z] (depending on the dialect) | zagal "boy" |
Vowels
Letter | IPA | Examples | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
a | [ä] | gat "cat" | |
e | [e̞] | mesa "table" | |
i | [i] | felich "happy" | |
y | y "and" | Rare. Only commonly used as a vowel in the conjunction y and the homonymous adverbial pronoun. | |
o | [o̞] | ora "hour, time" | |
u | [u] | amicu "friend" |
Letter | IPA | Examples | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|---|
In rising diphthongs | ||||
i | ⟨i⟩ before a vowel | [j] | bien "well"; viage "journey" | |
u | ⟨u⟩ before a vowel (but silent in ⟨qu⟩ and ⟨gu⟩ before an ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩) | [w] | cueça "slope"; quatro "four" | |
ü | ⟨ü⟩ before a vowel (only used in ⟨qü⟩ and ⟨gü⟩ before an ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩) | [w] | lengües "tongues, languages" | |
In falling diphthongs | ||||
i | ⟨i⟩ after a vowel | [j] | feit "made" | |
y | ⟨y⟩ after a vowel | [j] | rey "king" | Almost always word-final. ⟨-iy⟩ is pronounced [i]. |
u | ⟨u⟩ after a vowel | [w] | autobús "bus" | |
w | ⟨w⟩ after a vowel | [w] | ochaw "eighth (fraction)" | Almost always word-final. ⟨-uw⟩ is pronounced [w]. |
Notes:
- ⟨iu⟩ and ⟨ui⟩ are ambiguous, since they may either be used for rising diphthongs (/ju/ and /wi/ respectively) or falling diphthongs (/iw/ and /uj/ respectively). In most cases, they represent rising diphthongs unless followed by ⟨t⟩. ⟨iw⟩ and ⟨uy⟩ always represent falling diphthongs.
- When a vowel (almost always ⟨e⟩) is both preceded and followed by a glide, a triphthong is formed - e.g. nueit, nueu, buey.
Stress
Stress in a word can be determined from the way it is written via the following rules:
- If there is any vowel with an acute accent, that vowel is stressed.
- If there is no vowel with an acute accent:
- The penultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in a vowel, vowel + -n, or vowel + -s.
- The ultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in any consonant other than -n or -s.
- Note that:
- Diphthongs are always treated as one syllable.
- iV and uV (where V represents any vowel other than i or u) are treated as diphthongs, and therefore count as one syllable.
- The exception to this is if the i or u has an accent. However, this is rare since words that would have íV and úV are usually written as iyV and uwV.
- Final -y and -w are treated as consonants, and they shift the stress to the final syllable.
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Primary stress may occur in any of the last three syllables of a word.
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Phonological history
- Final vowel dropping:
- -u and -e dropped after post-vocalic ç, d, l, lh, n, nh, r, s, t, z.
- -e but not -u dropped after post-vocalic c(h), t, x, y, nd, nt.
- -u but not -e dropped after post-vocalic w.
- Sometimes vowels are dropped irregularly.
Morphology
Articles
Definite Article
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
Masculine | el, l' (before vowels), 'l (after vowels) | los |
Feminine | la, l' (before a) | les |
Neuter | lo, l' (before vowels) | – |
Notes:
- The definite article precedes the noun it modifies.
- The neuter definite article is generally used with nominalized neuter adjectives or relative clauses that have an abstract/inanimate referent - e.g. lo bueno "the good/that which is good"; lo que pienso "what I think/that which I think".
Indefinite Article
Singular | Plural | |
---|---|---|
Masculine | un | unos |
Feminine | una | unes |
Neuter | uno | – |
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Person, Number, Formality, Gender | Independent | Clitic | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Subject | Object | Reflexive Object | Possessive | Direct object | Indirect object | Reflexive | Possessive | ||||
1st | Singular | yo | mi | miyu/miyos, miya/miyes, miyo | me, m'1 | mo(n)2/mos, ma(n)2/mes, mo(n)2 | |||||
Plural | Masculine | nós; nosotros | nues/nuesos, nuesa/nueses, nueso | nos | – | ||||||
Feminine | nós; nosotres | ||||||||||
2nd | Singular | Informal | tu | ti | tuw/tuwos, tuwa/tuwes, tuwo | te, t'1 | to(n)2/tos, ta(n)2/tes, to(n)2 | ||||
Formal | Masculine | vucé | sí | suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo | lu, l'1, -l3 | lhi | se, s'1 | so(n)2/sos, sa(n)2/ses, so(n)2 | |||
Feminine | la, l'4 | ||||||||||
Plural | Informal | Masculine | vós; vosotros | vues/vuesos, vuesa/vueses, vueso | vos | – | |||||
Feminine | vós; vosotres | ||||||||||
Formal | Masculine | vucés | sí | lor/loros, lora/lores, loro | los | lhis | se, s'1, -sen5 | – | |||
Feminine | les | ||||||||||
3rd | Singular | Masculine | elh | suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo | lu, l'1, -l3 | lhi, lh'1 | se, s'1 | so(n)2/sos, sa(n)2/ses, so(n)2 | |||
Feminine | elha | la, l'4 | |||||||||
Neuter | elho | lo, l'1 | |||||||||
Plural | Masculine | elhos | lor/loros, lora/lores, loro | los | lhis | se, s'1, -sen5 | – | ||||
Feminine | elhes | les | |||||||||
Impersonal | wemo | suw/suwos, suwa/suwes, suwo | lo, l'1 | lhi, lh'1 | se, s'1 | so(n)2/sos, sa(n)2/ses, so(n)2 |
Notes:
1 Preverbal before vowel.
2 -n is appended to the singular clitic possessives when the following word begins in a vowel. Also note that in more archaic forms of Essanian, a glide may be added after the initial consonant of the clitic possessives in both the singular and plural. This glide is -i- in the first person and -u- in the second and third persons.
3 Post-verbal after vowel.
4 Preverbal before a.
5 Post-verbal after non-finite form (infinitive, participles, etc.).
Note that post-verbal clitic pronouns are always separated from the verb with a hyphen.
The neuter gender is used to refer to abstract ideas, infinitives, que clauses, inanimate interrogatives and indefinites, and similar.
When a verb has multiple clitic object pronouns, they combine in the following order: reflexive OP + indirect OP + direct OP + adverbial OP (see below).
Adverbial object pronouns
The following adverbial clitic object pronouns are used:
- y, b' (pre-verbal before vowels), -y (post-verbal) = equivalent to French y
- en, n' (pre-verbal before vowels), -ne (post-verbal) = equivalent to French en
Note that when post-verbal, the clitic pronouns are separated from the verb with a hyphen.
When both adverbial object pronouns are used at once, they combine as en b' preverbally before vowels and n'y otherwise.
Nouns
Gender
Nouns may be masculine or feminine. Unlike adjectives and pronouns, nouns cannot have neuter gender.
Number
Nouns may be singular or plural. Nouns may also occur in the dual, which is borrowed from Arabic.
Regular plurals
Nouns are pluralized based on their ending and gender as follows:
Ending | Gender | Plural | Dual | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|
Consonant | most M | -os | -én | An exception are nouns ending in -nt that do not refer to people. Such nouns are masculine in gender but take -es in the plural. |
F; some M | -es | -én | In addition to feminine nouns, masculine inanimate nouns ending in -nt take -es in the plural. | |
-a | M/F | -es | -atén | Most words ending in -a are feminine. |
-u; -o | M/F | -os | -én | Most words ending in -u are masculine. Nouns ending in unstressed -o are rare. |
-e; -i | M/F | -es | -én | Nouns ending in unstressed -i are rare. |
Stressed vowel | M/F | -s | -tén | These endings are added after the final vowel, which is left unchanged. |
Irregular plurals
Some words, mostly of Arabic origin, take a plural in -ín (masculine) or -(w)at (feminine). There are also some broken plurals.
For example:
- mumin "believer (m.)" → muminín "believers"
- múmina "believer (f.)" → muminat "believers (f.)"
- salá "prayer" → salawat "prayers"
- sultán "sultan" → salatín "sultans"
Adjectives
Endings
Adjectives take the following endings:
Type | Singular | Plural | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | |
1 | -u or consonant | -a | -o | -os | -es |
2 | -e | -e | -e | -es | -es |
3 | Stressed vowel | Same as masc. | Same as masc. | -s | -s |
The neuter gender in adjectives is used for agreement with infinitives, neuter pronouns, impersonal pronouns, or que phrases. It can also be used as an adverb.
Comparatives and Superlatives
The comparative of adjectives ("more ___") is formed by placing plus "more" or menos "less" before the adjective for the positive and negative comparatives respectively.
The following adjectives have irregular positive comparatives:
- buen "good" → melhor "better"
- mal "bad" → peyor "worse"
- muit "much, many" → plus "more"
- pocu "little, few" → menos "less, fewer"
- joven "young", cicu "small" → menor "younger, smaller"
- vielh "old", grand "large" → mayor "older, larger"
The last four (joven, cicu, vielh, grand) can alternatively use regular comparatives.
The superlative ("most _____") is formed by placing the definite article before the corresponding comparative.
Absolute Superlative
In addition to the regular superlative, there is an absolute superlative formed with the suffix -íssimu (declined as a regular adjective). It means "very ______" or "extremely _______".
There are some irregular absolute superlatives. In all cases, the regular forms may also be used.
- buen "good" -> óptimu "very good, optimal"
- mal "bad" -> péssimu "very bad"
- grand "large" -> máximu "very large"
- cicu "small" -> mínimu "very small"
- altu "high" -> supremu "very high"
- baxu "low" -> ínfimu "very low"
Adverbs
Derivation from adjectives
Adverbs are commonly derived from adjectives by one of the following methods:
- The neuter form of the adjective - e.g. puro "purely"
- The feminine form of the adjective suffixed with -ment - purament "purely"
When adverbs formed with the suffix -ment are appended to each other, -ment is dropped from all but the last adverb.
Irregular adverbs
The following adverbs are not regularly derived from their corresponding adjectives:
- buen "good" → bien "well"
- mal "bad" → mal "badly"
Comparative
The comparative of adverbs is formed in the same way as adjectives: by placing plus "more" or menos "less" before the adverb.
The following adverbs have irregular comparative forms:
- bien "well" → melhor "better"
- mal "badly" → peyor "worse"
- muito "a lot" → plus "more"
- poco "a little" → menos "less"
Numerals
Cardinal | Ordinal | Fractional | |
---|---|---|---|
0 | zero | zerén | — |
1 | un, una, uno | primer | — |
2 | dos, duwes | second | meyu |
3 | tres | tercer | tierchu |
4 | quatro | quartu | quartu |
5 | cinco | quint | quint |
6 | seis | sieç | sieç |
7 | siet | setén | setaw |
8 | weito | océn | ochaw |
9 | nueu | novén | novaw |
10 | diech | decén | dechaw |
11 | onge | ongén | onjaw |
12 | doge | dogén | dojaw |
13 | trege | tregén | trejaw |
14 | quatorge | quatorgén | quatorjaw |
15 | quinge | quingén | quinjas |
16 | sege | segén | sejas |
17 | deci-siet | deci-setén | deci-setaw |
18 | deci-weito | deci-océn | deci-ochaw |
19 | deci-nueu | deci-novén | deci-novaw |
20 | vint | vintén | vintaw |
21 | vinti-ún | vinti-unén | vinti-unaw |
30 | trenta | trentén | trentaw |
40 | quaranta | quarantén | quarantaw |
50 | cinquanta | cinquantén | cinquantas |
60 | sexanta | sexantén | sexantaw |
70 | setanta | setantén | setantaw |
80 | ochanta | ochantén | ochantaw |
90 | novanta | novantén | novantaw |
100 | cient | centén | centaw |
200 | dos-cientos | dos-centén | dos-centaw |
1000 | mil | milén | milaw |
2000 | dos-mil | dos-milén | dos-milaw |
10⁶ | milhón | milhonén | milhonaw |
2×10⁶ | duwes-milhones | duwes-milhonén | duwes-milionaw |
10⁹ | milhardu | milhardén | milhardaw |
10¹² | bilhón | bilhonén | bilhonaw |
Verbs
Tenses and moods
Verbs conjugate in the following tenses and moods:
- Indicative mood (el mod indicativu):
- Simple tenses (tiempos simples):
- Simple present (el present simple)
- Preterite (el passat perfeit)
- Imperfect (el passat imperfeit)
- Simple future (el futur simple)
- Simple conditional (el condichonal simple)
- Simple pluperfect (el plus-que-perfeit simple)
- Compound tenses (tiempos compueços):
- Present perfect (el passat compueç)
- Compound pluperfect (el plus-que-perfeit compueç)
- Future perfect (el futur compueç)
- Conditional perfect (el condichonal compueç)
- Simple tenses (tiempos simples):
- Subjunctive mood (el mod subjuntivu)
- Simple tenses (tiempos simples):
- Present subjunctive (el present del subjuntivu)
- Imperfect subjunctive (el imperfeit del subjuntivu)
- Future subjunctive (el futur del subjuntivu)
- Compound tenses (tiempos compueços):
- Perfect subjunctive (el passat compueç del subjuntivu)
- Pluperfect subjunctive (el plus-que-perfeit compueç del subjuntivu)
- Future perfect subjunctive (el futur compueç del subjuntivu)
- Simple tenses (tiempos simples):
- Imperative mood (el mod imperativu)
- Affirmative imperative (l'imperativu afirmativu)
- Negative imperative (l'imperativu negativu)
- Non-finite forms (les formes nominales):
- Infinitive (l'infinitivu)
- Participle (el participiu')
- Gerund (el gerundiu)
For convenience, each tense/mood combination will be referred to in this article as a "tense".
Verb classes
There are three verb classes:
- First conjugation/-ar verbs (la conjugachón primera)
- Second conjugation/-er verbs (la conjugachón seconda)
- Third conjugation/-ir verbs (la conjugachón tercera)
There are irregular verbs in each class.
Verb conjugation
Note that second person polite forms always take third person verb conjugations
Non-finite forms
Form | -ar verbs | -er verbs | -ir verbs |
---|---|---|---|
Infinitive | -ar | -er | -ir |
Participle | -at/-atos, -ata/-ates, -ato | -it/-itos, -ita/-ites, -ito¹ | |
Gerundive | -ando | -endo | -indo |
Notes:
¹ -er verbs may form their past participle in -ut instead of -it (this is considered archaic). Additionally, many -er and -ir verbs have irregular past participles, which may or may not coexist with regular forms.
Simple tenses (indicative)
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | -o | -ava | -é | -aré | -areva | -era |
2S | -es | -aves | -és | -arás | -areves | -eres |
3S | -a | -ava | -ó | -ará | -areva | -era |
1P | -án | -aven | -én | -arén | -areven | -eren |
2P | -az | -ávez | -ez | -arez | -arévez | -érez |
3P | -en | -aven | -ón | -arán | -areven | -eren |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | -o | -eva | -í | -eré | -ereva | -iera |
2S | -es | -eves | -iés | -erás | -ereves | -ieres |
3S | -(e)¹ | -eva | -ió | -erá | -ereva | -iera |
1P | -én | -even | -ién | -erén | -ereven | -ieren |
2P | -ez | -évez | -iez | -erez | -erévez | -iérez |
3P | -en | -even | -ión | -erán | -ereven | -ieren |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | -o | -iva | -í | -iré | -ireva | -iera |
2S | -es | -ives | -iés | -irás | -ireves | -ieres |
3S | -(e)¹ | -iva | -ió | -irá | -ireva | -iera |
1P | -ín | -iven | -ién | -irén | -ireven | -ieren |
2P | -iz | -ívez | -iez | -irez | -irévez | -iérez |
3P | -en | -iven | -ión | -irán | -ireven | -ieren |
Notes:
¹ The final -e in the 3S present of -er and -ir verbs is dropped after certain consonants.
Simple tenses (subjunctive)
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Future |
---|---|---|---|
1S | -e | -esse | -ere |
2S | -as | -essas | -eras |
3S | -e | -esse | -ere |
1P | -én | -essan | -eran |
2P | -ez | -éssaz | -éraz |
3P | -an | -essan | -eran |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Future |
---|---|---|---|
1S | -a | -iesse | -iere |
2S | -as | -iessas | -ieras |
3S | -a | -iesse | -iere |
1P | -án | -iessan | -ieran |
2P | -az | -iéssaz | -iéraz |
3P | -an | -iessan | -ieran |
Imperative
- Affirmative:
- 2S: Same as 3S present indicative.
- 2P: Same as infinitive, with final -r replaced with -t.
- Other persons: Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
- Negative: Same as corresponding present subjunctive.
Compound tenses
Compound tenses are formed with the verb aver "to have" followed by the past participle. They differ from each other according to the tense of the auxiliary verb.
- Non-finite forms:
- Perfect infinitive: aver + participle
- Perfect participle: participle of aver + participle
- Perfect gerundive: avendo + participle
- Indicative:
- Present perfect: present of aver + participle
- Compound pluperfect: imperfect of aver + participle
- Future perfect: future of aver + participle
- Conditional perfect: conditional of aver + participle
- Subjunctive:
- Perfect subjunctive: present subjunctive of aver + participle
- Pluperfect subjunctive: imperfect subjunctive of aver + participle
- Future perfect subjunctive: future subjunctive of aver + participle
Passive
Formed with the appropriate conjugation of ser with the appropriately declined form of the past participle.
It can also be used as a pseudopassive, especially with intransitive verbs. In this case, the participle is always in the neuter.
Irregular verbs
General notes
- Stem-changing verbs have predictable sound changes when the stem is stressed. Common varieties include:
- -o- > -ue-
- -e- > -ie-
- -ch- > -it-
- Many verbs have an irregular 1S present indicative form. When this occurs, this irregular stem is also used to form the present subjunctive. In the case of stem-changing verbs, stem vowel changes still apply.
- The future may have an irregular stem before -r- (usually formed by contraction). This happens especially often with -er verbs. The conditional always has the same stem as the future.
- The preterite may have an irregular stem, in which case the endings are as below (with a few exceptions):
Person/Number | Preterite ending |
---|---|
1S | -i |
2S | -es |
3S | -o |
1P | -én |
2P | -ez |
3P | -on |
- The pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive stems are always formed by removing -n from the 1P preterite indicative and adding the appropriate endings starting from the consonant.
- Regular verbs whose stems end in -c-, -g-, -qu-, -gu-, -qü-, -gü-, -ch- have spelling changes in order to maintain the same pronunciation in front of front and back vowels, as per the table below:
Phoneme | Before front vowels | Before back vowels | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
/k/ | qu | c | |
/tʃ/ | c | ch | Becomes -ch when word-final. |
/ɡ ~ ɣ/ | gu | g | |
/dʒ ~ ʒ/ | g | j | This spelling change does not apply if the infinitive is spelled with -j-, in which case -j- spelling is maintained in all forms. |
/kw/ | qü | qu | |
/ɡw ~ ɣw/ | gü | gu |
- Note that many verbs ending in -cer, -cir, -ger, -gir irregularly maintain their spelling in the 1S present indicative with the corresponding pronunciation change.
The verb ser "to be"
The verb ser "to be" is highly irregular.
Infinitive | ser |
---|---|
Participle | sit/sitos, sita/sites, sito; sut/sutos, suta/sutes, suto¹ |
Gerundive | sendo |
¹ Archaic
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | so | yera | fui | seré | sereva | fuera |
2S | yes | yeres | fues | serás | sereves | fueres |
3S | ye | yera | fue | será | sereva | fuera |
1P | son/sen | yeren | fuen | serén | sereven | fueren |
2P | soz/sez | yérez | fuez | serez | serévez | fuérez |
3P | son | yeren | fuen | serán | sereven | fueren |
Person/ Number |
Present subj. | Imperfect subj. | Future subj. | Imperative aff. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1S | siya | fuesse | fuere | — |
2S | siyas | fuessas | fueras | sé |
3S | siya | fuesse | fuere | siya |
1P | siyán | fuessan | fueran | siyán |
2P | siyaz | fuéssaz | fuéraz | set |
3P | siyan | fuessan | fueran | siyan |
The verb aver "to be"
The verb aver "to have" is an important irregular verb.
Infinitive | aver |
---|---|
Participle | avit/avitos, avita/avites, avito; avut/avutos, avuta/avutes, avuto¹ |
Gerundive | avendo |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite² | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect² |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | e | eva | ovi | avré | avreva | overa |
2S | as | eves | oves | avrás | avreves | overes |
3S | a | eva | ovo | avrá | avreva | overa |
1P | avén | even | ovén | avrén | avreven | overen |
2P | avez | évez | ovez | avrez | avrévez | ovérez |
3P | an | even | ovon | avrán | avreven | overen |
Person/ Number |
Present subj. | Imperfect subj.² | Future subj.² | Imperative aff. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1S | aya | ovesse | overe | — |
2S | ayas | ovessas | overas | a |
3S | aya | ovesse | overe | aya |
1P | ayán | ovessan | overan | ayán |
2P | ayaz | ovéssaz | ovéraz | avet |
3P | ayan | ovessan | overan | ayan |
Notes:
¹ Participles in -ut- are considered archaic.
² The irregular preterite is shown here. A regular preterite (aví, aviés, etc.) can alternatively be used, in which case the pluperfect indicative, imperfect subjunctive, and future subjunctive likewise become regular.
The verb andar "to go"
Infinitive | andar |
---|---|
Participle | andat/andatos, andata/andates, andato |
Gerundive | andando |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | vo | andava | andé | iré | ireva | andera |
2S | vas | andaves | andés | irás | ireves | anderes |
3S | va | andava | andó | irá | ireva | andera |
1P | andán | andaven | andén | irén | ireven | anderen |
2P | andaz | andávez | andez | irez | irévez | andérez |
3P | van | andaven | andón | irán | ireven | anderen |
Person/ Number |
Present subj. | Imperfect subj.³ | Future subj.³ | Imperative aff. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1S | vaya | andesse | andere | — |
2S | vayas | andessas | anderas | anda |
3S | vaya | andesse | andere | vaya |
1P | vayán | andessan | anderan | vayán |
2P | vayaz | andéssaz | andéraz | andat |
3P | vayan | andessan | anderan | vayan |
The verb facer "to do, make"
Infinitive | facer |
---|---|
Participle | feit/feitos, feita/feites, feito |
Gerundive | facendo |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | faco | feva | fici | faré | fareva | ficera |
2S | fas | feves | fices | farás | fareves | ficeres |
3S | fa | feva | ficho | fará | fareva | ficera |
1P | facén | feven | ficén | farén | fareven | ficeren |
2P | facez | févez | ficez | farez | farévez | ficérez |
3P | fan | feven | fichon | farán | fareven | ficeren |
Person/ Number |
Present subj. | Imperfect subj. | Future subj. | Imperative aff. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1S | faca | ficesse | ficere | — |
2S | facas | ficessas | ficeras | fa |
3S | faca | ficesse | ficere | faca |
1P | facán | ficessan | ficeran | facán |
2P | facaz | ficéssaz | ficéraz | facet |
3P | facan | ficessan | ficeran | facan |
The verb dicer "to say"
Infinitive | dicer |
---|---|
Participle | dit/ditos, dita/dites, dito |
Gerundive | dicendo |
Person/ Number |
Present | Imperfect | Preterite | Future | Conditional | Pluperfect |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1S | dico | diva | dixi | diré | direva | dixera |
2S | dices | dives | dixes | dirás | direves | dixeres |
3S | dich | diva | dixo | dirá | direva | dixera |
1P | dicén | diven | dixén | dirén | direven | dixeren |
2P | dicez | dívez | dixez | direz | dirévez | dixérez |
3P | dicen | diven | dixon | dirán | direven | dixeren |
Person/ Number |
Present subj. | Imperfect subj. | Future subj. | Imperative aff. |
---|---|---|---|---|
1S | dica | dixesse | dixere | — |
2S | dicas | dixessas | dixeras | di |
3S | dica | dixesse | dixere | dica |
1P | dicán | dixessan | dixeran | dicán |
2P | dicaz | dixéssaz | dixéraz | dicet |
3P | dican | dixessan | dixeran | dican |
Syntax
Constituent order
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Sentence phrase
Dependent clauses
Vocabulary
Time - Tiempu
English | Essanian |
---|---|
spring | el verán |
summer | el çiw |
fall | l'otonh |
winter | l'inviernu |
English | Essanian |
---|---|
January | gener |
February | fevrer |
March | marchu |
April | abril |
May | mayu |
June | junh |
July | julhet |
August | agoç |
September | setiembre |
October | ochombre |
November | noviembre |
December | deciembre |
English | Essanian |
---|---|
Sunday | ahad |
Monday | eçnén |
Tuesday | çalaça |
Wednesday | arbagha |
Thursday | hamís |
Friday | jumgha |
Saturday | sabte |
English | Essanian |
---|---|
day | diya |
dawn | alba |
morning | manhana |
noon | meyu-diya |
afternoon | tarde |
evening | serán |
dusk | ocás |
night | nueit |
midnight | meya-nueit |
English | Essanian |
---|---|
second | secondu |
minute | minut |
hour | ora; sagha (pl: saghat) |
day | día |
week | semana |
month | mes |
season | çachón |
year | anh |
English | Essanian |
---|---|
now | agora |
then | alora, entonce |
recently, a short time ago | adiés |
earlier | antes |
soon, shortly | ayina |
later | lueco |
always | siempre |
often | sovent |
sometimes | a veces |
rarely | raro |
never | nunca; jamás; ábadan |
ever | ábadan |
still, yet | awún; ancora |
already | ja |
today | wey |
tonight | ça nueit |
yesterday | ayer |
last night | anueit |
tomorrow | cras |
before yesterday | antes d'ayer |
two nights ago | antes d'anueit |
after tomorrow | depues de cras |
this week | ça semana |
last week | la semana passata |
next week | la semana próxima |
Colours - Los colores
English | Essanian |
---|---|
white | blancu |
grey | gris |
black | negru |
red | vermelh |
orange | anaranjat |
brown | caçanh |
yellow | amarielh |
green | verde |
blue | azur |
pink | rosat |
purple | rox |
golden | dorat |
Example texts
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)
La Declarachón Universala de los Dreitos Umanos (Artícul 1)
Totos los seros umanos naxen horros ed equalos en dinitá y dreitos. Son dotatos de rachón y conxencha, y deven comportar-sen los unos colos otros en ruhu de germantá.
توتس لس سارس أمانس نشن حرس ءاد ءاكوالس ءان دنتاه إي دريتس. سون دتاتس دا رچون إي كنشنچه، إي داڤن كمپرتارسن لس أونس كلس أترس ءان روح دا جرمانتاه
/ˈtotos los ˈseɾos uˈmanos ˈnaʃen ˈhoros ed eˈkwalos en diniˈta i ˈdreitos ‖ son doˈtatos de raˈt͡ʃon i konˈʃent͡ʃa | i ˈdeven kompoɾˈtaɾsen los ˈunos ˈkolos ˈotɾos en ˈruhu de d͡ʒeɾmanˈta/